Question 1: Briefly describe sources of natural and artificial radiation.

Answer: Natural Radiation: Natural background radiation is ionizing radiation, that originates from a
variety of natural sources. This radiation is not associated with any human activity.

Sources of natural radiation:

i. Cosmic rays: Two components – a) Product of high energy ions from galaxies. b) Sun solar
wind – consisting of primarily protons.
Earth’s magnetosphere and atmosphere together act as a protective shield – That prevents
all but 0.05% of cosmic radiation from reaching sea level. So intensity of cosmic radiation
increases with altitude – Doubling every 1500 meters.
ii. Radioactivity in the soil (Or terrestrial radiation): Emitted by many radioactive elements
found in earth’s crust – Uranium or Thorium. Varies. 5 to 25 times higher in granite massifs
than sedimentary soils.
iii. Radioactivity in water: Reflects geological character of areas. Depends on nature of water and
degree of solubility of the radionuclides. Mineral water is more radioactive than surface
water. And some ground water is rich in dissolved radon gas.
iv. Radioactivity in Air: Rn-222, which comes from U-238. Most significant. Depends on u-238
concentration in soil, soil porosity, construction materials and housing ventilation, which
concentrates the diffusion of the radon gas by confining it.
v. Human body: 120Bq/kg comes from food containing radioactive elements. (8400 Bq for a 70
kg person). 4500 Bq from K-40 and 3700 Bq from C-14.

Sources of artificial radiation: Produced by particle accelerators or nuclear reactors. Some radionuclides
me be used for medical purpose (X-ray and radiotherapy or such).

i. Nuclear fuel cycle discharge:

a) Krypton – 85, T1/2 = 10.7 years. Discharged in gaseous form during nuclear fuel
reprocessing.
b) Tritium: Also produced by Cosmic ray interaction with atmosphere.
c) C-14: Also produced by Cosmic ray interaction with atmosphere.
d) Not major: Caesium-137: Certain facilities, spent fuel reprocessing, and research centres.
Reached maximum at 4000 Bq/m3 in 1963.
e) Very little: Mn-54, Co-58, Co-69, 110mAg , I-129, Ru-106 Cs-134.
ii. Discharge from nuclear medicine activities:
a) I-131, T1/2 = 8 days.
b) Tc-99, T1/2 – 6 hours.
iii. Nuclear testing:
a) Tritium
b) C-14
c) Caesium -137
d) Strontium-90 (almost all from nuclear testing) – peak 2,500 Bq/m2 on surface. Still
detectable in soil, milk and plant samples. In food 0.1 Bq/kg wet.
e) Plutonium (2238, 239,240,241)
iv. Accidents:
a) Caesium – 137 from Chernobyl
 v. Disintegration of satellite:
SNAP-9A units served aboard many of the Transit satellite series. In April 1964 a SNAP-9A
failed to achieve orbit and disintegrated, dispersing roughly 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of plutonium-
238 over all continents. Most plutonium fell in the southern hemisphere. Estimated 6300GBq
or 2100 person-Sv of radiation was released.

Trivia: C-14 – 237 (+/-) 6 Bq/kg of Carbon (Total carbon in equilibrium in environment of interest, specially
atmospheric CO2). Was 226 Bq/Kg of carbon before nuclear tests. In freshwater 200 Bq/kg. For tritium,
several Bq/L in fresh water and from 0.01 to 0.05Bq/m3 in air.

Caesium-137: Can vary from below 5,000 Bq/m2 to 40,000 Bq/m2 on surface. Air – 1 micro-Bq/m-3-, in
rainwater 0.1-0.01 mBq/L.

Am-241 from plutonium decay is also an artificial source.

Question 2: What are primordial and cosmogenic sources?

Cosmogenic sources: Cosmic radiation is an ionizing radiation produced when primary photons and alpha
particles from outside the solar system interact with the component of earth’s atmosphere. A second
source of cosmic radiation is the release of charged particles from the sun, which become significant
during the periods of solar flares or sun storms. Ionizing radiation is a part of the environment in which
we live in, present in the earth, building, food, even in the bones of our bodies. Cosmogenic nuclides are
produced by nuclear interactions between cosmic radiation and terrestrial or extra-terrestrial matters.
Primary cosmic radiation present in space consists of subatomic particles (mostly protons and alpha
particles). Some of which have energies greater than typical nuclear binding energies. There are two
major categories of reactions between cosmic ray particles and atomic nuclei that produce Cosmogenic
nuclides: Low energy neutron capture and high energy spallation reaction that break atomic nuclei into
smaller particles.

