19CN026166 PET 324

ASSIGNMENT 1
Emulsion stability can be simply defined as the ability for a substance to resist changes in its physicochemical
properties with time. An emulsion is a colloid that consists of two immiscible liquids, usually oil and water, with
one of the liquids dispersed in the other. Emulsions consist of two phases; a dispersed and a continuous phase, with
the former consisting of the particles that make up the droplets and the latter being the surrounding liquid in which
the droplets are dispersed in. 

 MECHANISMS OF EMULSION BREAKDOWN:

 Creaming: It is the process in which droplets move upwards (droplets density < density of continuous
phase).
 Sedimentation: It is the process in which droplets move downwards (droplets density > density of
continuous phase).
 Flocculation: It is the process in which two or more droplets “stick” together to form an aggregate (but the
droplets still retain their individual integrity). 
 Coalescence: It is the process in which two or more droplets merge together to form a single larger
droplet.
 Phase inversion: It is the process in which o/w emulsion changes to w/o emulsion, or vice versa. 

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY IF EMULSIONS BY BIOPOLYMERS

The solubility and behavior of biopolymers is dependent on various factors, such as pH, ionic strength, temperature,
nature of biopolymers and medium, presence of other agents such as surfactants in the system and charge of
biopolymers. The interaction of proteins and polysaccharides as well as the effectiveness of the polysaccharide-
protein complexes as emulsion stabilizers, are greatly influenced by factors such as nature of the polysaccharide or
protein, charge density, hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, charge density and molecular weight.

FACTORS AFFECTING OIL EMULSION STABILITY

 Heavy polar fractions in the crude oil
 Solids, including organic (asphaltenes, waxes) and inorganic (clays, scales, corrosion products, etc.)
materials
 Temperature
 Droplet size and droplet-size distribution
 pH of the brine; and brine composition

ASSIGNMENT 2
UNCONTROLLABLE FACTORS
 Naturally Fractured or Faulted Zones: In rock formations, natural fracture systems are usually
located near faults. The rocks located by the faults tend to be broken down into fractions. They may fall
into the wellbore and interfere with the drill-string in the hole. Sometimes, if the pieces are bonded
together, the Bottom Hole Assembly may have influence as a result of vibrations of the drill-string causing
the formation to fall into the wellbore. It can lead to stuck pipe. They tend to occur in areas with high
tectonic activity.
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 High In-Situ Stresses: Salt domes, faulted areas and inner limbs of folds are characteristics of areas
with high-situ stresses which gives rise to wellbore instability. Stiff rocks such as quartzose and
conglomerate possess stress concentrations.

 High Pore Pressures: In rock formations where the shales have low permeability, Excessive pore
pressure will be created in the material in response to the volume change of the bedrock during drilling.
The excessive pore pressures will reduce the effective holding pressure applied to the material, resulting in
a less stable well condition. However, the extent to which pore pressure affects well stability varies
considerably with in situ stress regime, well trajectory, and shale strength and elastic anisotropy.

 Weak or Low Strength Rocks: Weak Formation tend to fall into the as wellbore. This is because it is
loosely packed. The collapse of the layer is caused by removing supporting rocks while the well is being
drilling. Occurs in wells with little or no filter cake. Unbonded formations (sand, gravel, etc.) cannot be
supported by overbalance of hydrostatic pressure as fluid only flows into the formation. Then sand or
gravel falls into the hole in and grabs from the drill-string.

CONTROLLABLE FACTORS
 Well Inclination and Azimuth: The inclination of the wellbore and the azimuth orientation with
respect to the principal stress can be a significant factor influencing the risk of the occurrence of the
collapse and / or the failure. This is especially true for the fracture breakdown pressure estimate in the
tectonically stressed regions where strong stress anisotropy is present.

 Bottom Hole Pressure (Mud Density): The support pressure provided by the static or dynamic fluid
pressure during drilling, determines the stress concentration present near the wellbore, either by
stimulation, work, or production of the well. Since rock failure depends on effective stress, sequence for
stability of depends heavily on, and fluid pressure highly depends on the velocity of penetration into the
borehole wall.

 Transient Hole Pressure: Transient wellbore pressures, such as swab and surge effects during drilling,
may cause wellbore enlargement. Tensile spalling can occur when the wellbore pressure across an interval
is rapidly reduced by the swabbing action of the drill string for instance. If the formation has a sufficiently
low tensile strength or is pre-fractured, the imbalance between the pore pressures in the rock and the
wellbore can literally pull loose rock off the wall. Surge pressures can also cause rapid pore pressures
increases in the near-wellbore area sometimes causing an immediate loss in rock strength which may
ultimately lead to collapse.
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 Physio-Chemical Rock-Fluid Interactions: Many Physical/Chemical Fluid Rock Interactions

Phenomenon changes the strength or stress of rocks near the borehole. These include hydration, osmotic
pressures, swelling, rock softening and strength changes, and dispersion. The significance of these effects
depends on a complex interaction of many factors including the nature of the formation (mineralogy,
stiffness, strength, pore water composition, stress history, temperature), the presence of a filter cake or
permeability barrier is present, the properties and chemical composition of the wellbore fluid, and the
extent of any damage near the wellbore.

 Drill-String Vibrations: The vibration of the drill string may enlarge the hole of the under certain
circumstances. Optimal Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) Design Respect and to Hole Shape, Inclination, and
if the formation to be excavated can eliminate this potential contribution to well collapse there is. The
problem may be difficult to diagnose and fix in an inclined or horizontal well where high circulating rates
are often desirable to ensure adequate hole cleaning.

 Temperature: Drilling fluid temperatures, and to some extent, bottomhole producing temperatures can
give rise to thermal concentration or expansion stresses which may be detrimental to wellbore stability.
The reduced mud temperature causes a reduction in the near-wellbore stress concentration, thus preventing
the stresses in the rock from reaching their limiting strength.

 Erosion: Erosion can be caused due to fluid circulation. Erosion is more severe when the sand is produced
in gas or where the produced fluids are in turbulent flow. The existence of sand particles with fluids
flow can lead to severe damages to production system's components. The potential mechanisms that could
cause erosion damage are: particulate erosion (sand erosion); liquid droplet erosion; erosion-corrosion; and
cavitation. Particulate erosion due to sand (sand erosion) is the most common source of erosion problems in
hydrocarbon systems, because small amounts of sand entrained in the produced fluid can result in
significant erosion and erosion-corrosion damage. However, all other mechanisms are equally aggressive
under the right conditions. Erosion is affected by numerous factors, and small or subtle changes in
operational conditions can significantly affect the damage it causes.
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