Study of the effect of cement kiln dust on the mechanical, thermal and

durability properties of compressed earth blocks

Rahma MEBARKIA a, Mansour BOUZEROURA a and Nasser CHELOUAH a

a Laboratory of Construction Engineering and Architecture LGCA Faculty of Technology, University
of A. Mira, Bejaia, Algeria
rahma.mebarkia@univ-bejaia.dz

Abstract:
This paper investigates the feasibility of using an industrial by-product from cement manufacturing
known as cement kiln dust (CKD) to improve mechanical, thermal and durability properties of
compressed earth blocks (CEB). The CEB are made from local clay types partially replaced by CKD at
contents of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% by mass, and compacted using a hydraulic press. Tests were
performed on the blocks to define their properties. The study findings outline an improvement in the
mechanical properties and the durability of the CEB without compromising the thermal properties. The
compressive strength of the CEB with 25% CKD at 60 days was about three times higher than those
without CKD. With 0% and 5% CKD, the best values for thermal conductivity were recorded, i.e. 0.89
W/m K and 0.90 W/m K respectively. The durability criteria of the CEB were respected, with an
abrasion resistance characterized by the maximum abrasion coefficient reached with 25% CKD, which
equals about 28.5 cm2/g, and a capillary absorption of 0.06 g/cm² min1/2 for the same percentage, thus
meeting the recommendations of the French standard NF P13-901.
Keywords: Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB), Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), Mechanical behaviour,
Thermal conductivity, Durability.
1. Introduction:
The oldest evidence of earthen construction dates back to 10,000 BC. 30% of the world's population
now lives in earthen dwellings. By using earth, it is possible to significantly reduce a building's total
energy and environmental impacts [1]. Many types of building materials such as adobe, compacted
blocks, and rammed earth reflect the identity of different places [2]. CEB is an evolution of molded earth
or adobe. Compacting the earth to increase its strength is thought to have originated in the 18th century.
The first CEB was made by mixing raw materials, forming blocks in a wooden mold, and leaving them
to dry [3]. The use of local materials, in general, and earth blocks, in particular, in the construction of
buildings is one of the ways to support global green development [4]. The current trend of the earth is
highlighted by the exponential increase of scientific studies on earthen building materials and techniques
[5, 6]. Among the different techniques, stabilization with binders such as cement, lime, pozzolanic
materials or alkali-activated binders improves the mechanical properties and the durability and thermal
conductivity of earth materials [3, 7-12].
Yearly, about 3.6 billion metric tonnes of cement are produced worldwide. This volume is expected to
reach over 5 billion metric tonnes by 2030. The industry is growing particularly fast in developing
countries with continuously increasing infrastructure and housing demand [13]. However, the high
energy requirements, great CO2 emissions, and large quantities of dust generated make cement
production one of the global climate change concerns [14].

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The Algerian cement industry generates about 4,000 tons of waste kiln dust per year. Most of this dust
ends in landfills inducing considerable environmental and financial impacts [15]. Among the
environmental problems caused by cement kiln dust are congestion and the risk of groundwater
contamination and run-off, which originates from soluble or leachable substances such as sulfates,
carbonates, chlorides, alkalis, and heavy metals [16]. In the last few years, spectacular progress has been
made in managing and using of this dust, reducing its dependence on landfills. CKD, as it is called is a
fine-grained, solid, and highly alkaline waste [17] removed from the exhaust of the cement kiln to
prevent the accumulation of excessive salts in the cement product [18]. The latter is composed mainly
of oxidized, anhydrous and micron-sized particles, and enriched in sodium and potassium chlorides and
sulfates, as well as volatile metal compounds [19]. Some of the CKD generated is reused in the cement
plant. However, due to the high alkali content, recycling is not always performed. Most international
specifications limit the alkali content equivalent of cement to less than 0.6% to avoid an alkali-silica
reaction. Consequently, part of the alkalies are removed from the cement, while others are disposed of
in landfills [20].
In the recycling framework, many beneficial uses of this by-product have been found, such as serving
as a filler in construction and road maintenance, and as a component of cement mortar/concrete [15, 21-
23]. There have also been attempts to use it in soil stabilization to improve soil properties [24]. Other
researchers such as Ogila [25], studied the effectiveness of fresh cement kiln dust as a soil stabilizer and
stabilization mechanism for high swelling clay types, demonstrating the contribution of CKD in
providing good workability of the treated clay types. Rimal et al. [26] found that cement kiln dust (CKD)
combined with fly ash (FA) improved the compressive strength of Bangkok soft clay compared to
ordinary Portland cement. Attempts have also been made to use it in the manufacture of bricks for
industrial construction [14, 27], and compressed earth blocks [24, 28-30]. Ahmed et al. [31] used
industrial wastewater as an alkali activator in CKD bricks and observed a significant increase in
compressive strength. Okafor and Ewa [28] examined the effect of CKD on the compressive strength of
Obudu earth blocks, and found that the compressive strength of the CEB with a CKD content of up to
20% by weight of dry soil was about two and a half times higher than that of the unsterilized block.
However, CKD has not received much attention from researchers in earth construction, and very little
literature is available concerning the study of CEB stabilized with this material.
The aim of the work is to study the influence of CKD on the mechanical, thermal, and durability
behaviour of CEB. It was decided to produce CKD stabilized blocks using local clay types from the
selected sites. A characterization study of these materials is performed according to the standards,
respecting the conditions, in order to assure the good progress of the tests.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Used materials
2.1.1 Clay
Two types of clay were chosen from two different sites, one from the Remila brick factory in the Wilaya
of Bejaia and the other from the Adjiba brick factory in the Wilaya of Bouira in Algeria. These clay
types were characterized by their physical properties, namely: the liquidity limit, the plasticity limit, the
optimum water content, the particle size distribution, and the maximum dry density.
The liquid limit (wL) was measured according to the large Casa disc method, while the plastic limit (wP)
was determined by the roller method. All these measurements were carried out according to NF P94-
051[32]. Moreover, the methylene blue value characterizing the clay content of the sample was
determined according to NF P 94-068[33].

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The results of the characterization tests of the two clay types are presented in Table 1. The particle size
distribution of the clay types and the cement kiln dust was determined by laser particle size analysis and
is presented in Figure 2.
The chemical composition and mineralogical composition of the clay types are presented in Table 2 and
Figure 3 respectively. The chemical composition was determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
and the mineralogical composition by X-ray diffraction.
Table 1: Tests clays characterization results

Clays Color Liquidity Plasticity Plasticity Optimum Dry Methylene

limit (%) limit (%) index (%) water density blue value
content (g/cm3) (g/100g)
(%)
Remila Grey 38.02 17.32 20.7 11.74 2.11 2.6

Adjiba Red 37.77 18.67 19.1 9.57 2.13 3.8

The clay types considered by this study would be classified as "silt and silty clay" based on the plasticity
index in Table 1 and the requirements specified in standard NF P94-051[32]. The plasticity of the clay
types is recorded in the spindle of the plasticity diagram specified by the French standard XP P13-
901[34] and shown in figure 1. Materials with this spindle's plasticity produce adequate results and good
quality blocks.

Fig.1: spindle of the plasticity diagram of the studied clays

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 Fig. 2: Laser particle size analysis of clays and CKD
The particle size of CKD varies from 0.01 to 40 μm and from 0.01 to 100 μm for both clay types, as
shown in Figure 2. Clay particles (0.002 mm) account for 9% of Remila and 11% of Adjiba, respectively,
whereas particle sizes (0.002mm to 4mm) account for 63% of Remila and 75% of Adjiba. This confirms
that Adjiba and Remila are silt and silty clay types.

Fig.3: X-ray diffraction of clays

These clay types are mostly made up of carbonates (calcite), quartz (sand), and kaolinite, according to
an X-ray diffraction study of the clay types illustrated in Figure 3. According Djadouf, et al. [35], the
inclusion of kaolinite contributes to the blocks' workability and drying.
The red color of the Adjiba clay is due to the presence of hematite.
Table 2: Chemical composition of the two clays

Material SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O Cl LOI
Clay of Remila 41,66 13,63 4,91 16.68 2.03 0,08 2.06 1.01 0.20 18,08

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 Clay of Adjiba 45.91 10.11 6.96 14,75 2.38 0.07 0.858 0.379 0.029 18,59

The chemical values match the mineral composition, and the silica and alumina content agrees to the
quartz and kaolinite content.
2.1.2. Cement kiln dust:
Raw materials, calcined materials, and volatile salts constitute the CKD. Indeed, it is made from the
same basic materials as Portland cement. Yet, it differs chemically since the CKD portion has not been
entirely calcined. It is technically viable to reintegrate most of the CKD into the clinker manufacturing
cycle using contemporary manufacturing processes. However, this is not done due to their high alkali
and chloride content [36, 37]. The AIN EL KABIRA Sétif cement facility provided the cement kiln dust
used in this investigation. Tables 3 and 4 and Figure 4 show its chemical composition, physical
characteristics, and mineralogical composition.
Table 3: Physical characteristics of CKD

Physical apparence Bulk density (g/cm3) Absolute density Specific surface of

(g/cm3) Blaine (cm2/g)

Dry Grey powder 1.15 3.2 2065

Fig.4: X-ray diffraction of CKD

Calcium carbonate impacts the hydration of C3S. The limestone speeds up and builds the pace of
arrangement of C-S-H and CH [38] .

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 Table 4: Chemical composition of CKD
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O Cl LOI C3S C2S C3A C4AF
22.07 4.33 4.10 67.16 1.08 0.29 0.175 0.096 0.013 0.69 70.66 9.97 4.53 12.47

This CKD has a high level of calcium oxide (CaO) followed by silicon dioxide and a low alkali content
(less than 4% K2O or 3% Na2O). Like cement, CKD is composed of several elements. The four basic
elements are C3S alite, C2S belite, C3A Celite, and C4AF ferrite. A high C3S content results in increased
strength and durability of clay soils and reduced swelling.
2.2 Experimental methods and techniques
2.2.1 Manufacture of compressed earth blocks
The dosage of cement kiln dust is respectively in the order of 5,10,15,20, and 25% to the dry weight of
clay.
Water was added until the appropriate consistency was reached. For both types of clay, the optimal
water content (ωopt) was determined to be between 9 and 12 % by the dry weight of the mixture.
However, according to Morel et al. [39], the Proctor method cannot establish the ωopt for blocks since
the energy supplied in a Proctor test differs from the energy supplied in the static compaction process
used in the block's production. For this, the study followed the static compaction method described by
[7], to estimate the ωopt of our blocks, utilizing the same press that was used to manufacture the different
samples with a compaction pressure of 10 MPa, which Guettala et al., accepted [40].
For mechanical behaviour tests, the blocks were made on specimens with dimensions of (4x4x16) cm,
(5x4x8) cm for thermal conductivity tests, and (4x2x16) cm for durability tests. There is no universal
method for selecting the size and shape of the samples according to Zhang et al. [41]. Following their
creation, the blocks are weighed and sealed with plastic film for 24 hours to prevent additional water
loss. This procedure allow a uniform redistribution of the water content [35]. As illustrated in Figure 5,
the samples were kept at room temperature of 20 °C±2 °C and air-dried until they were used.

Fig.5: Cure and conservation of CEB

2.2.2 Tests performed
2.2.2.1 Tensile and Compressive Strength
Compressive strength can be defined using a variety of methods. CEB compressive strength is tested on
a masonry unit (block and joint), a half-block, or an entire block [3, 42].
The strength of a half-block was measured after it was broken by a bending tensile test in our case as
Figure 6 shows. The two pieces were retrieved and compressed independently until failure. The
compression tests were performed using the MATEST 250 kN Compression Testing Machine, which is
a semi-automatic 250 kN compression testing machine designed for the compression of 4x4x16 cm

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prismatic cement and mortar based on these standards: EN196-1, EN 13286-41, EN 933-5, EN 1015-11
| ISO 679 | ASTM C109, C348, C349, C1194 | DIN 1164 | BS 4550 | GOST 26798-1.

Fig.6: Tensile and compressive strength of CEB

2.2.2.2 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is one of the most critical features of CEB. Its estimate is required to assess
building insulation and energy consumption [11, 43]. The standard N.E. 993-15 [44] was used to assess
conductivity. Right before testing their conductivity, the blocks were dried. The CT meter is coupled to
a resistive wire probe, positioned between two blocks, the latter is heated [43].
2.2.2.3 Durability tests
2.2.2.3.1 Capillary Absorption
The capillary absorption test of CEB is generally studied to evaluate the presence of pores as well as the
role of CKD that played to reduce the volume of voids. This test was performed according to the XP
P13-901 standard [34]. Figure 7 illustrate who the CEB are exposed to the capillary absorption test. The
block was immersed to a constant depth of 5 mm. The water absorption coefficient corresponds to the
absorption rate after a period equal to 10 min [45].

Fig. 7: Exposing the CEB to the capillary absorption test

2.2.2.3.2 Abrasion Resistance
The block is weighed (m1) and brushed with a wire brush whose central mass has been accurately fixed
at 3 kg, according to the French standard XP P13-901 [34]. Brushing for one minute is done at a rate of
one round trip per second. The brushed blocks should not be wider than 25 mm. Brushing should be
done all the way down the block's length. Right after brushing the blocks are cleaned, the constituents
are separated, and the blocks are weighed (m2) [7].
3 Results and Discussion

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3.1 Compressive Strength
The results clearly indicate the variation in dry compressive strength with CKD concentration at 7, 28,
and 60 days.

Fig.8: Result of the compressive strength of the CEB of the two clays according to the percentage of
CKD
Figure 8 depicts the effect of CKD on the compressive strength of CEB. It can be shown that the amount
of CKD in the blocks has an impact on the compressive strength, as the strength improves the rate as
the CKD content rises. It achieves maximum values of 28.02 MPa when the blocks are made with Adjiba
clay and 25% CKD after 60 days, and 27.63 MPa when the CEB are made with Remila clay. The lowest
strength values for both types of clay were found for the blocks without the addition of CKD at 7 days.
3.2 Tensile strength
The effect of CKD on the tensile strength of CEB was studied at 7, 28, and 60 days, the variation in
tensile strength is a function of CKD dose, just as compression.

Fig.9: Result of the tensile strength of the CEB of the two clays according to the percentage of CKD
A three-point bending test was used to define the blocks' flexural tensile strength. Figure 9 shows that
the flexural tensile strength of the blocks made with Remila clay is 1.437 MPa at 7 days. 2.36 MPa at
28 days, and 2.93 MPa at 60 days for the samples prepared without CKD, while the flexural tensile
strength of the blocks made with Adjiba clay is 4.686 MPa at 7 days, 6.07 MPa at 28 days, and 6.65
MPa at 60 days for the samples prepared without CKD. The results show that CEB created with Adjiba
clay has a higher flexural tensile strength than CEB made with Remila clay. The addition of CKD
gradually increases, as indicated in Figure 9. The addition of CKD progressively increases the flexural
tensile strength of the blocks. Adjiba clay blocks register maximum tensile strength was attained after
60 days with 25% CKD.

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The anhydrous components of CKD and water react with the minerals in the clay types to form hydrates
and thus decreases the porous structure of CEB. These components have the ability to fill the voids
between the particles increasing the compressive and tensile strength of CEB, making the matrix denser.
Silica, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, and calcium oxide (free lime) are all minor components of
CKD, as are sulfates and chlorides. When the binder system, which includes free lime, combines with
the water in the clay, a CSH gel is formed as a result of a pozzolanic reaction, and additional products,
including ettringite, are produced. Consequently, CKD and its hydration products can contribute to an
increase in the stabilized clay's strength [29]. Blocks with a low CKD content have a higher void content,
implying that high porosity equals low strength.
The minimal grain-size curve of the Remila clay explains the difference in strength between Adjiba and
Remila. The void index is about as high as possible because the grains are all roughly the same size [46].
Continuous cementation between the grains is impossible due to the low level of CKD. On the other
hand, the Adjiba clay, is more compact because of its larger grain size. The grains interlock and the void
index is lower. Thus, the density is increased, and the CKD strengthens the granular skeleton by forming
bridges between grains.
3.3 XRD analyses:
XRD analyses provide information on CEB phases and compounds. The XRD results of samples
obtained from CEB made from both types of clay with 25% of CKD are shown in Figure 10. These
results show the presence of quartz, ettringite, calcite, kaolinite, and C-S-H. The low crystallinity of C-
S-H (amorphous structure or nanocrystals) complicates their identification by XRD. According to
Grangeon et al. [47], C-S-H can be identified by XRD thanks to the peak between 28.7° and 33.18° and
at 50.72°.

Fig.10: The XRD results of samples obtained from CEB made from both types of clay with 25% of
CKD
3.4 Thermal Conductivity

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Fig.11: Result of the Thermal Conductivity of the CEB of the two clays according to the percentage of
CKD
The thermal conductivity of the CEB was measured using the CT meter. Figure 11 illustrates the
variation of the thermal conductivity of the CEB as a function of the CKD content for the blocks made
with the two clays, the two graphs presented in the figure 11 shows an increase in the thermal
conductivity with the increase of the CKD content. The thermal conductivity values are between 0.93
and 1.06 W/m K for the CEB made with Remila clay and between 0.89 and 1.15 W/m K for the CEB
made with Adjiba clay. The best value of thermal conductivity is obtained with Adjiba clay with no
additional CKD, due to its low water content compared to Remila clay.
The variation in thermal conductivity is mainly due to the CKD content. Indeed, when the CKD content
is reduced, the thermal conductivity is decreased. These results can be explained by the increase in
density of the blocks due to the increase in the CKD percentage and the high compaction pressure which
contributed to eliminating a large portion of the pores making the blocks denser. Mansour et al. [30]
explain that heat transfer occurs mainly at the contact points between the grains forming the material.
Indeed, as described by Zhang et al. [41], the hydration products formed during the hydration process
slightly modify the compactness of the blocks, which results in a slight decrease in the porosity of the
CEB under the reinforcement of the hydrated products.

3.5 Capillary absorption

The measurement of water absorption by capillarity allowed defining the coefficient of diffusion by
capillarity (g/cm².min1/2).

Fig. 13: Result of the capillarity coefficient of the CEB of the two clays according to the percentage of
CKD

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Figure 13 shows the evolution of the capillary absorption coefficient of the CEB of the two types of clay
as a function of the CKD content. The findings indicate that these blocks are weakly capillary with a
capillary coefficient below 20 according to the standard XP P13-901 [34]. CEB with the 0% cement kiln
dust measurements are not considered, because it presents a high hydric sensitivity, even destroyed in
contact with water. Between the blocks made with the two types of clay, the CEB made with Adjiba
clay are less sensitive to water. These results can be translated by the fact that the CKD contributed to
the filling of the pore space in the blocks as well as to their good compactness.
3.6 Abrasion resistance
The abrasion coefficient defines durability related to abrasion resistance. As regards to the CEB abrasion
resistance, Figure 14 shows the increase in abrasion resistance for the blocks of both clay types as a
function of the percentage of cement kiln dust the CKD incorporated in the blocks has a positive effect
on the abrasion resistance. The abrasion coefficient is higher for mixes with a higher compressive
strength.

Fig. 14: Result of the abrasion coefficient of the CEB of the two clays as a function of the percentage
of CKD

As the compressive strength increases, the abrasion resistance increases. The values obtained are higher
than the maximum value defined by the standard XP P13-901 [34], which allows classifying the blocks
according to their abrasion resistance class (2 - 7 cm2/g). These results respect the durability criteria.
The Figure 15 shows the CEB just after being tested for abrasion resistance.

Fig.15: CEB after being tested for abrasion resistance

Conclusion
Based on the finding, it is possible to conclude that;

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- Using cement kiln dust in the manufacturing of compressed earth blocks assists to reduce the negative
impact of this industrial by-product being discharged into the environment.
- The addition of cement kiln dust (CKD) has helped fill the spaces between the particles, minimizing
porosity and increasing the density of the blocks.
- By increasing the amount of CKD and the curing period, strength was increased.
- A percentage of 10% cement kiln dust is enough to provide CKD with the required mechanical strength
and durability.
- Compared to Remila clay, CEB manufactured with Adjiba clay and CKD had excellent mechanical
strength, thermal conductivity, capillarity and abrasion resistance.
- The comparatively high compressive and tensile strength at 28 and 60 days is most likely due to the
pozzolanic reaction's long-term evolution.
- A decrease in capillarity and an increase in abrasion resistance show that the CEB's durability has
increased due to the densification of the structure.
- Finally, these findings lead to conclude that adding cement kiln dust to CEB manufactured from local
resources significantly increased mechanical properties and durability. Moreover, buildings made of
CKD stabilized CEB are better for providing a comfortable internal environment for residents because
they have the requisite construction safety and thermal insulation.
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4098350