Of the 340 types of atoms that exist in nature, 70 of them are unstable. And only 20 of these primordial
radionuclides still exist today as the short lived ones. They are found in air, soil, water, living organisms,
etc. They are either radionuclides with very long half-life that have been present on earth since it was
formed such as K-40, U-238, U238, Th232 or those created continuously in the upper atmosphere as a
result of cosmic radiation referred to as cosmogenic radionuclides such as tritium, C-14, ke-85, Be-7 and
Na-22.

Question 3: How is Radioactivity monitored?

Answer: Radiological monitoring of the environment is based on three kinds of sampling systems and
measurements.
 i. Spot samples taken in the environment for subsequent laboratory measurement: Rainwater,
Surface water (sea and fresh), biological indicators (Including mosses and algae), soil and
sediment, foodstuffs (milk, dairy, fish, meat, molluscs, crustaceans and cereals.
ii. Continuous sampling procedures with subsequent laboratory measurements of collected
samples: This method primarily concerns measurements taken in the atmospheric
compartment and in surface waters (Aerosols, measurements of specific radionuclides in the
air, such as tritium and C-14 or using water samplers.
iii. Continuous in situ measurement systems: Usually used for early detection of radiological
events. The main continuous measurement networks are the monitors used to measure the
ambient gamma dose equivalent rate.

Question 4: What are the types of risk management process?**

Answer: Risk: Risk refers to uncertainty about and severity of the events and consequences or outcomes
of an activity with respect to something that human value.
The risk management process consist of a series of steps that, when undertaken in sequence, enable
continual improvement in decision making.

Step 1: Identify the possible risks

i. Determining what the potential consequences are associated with this issue or event.
ii. Estimating the impact and relative importance if each consequence, in terms of magnitude
and timing of the impact.
iii. For each consequence, identify the effect of possible actions on the probability, the
magnitude or the timing of the consequence.

Step 2: Identify techniques/strategies to manage risk

Three categories of risk management tools are – risk reduction, risk retention and risk transfer. In many
cases, a combination of techniques and strategies will be used, rather than a single approach.

Step 3: Implement the chosen techniques or strategies

Step 4: Monitor the effectiveness of solutions: So that risk analysis is always updated as the operating
environment changes.

Question 5: What is radiological monitoring? What are the objectives of radiological

monitoring?

Answer: Radiological monitoring involves the management of radiation dose or radionuclide

contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive
substances and the interpretation of the results.

General Objectives of Radiological Monitoring:

 a. To verify compliance with authorized discharge limits and any other regulatory requirements
concerning the impact on the public and the environment due to the normal operation of a
practice or a source within a practice.
b. To provide information and data for dose assessment purposes and to assess the exposure or
potential exposure of critical groups and populations due to the presence of radioactive materials
or radiation fields in the environment from the normal operation of a practice or a source within
the practice and from accidents or past activates.
c. To check the conditions of operation and the adequacy of controls on discharges from the source
and to provide warning of unusual or unforeseen conditions, and where appropriate – to trigger a
special environmental monitoring program.

Subsidiary objectives:

i. To provide information for the public

ii. To maintain a continuing record of the impacts of an installation
iii. To check the predictions of environmental models so as to modify them as appropriate order
to reduce uncertainties in the dose assessment.

From PDF:

i. Monitoring human health and the environment against the effect of radiation exposure.
ii. Knowledge of the radiological state of the environment
iii. The early detection of any abnormal increase in radioactivity that may result from an incident
or accident at a nuclear facility
iv. Compliance with regulations by nuclear operators
v. Informing the public

Question 6: Briefly describe the environment risk assessment methodology.

Answer:
Step 1.1: Establish the site Aspect register using the generic aspect register format – by Site
Environmental Co-ordinator

Step 1.2: Establish the sites Significant Aspect ratings using the significance test matrix – by
Environmental co-ordinator.

Step 1.3: List the sites top environmental significant aspects – by Site Environmental Co-ordinator.

Step 2.1: Apply the Environmental impact assessments process to the top aspects. Produce a system
“Hazard rating”. – by ESGH team

Step 2.2: Carry out a site environment barrier compliance audit to each aspect. Compare recommended
barriers with actual environmental barriers in place and make proposals for improvement – by ESGH
team.

Step 2.3: Obtain T&S managers approval of recommendation.

Step 3.1: Implement approved recommendations and track progress using the environmental risk
improvement programme ERIP – by ESGH team

Step 3.2: Carry out an Environmental Management Review periodically to confirm satisfactory
implementation progress of the environmental risk improvement programme. – Environmental Co-
ordinator.

