Human Evolution

Human evolution began with primates. Primates development diverged from

other mammals about 85 million years ago. Various divergences among apes,
gibbons, orangutans occurred during this period, with Homini separating from
Gorillini about 8 million years ago. Humans and chimps then separated about
7.5 million years ago. Humans are considered a part of the group of organisms
that have evolved on the planet earth since 3,500 million years ago. But unlike
other organisms, human have displayed better adaptability in the face of several
climatic changes that the earth has been witnessing since its formation about
4,500 mya. The environmental changes that occurred in different periods of
earth s history had a profound impact on the emergence and extinction of
several organisms. Generally, it is believed that hominids first evolved in Africa
and then migrated to other areas. It is generally believed that apes diverged
from the monkeys in the Miocene epoch and also that the place of divergence
was Africa. But the earliest evidence of this divergence goes back to Oligocene
period with the emergence of a small ape called Aegyptiopithecus in the Nile
valley in Egypt which had a small brain but its visual capabilities were better
than earlier primates. Then it is believed that an ape named Dryopithecus,
dating about 20 mya, moved to Asia and around 14 mya, separated into several
species, one of them having evolved into Ramapithecus, known as the Asian
ape. Around the same time, a semi-terrestrial, hard fruit and grass-seed eating
and knuckle-walking ape named Kenyapithecus flourished in Eastern Africa.
One of the most important aspects of divergence between apes and hominids is
the latter s ability to walk straight on two feet, that is bipedalism. Bipedalism
among early hominids started around 7 mya. It was around this time that the
hominidae group split into two further divisions forming two different lineages,
that is, ancestors of modern chimpanzees and modern humans. The ancestors of
modern humans have been further divided into two categories: (a)
Australopithecus and (b) Homo. Homo habilis, which used stone tools and had a
brain about the size of a chimpanzees, was an early hominin in this period.
Coordinating fine hand movements needed for tool use may have led to
increasing brain capacity. This was followed by Homo Erectus and Homo
ergaster, who had double the brain size and may have been the first to control
fire and use more complex tools. Homo sapiens definitely branched out of Homo
Erectus line of decent. Later the emergence of Homo Sapiens Sapiens from the
early Homo Sapiens, they are known as fully modern humans .

Aegyptopithecus
Aegyptopithecus, which means Egyptian ape or monkey, was an Oligocene
primate comparable in size to a modern-day howler monkey most associated
with Fayum, Egypt. Aegyptopithecus, which lived around 38 - 29.5 million years
ago in the early part of the Oligocene epoch. Aegyptopithecus fossils have been
found in the Jebel Qatrani Formation of modern-day Egypt. Their fossils
assessment evidence indicates to be between 30.2 and 29.5 million years ago.
Aegyptopithecus had short limbs and was most likely a slow moving animal.It
likely resembled modern-day New World monkeys, and was about the same size
as a modern howler monkey, which is about 56 to 92 cm long. They had a long
tail and could jump from branch to branch. It possessed the dental and some of
the cranial characteristics of living catarrhines, but lacked many of the other
cranial and most of the postcranial diagnostic features, and so represents a time
when catarrhines had separated from other primates, but remained more
primitive than living hominoids (Hominoidea) or Old World monkeys and it
could have been ancestral to living catarrhines. They had a small brain case and
a combination of a large visual cortex, small olfactory bulbs and central sulcus
seen in the majority of living anthropoids. The hallux and attachments for the
peroneus longs muscles suggest that the feet of Aegyptopithecus has powerful
grasping adaptations that, along with further pedal evidence, supports
reconstructions of Aegyptopithecus as an arboreal primate. They had binocular
vision and possessed strong depth perception as evidenced by skeletal structures
indicating fully enclosed, forward facing eyes.

Dryopithecus
Dryopithecus, genus of extinct ape that is representative of early membbbers of
the lineage that includes human and other apes. Dryopithecus was found over a
widespread area including Europe, Africa, and Asia, it appears probable that
only a single genus is represented. Dryopithecus was of the many prehistoric
primates of the Miocene epoch and was a close contemporary of Pliopithecus.
These tree-dwelling apes originated in Eastern Africa about 15 million years ago,
and then, much like its hominid descendants millions of years later, the species
radiated out into Europe and Asia. Dryopithecus was the most important
European fossil ape. Dryopithecus is rather generalised in structure and lacks
most of the specialisations that distinguish living humans and other living apes.
The canine teeth are larger than those in humans but not as strongly developed
as those in other living apes. The limbs were not excessively long. The skull
lacked the well-developed crests and massive brow ridges found in modern
apes. Judging from the configuration of their bodies, it s most likely that
Dryopithecus alternated between walking on their knuckles and running on their
hind legs, especially when being chased by predators.

Ramapithecus
Ramapithecus, fossil primate dating from the Middle and Late Miocene epochs
(about 16.6 million to 5.3 million years ago). Ramapithecus was the last and
most important hominid from Miocene period. The hominid features of
Ramapithecus include reduced and vertically implanted incisors, and canines,
little or no diastema, flattened and thick enamelled premolars and molars that
appear to be adapted for heavy chewing and processing of heavy food stuffs.
Moreover, the placements of chewing muscles indicated an increased chewing
pressure brought to bear on the food being eaten. These features, sufficiently
different from the earlier Miocene fossils, indicate Ramapithecus direction to
hominid line- perhaps the first hominid. Ramapithecus specimens very strongly
suggest the exploitation of a new dietary source- most likely seeds, nuts and
grasses- that indicate a shift from the softer forest fruits an vegetables relied
upon by apes. This dietary shift is rather clearly associated with the climatic
changes in the later part of Miocene that led to an increase in open grasslands
and the decrease in the forest habitat of apes.

Australopithecus
Australopithecus, a group of extinct primates closely related to, if not actually
ancestors of, modern human beings and known from a series of fossils found at
numerous sites in eastern, north-central, and southern Africa. The genus
Australopithecus is a collection of hominid species that span the time period
from 4.18 to about 2 million years ago during the Pliocene and Pleistocene
epochs. Australopithecus were terrestrial bipedal ape-like animals that had large
chewing teeth with thick enamel caps, but whose brains were only very slightly
larger than those of great apes. Australopithecus had ape-sized brain which were
smaller and more in the range of the brains of modern apes. Most importantly,
the place where the spinal cord exited the skull was positioned underneath it,
showing that these creatures stood fully upright with their head positioned over
their vertebral column. Australopithecus anamensis species, fossils of which
have been found in the Anam Lake in Turkana (East Africa) and are dated 4.5
mya, had a mix of ape and human-like anatomy. Based on the fossil evidence of
fully bipedal Australopithecus species, which have been discovered so far,
Australopithecus afarensis is considered as the oldest of this order. A complete
skeleton of female afarensis specie, nicknamed Lucy was found from Ethiopia
that has been dated to 3.2 mya. While Lucy was a small size (1 to 1.2 meters)
specie, other fossils of the same species found from this region are much larger
in size. Australopithecus afarensis was thus, an anatomic mosaic of apes and
humans. It became extinct around 3 mya.

Homo Habilis
Homo habilis is one of the earliest known hominids. This species has a slightly
larger brain case and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older
hominin species. They were named handy man , because this species was
thought to represent the first maker of stone tools. Homo habilis inhabited parts
of sub-Saharan Africa from roughly 2.4 to 1.5 mya. Although most of the fossils
of habilis species have been found from South Africa and Southeast Asia. Homo
habilis had many similarities with the Australopithecus, both weighed about 40
kg and had a similar average height of 4.3 feet. They were bipedal and primarily
fruit eaters too. Homo habilis had a larger brain with an average cranial
capacity, they had smaller teeth than Australopithecus, but their tooth enamel
was still thick and their jaws were still strong, indicating their teeth were still
adapted chewing some hard foods. Homo habilis was flexible and versatile and
they were capable of eating a broad range of foods including some tougher
foods like leaves, woody plants, and some animal tissues, but they did not
routinely consume or specialise in eating hard foods. The habilis head was also
higher and rounder had a smaller jaw and a less protruding face. Although it
had a powerful grasping hand like chimpanzees, existence of an ape-like thumb
permitted both powerful gripping as well as manipulation of fine objects, which
helped them manufacture tools even though technology was crude. Evidence of
their tool making and traces of tools are found at Olduvai Gorge and East
Turkana, and also from South Africa. Homo habilis had formed speech
producing technique, the control area known as Broca s area in the brain
allowed this species to produce a variety of sounds. Though Homo habilis is
believed to be capable of taking out limited sounds yet this biological feature
subsequently enabled the growth of articulate speech among the later Homo
species.

