Muhammad Imran

Roll NO: CC602763

Registration No = 20BQA00465
Program = M.ed(1 year)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 what are fundamental issues of language textbook? Also give some recommendation for the
improvement of textbooks.
The textbook definition is “a book used as a standard work for the study of a particular subject”. As such,
textbooks come in a variety of guises and formats, depending on the subject and age range. Most textbooks are
printed on paper, which remains an excellent medium, but an increasing number of publishing houses and,
notably, self-publishing practitioners are using digital media (e.g. epub, iBooks, web pages…) to deliver content
and contribute to effective instruction and successful learning. Whatever the case, in secondary education,
textbooks typically.
Textbooks differ in quality and some are much better than others, so not all textbooks will fit this bill. But the
likelihood is that you probably recognize most or all of these characteristics in the textbooks you use. Since
some approaches work better than others, it is reasonable to consider what we know about effective instruction
and about how students learn best in order to improve how textbooks support teaching and learning. Two
experimental language learning textbooks were developed in collaboration with Apache speaking scholars from
the San Carlos and White Mountain reservations. The other text was a guide to teaching Apache with the Total
Physical Response (TPR) method, based on Asher's ( 1982) teacher's guidebook. Both approaches raised a
variety of problems that can be partially solved by a judicious combination of the two approaches. For example,
the classificatory handling verbs are best taught by a grammar-translation method, supplemented by TPR style
exercises; straightforward syntactic structures (at least in Apache), such as negation, and yes-no questions, can
be taught through TPR exercises and supplemented by grammatical explanations. Additionally, native experts
should monitor any text to avoid culturally sensitive or politically inappropriate material. Finally, a dialogue
between linguists and native experts needs to be established in order to decide how much linguistic terminology
can be handled in each particular curriculum. While the main purpose of our text is to teach elementary
conversational Western Apache with some emphasis on reading and writing, I also wanted it to be used to teach
some of the linguistics of Western Apache to Apache students and speakers. In the next paragraphs, I explain
the usefulness of linguistics to Apache speakers. He will also address some of these issues in her own
presentation in this volume. Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. To the layperson, linguistics
often seems boring because it bears some resemblance to grammar. Everyone remembers English grammar
from their elementary school or high school years, and nobody liked it. The problem with traditional English
grammar is that it did not seem to have a point, or maybe the only point was that it told you what was "good"

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English and what was "bad" English, without really explaining why. Linguistics tries to be a more responsible
study of grammar, in three ways. First, it tries to explain why things are the way they are, by trying to discover
general rules but recognizing that sometimes an explanation has not (yet) been found. Second, it tries to
accurately describe the way people speak, without unduly worrying whether a particular utterance is "correct"
or "incorrect." Third, linguistics is not committed to a particular language. Language is a universally human
faculty, and linguistics is the study of what all languages have in common and in which direction and to what
extent they vary. There are many educators who might be anxious to find out what they will learn from the
linguistics in this text and how it will be useful for their students on the reservation. In my opinion, there are
three basic ways in which linguistics can be useful to Native American educators. First, most educators
interested in the contents of this text deal with bilingual situations, i.e. situations where both the Native
language and English are used. In such situations, one obviously becomes aware of the differences between
languages. Part of linguistics is a subfield called contrastive linguistics (sometimes erroneously called
comparative linguistics, which should be reserved for the subfield that compares languages in order to
determine their common historical origin). Contrastive linguistics compares one or more languages.
Emphasizing the differences in linguistic structure. It allows us to explain more accurately why certain aspects
of English, or of Western Apache, are hard to learn for speakers of other languages. The practical applications
to the educator are obvious. Our discussions of Western Apache grammar will in effect be contrastive, since it
will be assumed that English grammar is different from it in many ways. I do not know of any works on the
contrastive linguistics of Western Apache and English. I had to work on what our understanding of contrastive
linguistics was. This process of discovery by dialogue is, as Hale convincingly points out, similar to the teacher-
student dialogue occurring in a physics or chemistry class and just as scientific. The only difference is that no
expensive supplies are needed, just a chalkboard and the children's native speaker intuitions. Thus, linguistics
can be a tool for teaching the principles of scientific inquiry. In order to use linguistics this way, educators
themselves need to know something about the linguistic structure of their languages. I was not convinced of this
need, and I see her point, because it is precisely the children who are rapidly losing their native competence and
acquire, at best, a passive knowledge of Apache. A passive knowledge is certainly not as good as an active
knowledge for the purpose of discovering unconscious rules.
Q.2 Discuss status of social studies textbooks in today's world and tomorrow’s perspective.
In a 1995 paper published in the International Journal of Middle East Studies, that focused on a newly invented
subject of 'Pakistan Studies', historian Ayesha Jalal notes large extents of creative imagining in the creation of
the state historiography, to carve out a national-past based on hegemonic values. She remarked of Pakistan's
history textbooks to be among the best available sources for assessing the nexus between power and bigotry, in
the regard and noted of a rigid state state-controlled education system and curriculum, which imbibed this
revisionist history among the masses, to satisfy its national ideology.