Step 3.3: Annually review the aspects register.

Question 7: Why is emergency management system necessary for NPP?

Answer: Incomplete

The purpose of EMS is emergency response to protect human life, health and environment in the event
of a nuclear or radiological emergency. To commensurate with the results of a hazard assessment and to
enable on effective emergency response to reasonably foreseeable events (including the events that have
very low probability of happening) in connection with facilities or activities.

Question 8: What are the fundamental principles of radiological protection?

Answer: The fundamental principles of radiological protection are followings:

1. Responsibility for safety: The prime responsibility for safety must rest with the person or
organization responsible for facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks.
2. Role of the government: An effective legal and governmental framework for safety, including an
independent regulatory body, must be established and sustained.
3. Leadership and management for safety: Effective leadership and management for safety must be
established and sustained in organization concerned with, and facilities and activities that give
rise to radiation risks.
4. Justification of facilities and activities: Facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks must
yield an overall benefit.
5. Optimization of protection: Protection must be optimized to provide the highest level of safety
that can reasonably be achieved.
6. Limitation of risks to individuals: Measures for controlling risks must ensure that no individual
bears an unacceptable risk of harm.
7. Protection of present and future generation: People and the environment , present and future,
must be protected against radiation risks.
8. Prevention of accidents: All practical efforts must be mate to prevent and mitigate nuclear or
radiation accidents.
9. Emergency preparedness and response: Arrangements must be made for emergency
preparedness and response for nuclear or radiation incidents.
10. Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks: Protective actions to reduce
existing or unregulated radiation risks must be justified and optimized.
Question 9: What are the types of sampling system in radiological monitoring?
Answer: There are three types of sampling systems in radiological monitoring –

i. Source monitoring: The measurement of activity in radioactive materials being released to

the environment or of external dose rates due to sources within a facility or activity.
Includes measurements of radiation levels and radionuclides from a particular source of
radiation or from a practice.
ii. Environment monitoring: (Can be source related or person related) The measurement of
external dose rates due to sources in the environment or of nuclide concentrations in
environment media.
iii. Individual monitoring: Monitoring using the measurements by equipment worn by individual
workers, or measurements of quantities of radioactive materials in or on their bodies.

Question 10: Draw a flow chart of how liquid waste is managed in PWR?
Answer:
Question 11: What are the specific objectives of source monitoring during the
operational stage of an NPP?
Answer: Specific objectives of source monitoring within a practice are:

i. To verify compliance with the authorized limits on discharges for airborne and liquid
discharges.
ii. To provide information necessary for checking whether systems for effluent treatment and
control are performing properly
iii. To provide early warning of any deviations from normal authorized operation
iv. To provide data on discharge of radionuclides to the environment, as a basis for the
estimation by predictive modelling of environmental radiation levels and activity
concentrations and exposure of the public.

Question 12: Develop a fault tree to determine the probability of loss of power?
Answer:
Question 13: What conditions should be taken into consideration in the design of nuclear
or radiological monitoring program?
Answer:

i. Radioactive inventory and radionuclide composition at the source

ii. Space and time features of the radiation fields around the source
iii. Authorized discharges and discharge rates
iv. Possible contributions from any nearby practices or sources, discharge pathways, exposure
pathways, environmental features at site, and features and habits of the people involved.
v. Significance of the annual average doses of the critical group(s), and the environmental
radiation levels from planned radioactive releases and possible releases.

Question 14: Explain the three types of exposure situation during a NPP operation.
Answer:

a. A planned exposure situation is a situation of exposure that arises from the planned operation of
a source or from a planned activity that results in an exposure due to a source.
b. An emergency exposure situation is a situation that arises as a result of an accident, a malicious
act, or any other unexpected event, and requires prompt action in order to avoid or to reduce
adverse consequences.
c. An existing exposure situation is a situation of exposure that already exists when a decision on
the need for control needs to be taken. Existing exposure situations include situations of
exposure to natural background radiation.

Question 15: What are the principle exposure pathways of radioactive gaseous effluents
from NPP to humans? Describe the two major categories of human exposure pathways.
Answer: Two major categories of human exposure pathways are external and internal.