Homo Erectus
Homo Erectus are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern
human-like body proportions, Homo Erectus are most likely originated in Africa,
though Eurasia cannot be ruled out. Regardless of where it first evolved, the
species seem to have dispersed quickly, starting about 1.9 mya near the middle
of the Pleistocene Epoch, though the earliest Erectus fossil has been dated 1.7
mya, they moved through the African tropics, Europe, South Asia, and Southeast
Asia. In Africa, the earliest specimen of Homo Erectus has been discovered from
Eastern Turkana (Kenya) and is dated 1.7 mya. Homo Erectus species were
adapted to different environmental conditions, from tropical savanna in East
Africa to forested parts of Indonesia, temperate climates in North Africa and
Africa and Europe and the extreme cold conditions of China and Northern
Europe. Such a wide distribution brought about physical variations among the
different Erectus species. The Erectus ability to adapt in these diverse climatic
conditions arose from some significant physiological changes and acquisition of
crucial cultural traits. Homo Erectus possessed a bigger brain and a bigger body
than habilis. Erectus was also the first human species to have a wide, fleshy
nose. The average height of Erectus species was between 5-6 feet, its weight
ranged between 40-75 kg and resembled a strongly built version of Homo
Habilis. The face was flat and the skull was long and bony bump behind, a
sloping forehead, prominent ridges over the brow, big projecting jaws, smaller
teeth and a strong neck muscles at the back of the neck. They had perhaps even
more significant than these physiological features was the well-developed
Broca s area and more advanced vocal tract facilitating articulate speech which
had significant social and economic consequences for further human evolution.
The ability of the Erectus species to colonise different habitats and climates
largely resulted from an improved tool technology, efficient use of fire and
improved building methods that put them much ahead of former hominids.

Sinanthropus
Sinanthropus is an archaic genus in the scientific classification system to which
the early hominid fossils of Peking Man were once assigned. The Sinanthropus
pekinesis was discovered in 1926. Two fossil teeth were found at Choukoutein in
China. The Peking man dined on venison and had knowledge of fire. They
probably were fire stealers . Fire appeared to be very significant in the
Pekinensis adaptation to the environment where they found. Peking man was
likewise believed to have practiced cannibalism. Sinanthropus had an erect
posture with similar limbs and trunk to those of modern man but had a different
face and head characteristics. The average cranial capacity is assessed to be
1,075cc, which is considerably smaller than the size of the modern humans. The
facial structure included an extremely broad face, cheekbones which were
sharply angled and frontally orientated, a low forehead, enormous eyebrows
bones which protruded forward, broad nasal bones, and big teeth. The stature of
Sinanthropus was calculated to be 156cm for males and 144cm for females. R
has bee thought to date to the Late Pleistocene- possibly during the last
glaciation- but his age remains uncertain.

Homo Sapiens
Homo Sapiens Species to which all modern human beings belong. The oldest
known fossil remains date to c. 120,000 years ago- or much earlier. The earliest
fossils of archaic Homo Sapiens, found from Atapuerca in Spain, have been
dated 300,000 years ago and are considered as intermediate between Homo
Erectus and Neanderthals to distinguish them from modern humans or Homo
Sapiens Sapiens. The Neanderthals emerged during 135,000- 125,000 year ago.
Fossils of this species have been found mainly in Europe and Eurasia, the
earliest being the deposits at Neander valley near Düsseldorf in West Germany.
Since these fossils belong to different time periods of the existence of
Neanderthal during 135,000- 35,000 years ago since the later fossils suggest
anatomical variations in the same species, therefore a distinction has been made
between archaic and advanced Neanderthals. Neanderthals were robustly built
humans with an average height of 5.5 feet and weight of about 70kg. They had a
large, thick and long skull with a bigger brain than that of modern humans
averaging about 1,500 cc. They had a sloping forehead with brow ridges,
distinct cheekbones, a large nose, either flat or bulbous, and chinless projecting
jaws. Neanderthals possessed many cultural traits akin to the modern humans
which the earlier Homo species were incapable of as the Neanderthals inhabited
the earth during last phase of the Ice Age, their reliance on meat increased in
order to survive the harsh winter climates. Their short and stocky body is also
considered as having adapted to winter climates. Prehistoric Homo Sapiens not
only made and used stone tools, they also specialised them and made a variety
of smaller, more complex, refined and specialised tools including composite
stone tools, fishhooks and harpoons, bows and arrows, spear throwers and
sewing needles. Use of variety of tools from flakes made Neanderthals an expert
and opportunistic hunter. Neanderthals also had the ability to make fire by
striking sparks from iron pyrites. The choice of their settlement- caves, rock
shelters and open encampments- enabled them not only to survive in different
climatic conditions but also to exploit diverse economic resources offered by
nature due to varying climatic conditions of the last Ice Age. Earliest signs of
religious beliefs and rituals, art form and social awareness is also seen as a part
of the cultural practices of the Neanderthals. The Neanderthals became extinct
about 30,000 years ago.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens

Homo Sapiens Sapiens is thought to have evolved sometime between 160,000
and 90,000 years ago in Africa before migrating frost to the Middle East and
Europe and later to Asia, Australia, and the Americas. The Homo Sapiens
Sapiens emerged from the early and later Homo sapiens, showing anatomically
archaic and modern physiological features respectively, Archaic Homo sapiens
emerged about 200,000years ago, whereas anatomically modern species of the
same genus started evolving about 100,000 years ago. There may have been two
separate radiations, the first, some time after 100,000 years ago, followed the
east coast of Africa and the south end of the Arabian peninsula and thence into
South Asia, South East Asia, and Indonesia, and ending in Australia. Prominent
among the fossils of this species are the ones that have been found at Omo
Valley in Ethiopia by Richard Leakey dated 195,000 years ago, a skull found at
Broken Hill (Kabwe) in Zambia dated 110,000 years ago and those found at
Qafzeh in Israel dated about 92,000 years ago. Here, it must be pointed out that
the designation of archaic or modern assigned to these fossils is largely based on
the structure of the skull and does not imply major cultural differences. Prior to
the emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens, these several species of Homo sapiens
displayed a high level of cultural adaptability. The earliest evidence of Homo
sapiens sapiens comes from the findings at a rock shelter named Cro-Magnon
near Les Eyzies village in Southwestern France. The Cro-Magnon man evolved
around 40,000 years ago and is said to be the white ancestors of today s
Europeans.
In cultural terms too, the Homo sapiens sapiens displayed
remarkable variety and improvement over that of the Neanderthals. A versatile
tool technology of this species enabled them to survive the extreme climatic
variations of the last phase of the last Ice Age that began about 116,000 years
ago. Homo sapiens sapiens sites present overwhelming evidence of pervasive
cultural practices. They colonised all the continents of the Old and the New
World except Antarctica. To effectively exploit the vegetation and the food
resources in different climatic conditions in these continents at different points
of time, the early Homo sapiens sapiens made extensive use of stone, bone,
antler and wood to manufacture tools with a new technology of making blades,
thus, giving rise to distinct cultures such as Perigordian/Chatelperronian,
Aurignacian, Gravettian, Soultrean and Magdalenian. The earliest artefacts of
Homo sapiens sapiens are undistinguishable from Neanderthal tools. Soon
thereafter, however, they evolve into far more sophisticated forms than any
which preceded them, and henceforth the tool kit shows a tendency to change
fairly rapidly over time.
Along with innovations in tool technology, the period of
early Homo sapiens sapiens has been termed as one of cultural explosion by
scholars such as Steven Mithun. This term has been used in the context of
several developments such as increased economic specialisation, development
of fully articulate speech, restricting of social relations between various groups
and above all, the development of at as means of expression and
communication. The technique and the new behavioural pattern of the early
Homo sapiens sapiens transformed the human way of life and brought about
explosive population growth. Endowed with superior intellectual capabilities,
they pushed earlier human species into extinction.

Conclusion
There were humans long before there was history. There is no scientifically
accepted research that shows that humans have stopped evolving. Evolution is
certainly still occurring and will continue to occur in humans. Humans exhibit
differences in reproductive success, which directly leads to evolution. Humans
still face challenges to survival as well, and exhibit variation in heritable traits,
all characteristics of evolution. Some of the confusion on this topic likely arises
because modern humans have not existed for an extensive period of time,
evolutionarily speaking. Many of humanities most esteemed innovations have
happened in the past decade or century, merely a few generations at most.
However, no innovation will change the fact that humans exhibit varying
reproductive success and challenges to survival, the components of evolution.