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Authors vary widely, as to establishing a time-frame of the evolution of the nation-state; in what Jalal deems as
priceless examples of narrative confusions flowing from tensions between the ideology of Muslim nationalism
and the geographical limitations of the Pakistani nation-state. Whilst some pan-Islamic ideologists locate the
time-frame to correspond with the birth of Islam on the Arabian Peninsula and choose to ignore the spatial and
temporal distance between the two non-concerted happenings, others opt for a sub-sentimental approach. An
Introduction to Pakistan Studies, (a popular text-book which is compulsory reading for first and second year
college students studying for an F.A degree in history), claims of Pakistan being an Islamic State which is
governed by Allah and is not a mere geographical entity but an ideology reflecting a unique civilization and
culture, that was borne of an effort to resist the imposition of Hindu Nationalism on Muslim masses and ward
the unethical practices of Hinduism. Another textbook - A Text Book of Pakistan Studies claims that Pakistan
"came to be established for the first time when the Arabs under Mohammad bin Qasim occupied Sindh and
Multan'" and thereafter equates the Indian subcontinent with Pakistan, whose greatest ruler is subsequently
deemed to be Aurangzeb. Anti-Indian sentiments, coupled with anti-Hindu prejudices compounds these
issues. K. Ali's two volume history designed for B.A. students, even whilst tracing the pre-history of the 'Indo-
Pakistan' subcontinent to the Paleolithic Age and discussing the Dravidians and the Aryans, consistently refers
to the post-1947 frontiers of Pakistan. At the end, he supports the existence of the nation-state, based on a
religious ideology, in light of a need to immunize them from (alleged) Hindu hostility displayed to the Muslims
during the Independence struggle and the fact that the subcontinent was ruled by Muslims for
centuries. Scholars like Jameel Jalibi question the validity of any national history that mentions Pakistan's "pre-
Islamic past". Jalal notes Ali's assertions to establish reactive religious bigotry, as a basis of Pakistan's
statehood. Secularism, Communism et al are painted as evil threats to the state and Jalal notes a textbook
wherein Zulifiqar Ali Bhutto was described as a drunkard, characterless and an un-Islami-minded man, courtesy
his sociopolitical leanings towards communism but Zia ul Hak and his dictatorial martial regime is extensively
praised for his abidance by Islamic ideologies. In light of the Balochs, Sindhis et al being increasingly vocal
about their regional culture, one textbook identifies regionalism as a "very dangerous episode". It goes on to
mention that efforts to advance 'regional dialects and lore’s' was an attack on the very foundations of the state
and that Punjabism shall never be allowed to replace the Islamic culture, because it's patron figures had waged
wars against Islamic rulers. Textbooks frequently denote Urdu to be superior to regional dialects; a flag-bearer
of collective Islamic identity.
All these narratives, though offering arguments of varying dimensions and scope, ultimately support the
national policy for the Islamization of the state and the principle of the two-nation theory, wherein the trifecta of
Muslims, Islam and Pakistan can't be challenged. Jalal accuses them of discarding Jinnah's calls for secularism,
the opposition of numerous Muslims to the partition and subjugation of regional communities per their own
convenience. She notes a broader purpose in educating the future generations to reject anything in their regional

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cultures that fails to qualify as 'Islamic' and strive for a spiritual and cultural hegemony, in the name of Islam.
Anti-Indian sentiments, coupled with anti-Hindu prejudices compounds these issues.
According to Tufts University professor Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, Indophobia in Pakistan increased with the
ascendancy of the militant Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami under Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi.[5] Indophobia, together
with Anti-Hinduism and racist ideologies, such as the martial race theory, were the driving factors behind the
re-writing of school textbooks in Pakistan (in both "secular" schools and Islamic madrassahs) in order to
promote a biased and revisionist historiography of the Indian subcontinent that promulgated Indophobic and
anti-Hindu prejudices. These narratives are combined with Islamist propaganda in the extensive revising of
Pakistan's history. By propagating concepts such as jihad, the inferiority of non-Muslims, India’s perceived
ingrained enmity with Pakistan, etc., the textbook board publications used by all government schools promote
an obscurantist mindset. According to the historian Professor Mubarak Ali, textbook "reform" in Pakistan
began with the introduction of Pakistan Studies and Islamic studies by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in 1971 into the
national curriculum as a compulsory subject. Former military dictator Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, under a general
drive towards Islamization, started the process of historical revisionism in earnest and exploited this initiative.
'The Pakistani establishment taught their children right from the beginning that this state was built on the basis
of religion – that's why they don't have tolerance for other religions and want to wipe-out all of them. According
to Pakistani physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, the Islamist revisionism of Pakistan's schools began in 1976 when an
act of parliament required all government and private schools (except those teaching the British O-levels from
Grade 9) to follow a curriculum that includes learning outcomes for the federally approved Grade 5 social
studies class such as: 'Acknowledge and identify forces that may be working against Pakistan,' 'Make speeches
on Jihad,' 'Collect pictures of policemen, soldiers, and national guards,' and 'India's evil designs against
Pakistan.'. Likewise, Yvette Rosser criticizes Pakistani textbooks for propagating jingoist and irredentist beliefs
about Pakistan's history and culture, and being negationist in its depiction of political Islam and the treatment of
minorities in Pakistan, such as Hindus and Christians. Irredentism is manifested through claims of "eternal
Pakistan" (despite the country being created from British India only in 1947), narrow and sectarian
interpretation of Islam, downplaying the tolerant aspects of the religion and focusing on Islamic Fundamentalist
interpretations (such as all banking being un-Islamic), and making accusations of dual loyalty on minority
Hindus and Christians in Pakistan. According to Pakistani professor Tariq Rahman, Pakistani textbooks cannot
mention Hindus without calling them cunning, scheming, deceptive or something equally insulting. The
textbooks ignore the pre-Islamic history of Pakistan except to put the Hindu predecessors in negative light.
Another Pakistani historian Khursheed Kamal Aziz similarly has criticised Pakistani history textbooks. He
stated that textbooks were full of historical errors and suggested that mandatory study amounted to teaching
"prescribed myths". After examining 66 textbooks used at various levels of study Aziz argued that the textbooks
supported military rule in Pakistan, promoted hatred for Hindus, glorified wars and distorted the pre 1947
history of Pakistan. A study by Iftikhar Ahmad of Long Island University published in Current Issues in

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Comparative Education in 2004 drew five conclusions from content analysis of the social studies textbooks in
Pakistan.
1. First, the selection of material and their thematic sequence in the textbooks present Islam not simply as a
belief system but a political ideology and a grand unifying worldview that must be accepted by all
citizens.
2. Second, to sanctify Islamic ideology as an article of faith, the textbooks distort historical facts about the
nation's cultural and political heritage.
3. Third, the textbooks offer a biased treatment of non-Muslim citizens in Pakistan.
4. Fourth, the main objective of the social studies textbooks on Pakistan studies, civics, and global studies,
is to indoctrinate children for a romanticised Islamic state as conceptualised by Islamic theocrats.
5. Fifth, although the vocabulary in the textbooks underscores Islamic virtues, such as piety, obedience,
and submission, little is mentioned about critical thinking, civic participation, or democratic values of
freedom of speech, equality, and respect for cultural diversity.
A study by Nayyar & Salim of the Sustainable Development Policy Institute concluded in 2003 that there is an
increasing trend where children are taught Pakistan Studies as a replacement for the teaching of history and
geography as full-fledged disciplines. Previously, children were taught the very early pre-Islamic history of
South Asia and its contribution to rich cultural diversity of modern-day Pakistan. This long historical
perspective of Pakistan is absent in the Pakistan Studies textbooks. Instead, children are now taught that the
history of Pakistan starts from the day the first Muslim set foot in India. The study reported that the textbooks
also had a lot of gender-biased stereotypes and other perspectives that "encourage prejudice, bigotry and
discrimination towards fellow Pakistanis and other nations, especially against religious minorities, as well as the
omission of concepts ... that could encourage critical self awareness among students”. Rubina Saigol, a US
educated expert, said "I have been arguing for the longest time that, in fact, our state system is the
biggest Madrassah, we keep blaming madrassahs for everything and, of course, they are doing a lot of things I
would disagree with. But the state ideologies of hate and a violent, negative nationalism are getting out there
where madrassahs cannot hope to reach."
Referring to NCERT's extensive review of textbooks in India in 2004, Verghese considered the erosion of plural
and democratic values in textbooks in India, and the distortion of history in Pakistan to imply the need for
coordination between Bangladeshi, Indian, and Pakistani historians to produce a composite history of
the subcontinent as a common South Asian reader. However, international scholars also warn that any attempt
for educational reforms under international pressure or market demands should not overlook the specific
expectations of the people at local levels.
Q.3 Identify the aims and goals of Islamic studies textbooks? Highlight some of the controversies of
religious textbooks.

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Religion may be presented as part of a secular educational program. Programs that "teach about religion" are
geared toward teaching students about the role of religion in the historical, cultural, literary and social
development of the United States and other nations. These programs should instill understanding, tolerance and
respect for a pluralistic society. When discussing religion in this context, religion must be discussed in a neutral,
objective, balanced and factual manner. Such programs should educate students about the principle of religious
liberty as one of the fundamental elements of freedom and democracy in the United States.
"Teaching religion" amounts to religious indoctrination or practice and is clearly prohibited in public schools. A
public school curriculum may not be devotional or doctrinal. Nor may it have the effect of promoting or
inhibiting religion. A teacher must not promote or denigrate any particular religion, religion in general, or lack
of religious belief. A teacher must not interject personal views or advocate those of certain students. Teachers
must be extremely sensitive to respect, and not interfere with, a student's religious beliefs and practices.
Students must not be encouraged to accept or conform to specific religious beliefs or practices. A program
intended to teach religion, disguised as teaching about religion, will be found unconstitutional.
In sum, there is a critical difference between teaching religion and teaching about religion. While it is
constitutionally permissible for public schools to teach about religion, it is unconstitutional for public schools
and their employees to observe religious holidays, promote religious belief, or practice religion. School officials
and parents must be extremely careful not to cross the line between "the laudable educational goal of promoting
a student's knowledge of and appreciation for this nation's cultural and religious diversity, and the
impermissible endorsement of religion forbidden by the Establishment Clause."
This is as much a free speech issue as it is a religious liberty issue. Where a student responds to an assignment
(for example, a book report) with a religiously-themed project (for example, reporting on a religious tract), a
school may not refuse to accept the assignment solely because it has a religious basis (students have a right to
free expression). However, if in observing the presentation of the assignment -- especially expressive
assignments like artwork, plays and reports that are presented publicly -- an observer might think that the
project is endorsed by the school, it is a problem. Thus, a book report delivered to a teacher may not be rejected
merely because it is religious, whereas a work of art that will be hung up or displayed by the school or a play
intended for public performance is unacceptable. Indeed, educators are able to exercise considerable control
over "student expression to assure that participants learn whatever lessons the activity is designed to teach, that
readers or listeners are not exposed to material that may be inappropriate for their level of maturity, and that the
views of the individual speaker are not erroneously attributed to the school."
The country’s constitution prescribes a free and compulsory primary education for all children, but this remains
a goal yet to be achieved. The various tiers of the education system have had
disproportionate growth, resulting in ‘inverted pyramid’ structure , whereby higher education is
comparatively top-heavy while the primary education base is narrow. The rate of literacy is very low
(47%), with poor participation rates in the school system. Compounding the bleak situation are issues of