1. The main external exposure pathways are:

a. Source of radiation to human: direct exposure from a source of ionizing radiation.
b. Source of radionuclides to atmosphere or water body to human: Exposure due to the plume
of radionuclides in the atmosphere or water.
c. Sources of radionuclides to atmosphere or water body to human skin: Contact exposure from
radionuclides on the skin.
d. Sources of radionuclides to atmosphere or water body to soil or sediment or building surface
or vegetation to human: Self-explanatory.
2. The main internal exposure pathways are:
a. Sources of radionuclides to atmosphere to human: inhalation.
b. Sources of radionuclides to atmosphere or water body to soil or sediment to vegetation
and/or meat, milk, eggs or marine food to human: Ingestion.
c. Sources of tritium to atmosphere to human: For tritium oxide in the plume, absorption
through skin.
d. Soil or sediment to human: Inhalation of dust?
Question 16: What are the general responsibilities of the operators for monitoring
nuclear facilities?
Answer: Responsibilities of the operator:

1. In relation to the control of discharge practices, operators should have the following general
responsibilities:
a. To prevent any unacceptable radiation or contamination hazard to public resulting from a
discharge practice.
b. To comply with the applicable regulatory requirements
c. To report to the regulatory body about any changes to the discharge practice.
2. With regard to specific responsibilities in the area of monitoring, operators:
a. Should perform all necessary pre operational investigations (including, as appropriate, pre-
operational monitoring)
b. Should provide mass and perform adequate source and environmental monitoring
programmes during and after operation that will permit unexpected releases to be detected
promptly and will provide the data to demonstrate that doses to the public are below dose
criteria established by the regulatory body.
c. Should report to the regulatory body about any significant changes in releases or increases in
environmental radiation fields or contamination that could be attributed to release from the
sources under their responsibility.
3. On this basis, responsibilities of operators for monitoring, should be defined as:
“Source monitoring referred to a specific practice or source within a practice that is under the
responsibility of the particular operator (Licensee or registrant) should be carried out by that
operator in all phases of the programme, including monitoring in operational and post-
operational stages and in the event of an emergency. The operator should have the responsibility
of establishing, carrying out and maintaining the regulatory standard.”

Question 17: What are the general responsibilities of regulatory bodies for monitoring
nuclear facilities?
Answer:

In relation to the control of discharge practices, the regulatory body has following general responsibilities:

i. Ensuring by means of establishing and implementing appropriate regulations, that the public
and environment are protected
ii. Ensuring that the operator complies with the appropriate regulations and regulatory
requirements, including those in respect of carrying out such source and environmental
monitoring as may be necessary.
iii. Providing assurance that judgments concerning the safety of public are based upon valid
information and sound methods.

With regard to specific responsibilities in the area of monitoring, the regulatory body:
 i. Should establish technical requirements for monitoring arrangements, including
arrangements for emergency monitoring and quality assurance, and should regularly review
them.
ii. Should check the monitoring data provided by operators
iii. Should provide evidence that can satisfy the public that authorized sources of exposure are
being suitably monitored and controlled.

Question 18: What is the source monitoring and environment monitoring? Explain.
Answer: Source monitoring:

i. Is monitoring of a particular source of radiation or the discharge of radionuclides arising from

a practice
ii. The basic considerations in the design of source monitoring program are the same for all
sources, but the scale and frequency of monitoring will differ.
iii. Source monitoring program are usually designed measure dose rates at the source and/or
the discharge rates of radionuclides.
iv. For each type of source and for each pathway of potential exposure it is necessary to
consider –
a. The location of the measurement point, whether continuous monitoring is required.
b. The frequency of sampling and measurement.
c. The requirement for additional information.
v. For discharges of radionuclides it may be necessary to obtain information on the chemical
form, density and flow rate of discharge, as well as meteorological and hydrological data and
information relating to the receiving environment.

Environment monitoring:

i. Environmental monitoring is conducted both on and outside the site giving rise to exposure
of the public and radionuclide in the environment.
ii. The environment monitoring programs include measurements of radiation fields and
radionuclide activity concentrations in environmental samples relevant to human exposure
primarily in air, drinking water, agricultural produce and natural foodstuffs as well as in bio
indicators that concentrate radionuclides and provide a measure of trends in activity levels.
iii. Source related environmental monitoring is carried out to assess the impact of a particular
source of radiation and radionuclide discharge
iv. Environmental monitoring is always dependant on the site specific features of the
environment to be monitored
v. The monitoring should be done to detect changes in long term trends in activity
concentrations or dose rates in the environment.
vi. The other objectives of environmental monitoring are to verify the results of source
monitoring, and to confirm predictions of radionuclide transfer in the environment.
Question 19: What are the steps of risk management process?
Answer: Steps of Risk Management process are the followings:

i. Communicate and consult

ii. Establish the context
iii. Identify the risks
iv. Analyse the risks
v. Evaluate the risks
vi. Treat the risks
vii. Monitor and review

Question 20: Describe the radiological discharges of radiative effluents from an NPP.
Answer: