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ENG. 101 – PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

MODULE 8
continuation:

TEN ACADEMIC JARGON WORDS YOU MIGHT NEED TO KNOW

11. “Elaborate”
a. A professor might ask you to “elaborate” on a text. This means you should give your explanation
of its themes, symbols, or issues.
b. After you give an answer in class, your professor might ask you to “elaborate” on what you said.
This means you should further explain and possibly offer some examples that others can
understand.
12. “Explore”
a. If an essay or assignment prompt asks you to “explore” an issue or theme in a text, you should try
to present all of the different sides or options or parts of that thing. For example, a prompt asks you
to “explore how music and singing function in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” To
complete this assignment, you would find all of the places in the text where that thing happens,
identify how it functions in the story, and you would then present all of your findings in organized
paragraphs. In an exploration, you might not have a clear argument or thesis statement. Instead,
you are showing that you understand how complex a thing is.
13. “Framework”
a. If a concept is singular, then a “framework” is a collection of concepts that help build a frame.
Once a writer has a frame of concepts, they can continue to build upon it with their own ideas. Your
professors might ask you to discuss an author’s particular framework. In doing so, you would try to
identify all of the various concepts they weave together to build their frame. Similarly, if your
professor suggests that your research project needs a more solid framework, they are telling you to
make your research based on a more integrated and complete set of concepts. Perhaps you are
relying too heavily on just one concept. Instead, you will need to strengthen your frame by making it
more of a “work” and not just something made from a single piece or source.
14. “Hypothesis”
a. This term is not widely used in the humanities. Instead, it is used in the sciences to identify an
idea or theory that hasn’t been proven but does lead to further thinking, questioning, or discussion.
In a humanities class, unless your topic is of a scientific nature, it would be strange in your thesis
statement to write: “My hypothesis is X.”
15. “Infer”
a. “Inferring” is a great skill to practice. However, when you are doing textual analysis, sometimes
inferring can get you into trouble. If your assignment asks you to analyze particular quotes within a
particular context, you cannot simply infer additional information about the characters, the plot, or
the themes of the narrative. Instead, you should stick to what is written and not bring in any
assumptions beyond those words.
16. “Interpret”
a. Everyone might “interpret” the meaning of a poem or the ending of a play or the moral of a story
differently. And you might have heard some people say that there is “no wrong interpretation” of art.
However, some interpretations are better than others. In fact, not all interpretations can be easily
accepted. Your interpretation comes from the way the words of the story or the images you see
connect with your own personal experience and how you perceive the world. When you share this
interpretation with others, you need to help them see things the way you do. If you are unable to
make these connections with your audience, they will have a hard time accepting your
interpretation. If your interpretation is not grounded in personal experience nor in commonly shared
views of the world, then it will be extremely difficult for others to understand how your interpretation
makes sense in this context.
17. “Position”
a. Writers have to “position” themselves with, between, and against other writers. When you analyze
a non-fiction text, that text’s author probably agrees with certain others in their field and disagrees
with more. If you analyze a character in a story, that character has probably positioned themselves
to defend someone while attacking another. You yourself as a writer must show that you understand
your position; you do not exist alone in your thoughts about a subject. You should show that you
know who you agree with and that you know who is against you. You must consciously position
yourself within the conversation that precedes your ideas and that will undoubtedly continue after
your ideas are shared.
18. “Problematic”
a. “Problems” are not bad; they give us an opportunity to rethink things and come up with solutions.
However, when a professor says that a text is “problematic” or that someone’s reading of a text is
“problematic,” most often they mean there is something bad about it.
 19. “Signpost”
a. Imagine trying to walk a mile or a few kilometers through a metropolitan city using a navigation
app. You type in your destination, but when the app gives you your route, there is only one step:
“walk until you reach your destination.” The route has turns and stops, but the app simply tells you to
walk. You would be confused and frustrated, wouldn’t you? Similarly, when you write an essay, you
need to tell your reader about the smaller steps and stops along the way to your ultimate
destination. This signalling process is called “signposting.” When you signpost, you tell your reader
what is coming up next, what follows that, what further follows, and what comes after that before
arriving at the final destination. You do this in the thesis statement, in the topic sentences of
paragraphs, and in the transition sentences of paragraphs. By letting your reader know where they
are going before they start walking, they feel more comfortable. And by planning the route in
advance, you as the guide feel more comfortable. Instead of just saying where you will arrive by the
end of the essay, signpost and tell your reader all of the important stops you will make along the
way to the ultimate destination.
20. “Summarize”
a. When you “summarize” a text, your job is to pick out the important information for your usage and
then to accurately and adequately restate that information in your own words. A summary is not the
same as a quotation. When you summarize, you must take the information into your head, process
it, and then re-present it in your own way. Summarizing well is an important skill to learn. Bad
summaries can result in two major problems: inaccurate information and plagiarism questions.

WHAT IS OPAQUE WRITING?

Opaque writing or speech is difficult to understand. E.g., I find her poetry a little too opaque.

PROBLEMS WITH OPAQUE WRITING

It's not unheard of for scholars to utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is
impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in
mind the following:
1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a
formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing
so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the
impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really
know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on
specialized terminology.
2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data
within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However,
nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept.
Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of
terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or reference
database.

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS TO AVOID

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic
writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:
 Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to
believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid
presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to
descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management
techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper
because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
 Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be
framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes.
 Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on excellent
grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang
terms because they can be open to interpretation; be direct and concise using standard English.
 Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not
have confusing language. By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting
the design and purpose of your study.
 Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.).  Being
concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While
proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack
context or specificity.
 Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the
narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with
hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be
followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask
yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with
systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers
 because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid
checkmarks or other symbols.
 Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study.
In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you cannot assume the
reader knows everything about the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on
methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the
research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
 Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone
with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging
your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though,
because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:  Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when
quoting someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the
quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to
convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted word or phrase
to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source
has grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

STRUCTURE AND WRITING STYLE

I. Improving Academic Writing
To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:
1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient
time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating
their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing
begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully.
2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars
take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the
major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from
professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good
proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading your paper].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:
A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's
Handbook;
A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary;
The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form

3. Consistent Stylistic Approach. Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the
Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide
rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of
writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines
require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your
familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from
the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in
your writing.
 It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
 Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
 You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this
problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
 You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
 The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and
why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
 The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
 You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
 You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
 Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
 Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
 The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

IMPORTANCE OF A CITING YOUR SOURCES

A citation is a formal reference to a published or unpublished source that you consulted and obtained
information from while writing your research paper.
Citations document for your readers where you obtained your material, provide a means of critiquing
your study based on the sources you used, and create an opportunity to obtain information about prior
studies of the research problem under investigation. The act of citing sources is also your best defense
against allegations of plagiarism.

Citing the works of others is important because:

1. Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used . Citations to sources helps
readers expand their knowledge on a topic. One of the most effective strategies for locating
authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to review footnotes or references from known sources
["citation tracking"].
2. Citing other people's words and ideas demonstrates that you have conducted a thorough
review of the literature on your topic and, therefore, you are reporting your research from an
informed and critically engaged perspective. The list of sources used increases your credibility as the
author of the work.
3. Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments . In many cases, another
researcher's arguments can act as the primary context from which you can emphasize the
significance of your study and to provide supporting evidence about how you addressed the "So
What?" question.
4. The ideas of other researchers can be used to explain reasons for alternative approaches . If
you disagree with a researcher's ideas or you believe there is a gap in understanding the research
problem, your citations can serve as sources from which to argue an alternative viewpoint or the need
to pursue a different course of action.
5. Just as the ideas of other researchers can bolster your arguments, they can also detract from
your credibility if their research is challenged. Properly citing sources prevents your reputation
from being tarnished if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be inaccurate or off-base. It
prevents readers from concluding that you ignored or dismissed the findings of others, even if they
are disputed.
6. Ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious repercussions if you fail to
cite where you got an idea from. In academe, failure to cite other people's intellectual property
could lead to receiving a failing grade for the assignment or the course. In  the professional world,
failure to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers and reputations and can result in legal
action. Citing sources as a student in college will help you get in the habit of acknowledging and
properly citing the work of others.

NOTE:  In any academic writing, you are required to identify which ideas, facts, thoughts, and
concepts are yours and which are derived from the research and work of others.  Whether you
summarize, paraphrase, or use direct quotes, if it's not your original idea, the source must be
acknowledged. 

CERES B. LUZARRAGA PERLITA S. VILLAFUERTE, ED.D,CHP

Subject Teacher Vice President /School In-Charge