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disparity in educational status, access, opportunity and participation by social class (rich versus the poor), area
of residence (rural versus urban) and gender (male versus female). Beset by low government allocations for
education (approximately 3% of the GNP) and a galloping birth rate, universal primary education
remains an elusive goal for the near future. Distinct streams exist in the quality of educational institutions.
One visible division is between the private and public education system. The list of factors behind
social development is a long one and includes religious behaviors and attitudes. In this paper, only religious
behavior as a factor in social development is analyzed. However, keeping in mind the prevailing situation of
Pakistani society, underdevelopment and non-development of society would also be touched upon. The
importance of religious behaviors and attitudes is substantially acknowledged by the theorists in the field of
development studies and research. Development models based on European and Japanese experiences in the
field of social development also take religious attitudes and behaviors as a factor of development and change.
Social conditions in Pakistan, religious influence on people’s lives, religio-behavioral change, deterioration of
social institutions, exploitation in the name of religion, religio-political behavior, religious behavior of the
ruling elite, social divide, sectarianism, militancy and terrorism have also been analyzed. Irrational,
conservative and dogmatic aspects of religious behavior have been discussed. Towards the end of this paper, the
aspects of religious behavior that support and contribute to the process of social development are also discussed.
Since Islam draws certain parameters for not only one’s personal life, but also social, political and economic
dimensions of life, a religious follower’s behavior in all spheres of life needs to be studied as religious behavior.
So, we need to look into the personal, social, political and economic aspects of people’s behavior in order to
understand the relationship between religious behavior and social development. Social behavior can be defined
as a “behavior that takes place in a social context and results from the interaction between and among
individuals.” Antisocial behavior is one that “violates the rights of others; usually associated with antisocial
personality. Religion is one of the most, if not the most, fundamental characteristics of Pakistani society. Few
people dare to call themselves secular publicly. Seculars also pretend to be religious in order to avoid the wrath
of society and attacks by extremists. In Pakistani society, individuals start learning about religion literally as
soon as they are born. In the laps of their mothers, children listen to parents and other family members reciting
the Quran. In schools, Islamic Studies is a compulsory subject from the beginning to the graduation level. Most
children receive daily lessons from religious teachers visiting their houses, or attend classes at mosques and
madrassas, on how to recite the Quran and read other Arabic texts. Mosques are spread across the country,
almost all of them equipped with loudspeakers. A’azan (call to prayer), Friday sermons and prayers, and
sermons on other religious occasions are delivered using the loudspeaker. Clerics and students at madrassa
established in mosques use loudspeakers whenever they want to recite Quranic verses, or sing praise of God and
Prophet Muhammad or to deliver a speech to convey or remind people of the religious commandments. In
everyday social interaction, individuals are keen to lecture others on how to follow the religion and conform to
the injunctions ordained by God, His prophets and religious authorities and leaders. Against this backdrop, one

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can imagine the extent of influence religion has on people’s lives and behaviors. Answers by the survey
respondents in the following tables provide evidence of the reach of and access to religious education in
Pakistani society.
Q.4 Discuss problems/issues faced by biological textbooks. Give some suggestions to improve biology
textbooks at secondary level.
A biology textbook is an organized body of material useful for the formal study of a subject area. A good
biology textbook is distinguished by the following pedagogical features:
• A discrete, well-bounded scope: all the material should relate to a solid understanding of the subject,
usually mixing theory and practice for each topic as it covers the subject domain.
• Use of examples and problems: the student should be able to better grasp each presented concept by
following examples, and then applying the concept in structured exercises or problems.
• An internally consistent style: after the first few sections, there should be little or no surprises for the
student in terms of layout and presentation of material. The texts user can get comfortable with the
layout, the tempo of presentation, and the pattern of figures, illustrations, examples and exercises.
• Utility for future reference: once reviewed, the biology textbook should isolate material that is useful to
the future application of subject knowledge in well-organized appendices and tables.
• A structure that makes sense: the biology textbook is not just a collection of useful material; it is a guide
to the student for an order of review which will aid in mastering the subject area.
Topics are presented in major parts, chapters, sections and subsections that are organized in a way that
facilitates understanding. This means that the text’s organization is based on the intersection of two
requirements. The first of these are the requirements of the subject domain. Since most biology textbooks are
developed by, or based on the contributions of subject matter experts, this requirement is usually well attended
to. The second requirement is defined by the limits of the student’s mind. Cognition is a common human ability,
but its needs and limits are frequently ignored by those who have already mastered a subject area. To make the
best use of the student’s abilities, some rules can be spelled out for the structuring and presentation of ideas,
concepts, and material. These rules should include:
1. Rule of Frameworks: Mainta1in a consistent structure. The structure acts as a mental roadmap that
allows learners to navigate within and through the subject domain. To best aid in understanding, the
structure should be visible early on.
2. Rule of Meaningful Names: Create and use consistent titles and terminologies. Use terminology that is
common in your discipline. These names are critical to the ability to recall or retrieve the things we
know and remember.
3. Rule of Manageable Numbers. Limit the amount of information introduced at one time. For new
material, four to six new elements are a reasonable limit. Most of us are limited in our ability to absorb
new material. As we become familiar with part of a subject domain, this number expands.

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 4. Rule of Hierarchy. New knowledge builds on learned knowledge. When introducing new material, only
refer to foundational material if it is relevant to the new material. The student needs to understand the
foundational knowledge before being introduced to a new concept. When new concepts are introduced
they should be explicitly connected to the foundational material.
5. Rule of Repetition. Repeat important concepts. For example, frameworks and important hierarchies are
repeated as many as five or six times; frequently used elements are repeated three or four times; and
elements of lesser utility may not be repeated at all. There is a pattern of repetition that aids in
promoting the elements of a subject from short-term to long-term memory.
In most of the countries biology textbooks are written by experts with the assistance of publishers and these
biology textbooks are evaluated by a government agency. In Pakistan, role of biology textbook development
rests with the provincial or regional Biology textbook Boards, and Private Publishers. These boards and private
publishers try to publish the biology textbooks according to the guidelines provided in the national curriculum,
given by the Curriculum Wing of Ministry of Education. The role of biology textbook evaluation performed by
the Curriculum Wing is to ensure that biology textbooks are according to the curriculum guidelines provide to
the boards and publishers. To facilitate evaluation processes rubric are considered as a vehicle to ensure quality
of and objectivity in the process. The more specific a rubric is to an indicator, of a quality biology textbook the
more useful it is the evaluators and the publishers and/or writer. The descriptors associated with the criteria
should reference specific requirements of the quality biology textbook and clearly describe the quality of work
at each level on the rubric. The criteria used to evaluate the biology textbook should be shared as the guidelines
are introduced to help publishers begin with the end in mind. Rubrics and models should also be referenced
while the biology textbook are being completed to help publishers/authors revise their work. They should also
be used after the biology textbook is complete, not only to evaluate the product, but also to engage publishers
/authors in reflection on the work they have produced. The Biology textbook Policy also focused on the
following four major areas during content evaluation • Coverage of Learning Competencies • Accuracy of
content (i.e., conceptual, factual, pedagogical, grammatical, etc.) • Appropriateness of presentation, language,
and visuals to target users, to society, and to culture • Language used is grammatically correct and can be easily
understood by target users The DepED developed also manual of biology textbook style and standards to ensure
quality of biology textbook in Philippines. The manual layout includes the following: • “General and technical
standards (size, paper stock, cover stock, preferred biding) • Cover specifications ( use of logos, font, font size,
general layout, qualifiers) • Printing specifications (font types and size, suitable per grade level)” (DepED,
Biology textbook Policy, 2004, p.6) Major test of the biology textbooks in this evaluation is that biology
textbooks are research-based and are aligned with the set Philippine Elementary learning Competencies (PELC)
and Philippine Secondary School Competencies (PSSLC), i.e. the biology textbooks should conform to preset
standards.

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Q.5 Differentiate between theory of evolution and theory of creationism with example.
CREATIONISM
Creationists (sometimes calling themselves "scientific creationists" or "intelligent de- sign theorists") are
present-day defenders of the design argument. Although they agree among themselves that intelligent design is
needed to explain some features of the living world, they disagree with each other about various points of detail.
Some hold that the earth is young (around 10,000 years old), whereas others concede that it is ancient-about 4.5
billion years old, according to current geology. Some creationists maintain that each species was separately
created by an intelligent designer, whereas others concede that biologists are right when they assert, as Darwin
did, that all life on earth traces back to a common ancestor. further point of disagreement concerns which
characteristics of organisms demand explanation by intelligent design. Some hold that every complex
adaptation--the wings of birds, the temperature regulation system found in mammals, the eye--requires
explanation in terms of intelligent design. Others disagree with modern science much less; they assert that only
one or two features of life forms demand intelligent design explanations. These creationists agree with current
biology, except when they consider the origin of life or the emergence of consciousness.
To further clarify what creationism involves, let's consider three possible relationships that might obtain among
God (&), mindless evolutionary processes (E), and the observed features of organisms (0):

Theistic evolutionism says that God set mindless evolutionary processes in motion; these processes, once
underway, suffice to explain the observed features of organisms. Atheistic evolutionism denies that there is a
God, but otherwise agrees with theistic evolutionism that mindless evolutionary processes are responsible for
what we see in organisms. Creationism, as I understand it, disagrees with both theistic evolutionism and
atheistic evolutionism. Creationism maintains not just that God set mindless evolutionary processes in motion,
but that he also periodically intervenes in these mindless processes, doing work that mindless natural processes
are inherently incapable of doing.
You can see from these three options that belief in evolutionary theory is not the same as atheism. In my
opinion, current evolutionary theory is neutral on the question of whether there is a God. Evolutionary theory
can be supplemented with a claim, either pro or con, concerning whether God exists. Evolutionary theory,
however, is not consistent with creationism. Evolutionary theory, as I understand it, holds that mindless
evolutionary processes suffice to explain the features of living things. Creationism denies this.

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SOME CREATIONIST ARGUMENTS
Some of the most frequently repeated creationist arguments contain mistakes and confusions. For example,
creationists have argued that evolutionary theory is on shaky ground because hypotheses about the distant past
can't be proven with absolute certainty. They are right that evolutionary theory isn't absolutely certain, but then
nothing in science is absolutely certain. What one legitimately strives for in science is powerful evidence
showing that one explanation is far more plausible than its competitors. Biologists now regard the hypotheses of
evolution as about as certain as any hypothesis about the prehistoric past could be. Naturally, no scientist was
on the scene some 3.8 billion years ago when life started to exist on Earth. It is nonetheless possible, however,
to have strong evidence about matters that one can't directly observe, as I hope my previous discussion of
abduction has made clear. Another example of an error creationists make is their discussion of the Second Law
of Thermodynamics. They claim this law makes it impossible for order to arise from disorder by natural
processes. Natural processes can lead an automobile to disintegrate into a junk heap, but creationists think the
law says that no natural process can cause a pile of junk to assemble itself into a functioning car. Here
creationists are arguing that a physical law is inconsistent with the claim that life evolved from nonlife. What
the Second Law actually says is that a closed system will (with high probability) move from states of greater
order to states of lesser order. But if the system isn't closed, the law says nothing about what will happen. So if
the Earth were a closed sys- tem, its overall level of disorder would have to increase. But, of course, the Earth is
no such thing-energy from the sun is a constant input.
If we think of the universe as a whole as a closed system, then thermodynamics does tell us that disorder will
increase overall. But this overall trend doesn't prohibit "pockets" of order from arising and being maintained.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics offers no basis whatever for thinking that life couldn't have evolved from
nonlife.
A full treatment of the evolution versus creationism debate would require me to describe the positive
explanations that creationists have advanced. If you want to com- pare evolutionary theory and creationism, you
can't just focus on whatever difficulties there may be in evolutionary ideas. You've also got to look carefully at
what the alternative is. Doing this produces lots of difficulties for creationism. The reason is that creationists
have either been woefully silent on the details of the explanation they want to defend, or they have produced
detailed stories that can't withstand scientific scrutiny. For example, "young earth creationists," as I mentioned,
maintain that the earth is only a few thousand years old. This claim conflicts with a variety of very solid
scientific findings, from geology and physics. It isn't just evolutionary theory that you have to reject if you buy
into this version of creationism, but a good deal of the rest of science as well.
As I also indicated above, there are many different versions of creationism. Creationism is not a single theory,
but a cluster of similar theories. In the present lecture, I won't attempt to cover all these versions, but will focus
mainly on one of them. The one I'm going to start off with isn't Paley's, but it is worth considering nonetheless.
According to the version of creationism I want to examine, God designed each organism to be perfectly adapted

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to its environment. In this lecture, I'll explain what Darwin's theory says and why I think it is vastly superior to
this version of creationism. However, we can't conclude from this that Darwinism is superior to all forms of
creationism. In fact, I'll conclude the lecture by describing a second version of creationism that is immune to the
criticisms that undermine the "perfectionist" version. And I'll return, at the end, to the version of creationism
that Paley actually defends.
In 1859 Darwin put forward his theory of evolution in his book The Origin of Species. Many of his ideas are
still regarded as correct. Some have been refined or expanded. Others have been junked entirely. Although
evolutionary theory has developed a long way since Darwin's time, I'll take his basic ideas as a point of
departure.
Darwin's theory contains two main elements. First, there is the idea that all present- day life is related. The
organisms we see didn't come into existence independently by separate creation. Rather, organisms are related
to each other by a family tree. You and I are related. If we go back far enough in time, we'll find a human being
who is an ancestor of both of us. The same is true of you and a chimp, though, of course, one must go back even
further in time to reach a common ancestor. And so it is for any two present-day organisms. Life evolved from
nonlife, and then descent with modification gave rise to the diversity we now observe.
Notice that this first hypothesis of Darwin's says nothing about why new characteristics arose in the course of
evolution. If all life is related, we may ask why it is that we find the variety of organisms we do. Why aren't all
living things identical? The second part of Darwin's theory is the idea of natural selection. This hypothesis tries
to explain why new characteristics appear and become common and why some old characteristics disappear.
It is very important to keep these two elements in Darwin's theory separate. The idea that all present-day living
things are related isn't at all controversial. The idea that natural selection is the principal cause of evolutionary
change is somewhat controversial, although it is still by far the majority view among biologists.
Part of the reason it is important to keep these ideas separate is that some creationists have tried to score points
by confusing them. Creationists sometimes suggest that the whole idea of evolution is something even
biologists regard with great doubt and suspicion. But the idea that all life is related isn't at all controversial.
What is controversial, at least to some degree, are ideas about natural selection. I'll begin by describing the basic
idea of natural selection. Then I'll say a little about what is still somewhat controversial about the idea. I'll then
turn to the quite separate idea that all life is related and describe some of the lines of evidence that" make
biologists regard this idea as overwhelmingly plausible.
NATURAL SELECTION
Here's a simple example of how natural selection works. Imagine a population of zebras that all have the same
top speed. They can't run faster than 38 mph. Now imagine that a novelty appears in the population. A mutation
occurs-a change in the genes found in some zebra-that allows that newfangled zebra to run faster-at 42 mph,
say. Suppose running faster is advantageous, because a fast zebra is less likely to be caught and eaten by a
predator than a slow one is. Running fast enhances the organism's fitness--its ability to survive and reproduce. If

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running speed is passed on from parent to offspring, what will happen? What will occur (probably) is that the
fast zebra will have more offspring than the average slow zebra. As a result, the percentage of fast zebras
increases. In the next generation, fast zebras enjoy the same advantage, and so the characteristic of being fast
will again increase in frequency. After a number of generations, we expect all the zebras to have this new
characteristic. Initially, all the zebras ran at 38 mph. After the selection process runs its course, all run at 42
mph. So the process comes in two stages. First, a novel mutation occurs, creating the variation upon which
natural selection operates. Then, natural selection goes to work changing the composition of the population:
Start Then Finish
100% run at 38 A novel mutant 100% run at 42
mph runs at 42 mph; at mph
38 mph

We may summarize how this process works by saying that natural selection occurs in a population of organisms
when there is inherited variation in fitness. Let's analyze what this means. The organisms must vary; if all the
organisms are the same, then there will be no variants to select among. What is more, the variations must be
passed down from parents to offspring. This is the requirement of inheritance. Lastly, it must be true that the
varying characteristics in a population affect an organisms's fitness--its chance of surviving and reproducing. If
these three conditions are met, the population will evolve. By this, I mean that the frequency of characteristics
will change.
The idea of natural selection is really quite simple. What Darwin did was to show how this simple idea has
many implications and applications. Merely stating this simple idea wouldn't have convinced anyone that
natural selection is the right explanation of life's diversity. The power of the idea comes from the numerous
detailed applications. Notice that the introduction of novel characteristics into a population is a pre- condition
for natural selection to occur. Darwin didn't have a very accurate picture of how novel traits arise. He theorized
about this, but didn't come up with anything of lasting importance. Rather, it was later in the nineteenth century
that Mendel started to fill in this detail. Genetic mutations, we now understand, are the source of the variation
on which natural selection depends.Notice that the little story I've told describes a rather modest change that
occurs within a species of zebras.

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