Applied Radiation and Isotopes 163 (2020) 109210

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Applied Radiation and Isotopes

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/apradiso

Review of recent radon research in Ireland, OPTI-SDS project and its impact
on the National Radon Control Strategy
Marta Fuente a, b, c, Stephanie Long d, David Fenton d, Le Chi Hung a, b, c, Jamie Goggins b, c,
Mark Foley a, *
a
School of Physics, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland
b
Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland
c
Centre for Marine and Renewable Energy (MaREI), Ryan Institute, National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland
d
Office of Radiological Protection, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ireland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Radon is a radioactive gas originating from uranium, present in all rocks and soils in the Earth’s Crust; emanating
Radon research from the ground, radon can be released into the atmosphere. It is the greatest source of natural radioactivity
Lung cancer exposure for the population and, as declared by the World Health Organization (WHO), the leading cause of lung
National radon control strategy
cancer only after smoking. Although radon is a natural gas, its accumulation provoking elevated indoor radon
EU BSS
levels is a result from building practices and thus, not natural. In Ireland, exposure to radon is estimated to be
responsible for approximately 14% of all lung cancers, which is equivalent to around 300 lung cancers annually.
In 2011, an interagency group was established in Ireland to develop a strategy to address indoor radon exposure,
considered a significant public health concern. In 2014 a National Radon Control Strategy (NRCS) for Ireland was
first published, giving a list of recommendations to be accomplished in a 4-year period Phase 1. A series of
research actions to achieve the effective implementation of the strategy were conducted, including the devel­
opment of a research project (OPTI-SDS) on the optimum specifications for radon mitigation by soil depres­
surisation systems. An overview of Phase 1 of the NRCS is presented, including outcomes from the research work
carried out.

1. Introduction widely depending on different factors such as the underlying geology,

Radon (222Rn) is a natural radioactive gas, invisible, with no odour
and no taste, originating from the uranium (238U) decay series. In the
outdoor environment concentration of radon is not considered a health
risk, because the radon that diffuses into the atmosphere normally dis­
perses rapidly. However, accumulation of radon indoors gives rise to
high radon concentration, which can lead to health problems in the
respiratory system. Radon is identified as a carcinogen agent by the
World Health Organization (WHO), considered the second greatest
cause of lung cancer disease after smoking. Inhalation of the short lived
alpha decay products of radon, e.g. 218Po and 214Po, is shown to induce
pulmonary cell DNA damage (WHO, 2009).
Although radon is natural, elevated radon levels indoors are not
natural, but a direct consequence of the building practices. The global
radon concentration in the outdoor environment is estimated between 5-
15 Bq/m3 (WHO, 2016). However, indoor radon concentrations vary
water, atmospheric conditions or the building type. Average indoor
radon level is estimated globally on 40 Bq/m3 and in Ireland the national
average indoor radon concentration for residential buildings is 77
Bq/m3 (UNSCEAR, 2000; Dowdall et al., 2017). Exposure to radon in
homes is responsible for approximately 20,000 lung cancer deaths each
year in the European Union alone, and in Ireland it is responsible for
14% of all the lung cancer cases, i.e. approximately 300 lung cancers
every year (NRCS, 2019).
There are several prevention and mitigation strategies aimed at
reducing indoor radon levels both for new and existing buildings. These
techniques are focused on preventing radon entry by sealing entry routes
or reversing the pressure gradient between the soil beneath and the
indoor occupied space through soil depressurisation (SD). Frequently, a
combination of several measures is the best option to achieve the highest
radon reductions, but the choice can be based on the analysis of cost-
effectiveness (WHO, 2009).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mark.foley@nuigalway.ie (M. Foley).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2020.109210
Received 21 February 2020; Received in revised form 8 April 2020; Accepted 29 April 2020
Available online 11 May 2020
0969-8043/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Fuente et al.
Since the scale of the radon problem was recognised, an increasing
number of national action plans have been carried out to reduce the
overall population exposure to this carcinogenic agent and to raise
public awareness of the risk associated with indoor radon. From
February 2018 the European Union requires all Member States to
develop national programmes to address building protection against
radon, as per the Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM, which also
requires to establish reference levels not exceeding 300 Bq/m3 (Council
of the European Union, 2014).
The WHO advises that national programmes should be developed to
reduce the population’s exposure risk to radon, based on a cooperative
effort involving different technical experts, public bodies, government
departments and other stakeholder. A wide range of policy interventions
are required and according to the WHO, radon action plans should focus
on identifying high radon exposure potential areas and on special risk
communication, in order to inform the general public about health risks
and the appropriate action to reduce indoor radon levels. Key elements
for the design of successful radon programmes consist of collaborating
with existing health promotion programmes and involving building
professionals and radon prevention and mitigation related stakeholders
(WHO, 2009).
Experience in Ireland includes a National Radon Survey conducted
by the RPII (Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland) during the
1990s, with measurements in over 11,000 homes (Fennell et al., 2002).
From the survey results, a radon in dwellings’ map for Ireland was
developed identifying high radon areas. In the following years after
completion of the national radon survey, more than 44,000 additional
measurements were carried out, all together resulting in a reliable guide
to Irish indoor radon levels. Since 1998, it is required under the Building
Regulations for all new buildings to incorporate protection measures
against radon. In the identified as high radon areas, a membrane over
the building footprint must be provided along with a potential means of
radon extraction, e.g. a sump with connecting pipework that can be
activated later if needed. In the areas not identified as high radon, only a
potential means of extraction for radon must be provided (Long et al.,
2013; DEHLG, 2008; NRCS, 2014).
By the 2000s, significant progress was already made in Ireland in
terms of addressing the radon problem, but still significant challenges
remained. The Government of Ireland announced in November 2011 the
decision to commend an interagency group to develop a national radon
action plan, so called National Radon Control Strategy for Ireland
(NRCS), aiming at reducing the radon exposure for people in Ireland and
to decrease incidence of radon related lung cancers. The objective of this
paper is to outline the research outcomes from the first phase of the
NRCS, including the research from the EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) funded project OPTI-SDS in relation to the optimum specifi­
cations for radon soil depressurisation techniques and its impact on the
NRCS.
2. Methods: National Radon Control Strategy for Ireland
The National Radon Control Strategy for Ireland was published in
February 2014, after the interagency group was established in 2011,
initially formed by representatives from four Government Departments
and six agencies, with the DECLG (Department of Environment, Com­
munity and Local Government) at the head. The members of the inter­
agency group worked together between November 2011 and September
2013 to identify the main issues to tackle and to develop policies in
different thematic areas, considering the variety of interventions
necessary to effectively face the problem (NRCS, 2014).
The recommendations contained in the NRCS were divided in
different thematic areas including prevention in new buildings, aware­
ness raising, using property transaction to drive testing, dealing with
radon in workplaces and public buildings, supporting individuals and
promoting confidence in radon services. The implementation of the
strategy envisaged to address the recommendations over a 4-year
2
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 163 (2020) 109210
period, designated as Phase 1 of the NRCS. A total of 31 actions were
set out in Phase 1, carried out from 2014 to 2018, of which 18 are fully
complete, 7 are on-going and the remaining 6 are incorporated into
Phase 2 of the NRCS (NRCS, 2019).
Additionally, a research working group was established to identify
the existing knowledge gaps that would affect the effective imple­
mentation of the strategy and to highlight the areas where research
should be focused to promote the effective delivery of the NRCS. The
research working group gathered the research ideas and classified them
into four themes: establish baseline values, better targeting of measures
and resources, enhance prevention and mitigation measures for new and
existing buildings, and improve radon risk communication strategies to
raise radon awareness (NRCS, 2019b). Research on each of the four
themes was tasked and conducted from researchers of different agencies
and Universities, such as Trinity College Dublin (TCD) and National
University of Ireland, Galway (NUIG).
3. Results: research outcomes
The research actions lead to important outcomes such as the design
of new resource efficient survey protocols to update the geographic and
population weighted national average radon concentrations, later
established as 77 Bq/m3 and 98 Bq/m3, respectively (Dowdall et al.,
2017). A high-resolution radon risk map including geological parame­
ters, published by researchers at TCD, to be validated and merged with
the existing radon map (Elío et al., 2017, 2018). A project to investigate
radon and ventilation in Irish energy efficient buildings conducted by
researchers at NUIG, finding that where energy retrofitting measures
reduce ventilation, there is a corresponding increase in radon and where
ventilation levels are maintained, radon levels are unaffected (McGrath
and Byrne, 2019). Another key outcome was the recommendation to test
remediated buildings every 5 years, from a study on long-term effec­
tiveness of radon remediation systems by TCD, which fed into the
development of a re-testing policy. A review of the EPA radon awareness
campaigns concluded that stronger government regulation is required to
effect real change on the responsibilities for addressing radon, that
shouldn’t rest only on the householder. Also, a market research survey
revealed that although 75% of the Irish public have heard of radon, only
a 21% would have their home tested for radon (NRCS, 2019b).
Among the research conducted, a three-year project to investigate
the optimum specifications for soil depressurisation systems that take
account of Irish Building Practices was carried out at NUIG, called OPTI-
SDS, which was funded by the EPA and conceived under the NRCS
within the research theme target to improve radon preventive measures
effectiveness in new buildings. The OPTI-SDS project examined the
characterisation of the Irish granular fill material T1 Struc and T2 Perm
(see Fig. 1) and its influence on the effectiveness of soil depressurisation
systems for radon mitigation.
3.1. OPTI-SDS project
The project included experimental tests in the laboratory under
Fig. 1. Photographs of Irish standard T1 Struc and T2 Perm granular fill ma­
terials (modified from Hung et al., 2018a).
M. Fuente et al.
controlled conditions, numerical modelling using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) simulations and a case study in an experimental house
to quantify the performance of SD by studying radon concentration re­
ductions as function of the pressure field extension.
The experimental tests in the laboratory were divided in two phases.
Phase 1 consisted of a series of small-scale lab tests to characterise T1
Struc and T2 Perm standard materials used in the sub-slab aggregate
layer. The characterisation included grading tests, compaction tests and
measurement of air permeability and porosity. A novel test apparatus
was designed and assembled to test the air permeability of the aggre­
gates for different compaction degrees (see Fig. 2a).
From the test results for Phase 1, T1 Struc material could be classified
as well-graded, meanwhile T2 Perm is classified as poorly-graded.
Regarding air permeability and porosity, for T1 Struc both perme­
ability and porosity decrease with the compaction degree, showing a
strong influence of the changes of moisture. However, for T2 Perm the
air permeability is found not dependent of the compaction degree and
moisture content variations (Hung et al., 2018a).
Phase 2 consisted of a series of large-scale tests (see Fig. 2b) to
analyse the airflow through T1 Struc and T2 Perm materials for active
and passive depressurisations, in comparison with results from Phase 1.
The aggregates were compacted using a field compactor and tested at
various thicknesses, resulting in a higher compaction degree compared
to the induced using a standard small-scale compactor in Phase 1. The
air permeability (kah) values obtained from the active depressurisation
tests showed a decrease trend when the compacted thickness of the
materials increased, which is compatible with the values obtained from
the small-scale tests. Furthermore, passive depressurisations tests were
performed to investigate performance of several common chimney
cowls available in the market, to be used in passive depressurisation
systems. From the test results, the best performance was observed for
rotating cowls, followed by the static open pipe and lastly, performance
of the pipe with a cap (Hung et al., 2019).
CFD simulations for the design of soil depressurisation systems in
practice were conducted. Numerical models to simulate behaviour of
Fig. 2. a) Diagram of test setup for Phase 1 and picture of the air permeability test apparatus in the lab; b) experimental configuration for Phase 2, test tank setup
with compacted granular fill materials (modified from Hung et al.. 2018a and Hung et al., 2019).
3
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 163 (2020) 109210
flow through standard T1 Struc and T2 Perm granular fill materials were
developed and then validated using experimental tests data. Among the
findings from CFD simulations, it was confirmed that the key input pa­
rameters to simulate the materials’ flow behaviour are effective particle
size, air permeability and porosity. Transient CFD simulations were
performed to investigate the pressure field extension (PFE) of the SD
systems, leading to the observation that T2 Perm material aggregate
layer induces a better soil PFE than T1 Struc, which suggests that the
standard T1 Struc material is not the optimum to be used for the sub-slab
layer of a SD systems. Thickness of the aggregate material layer and
hybrid granular fill layers was also investigated in order to obtain a
better PFE (Hung et al., 2018b).
To investigate the effectiveness of soil depressurisation for radon
prevention and mitigation within the international context of Europe,
work was conducted together with European collaborators. A bench­
mark study of granular fill material was carried out with Spanish stan­
dards, finding some similarities between the Irish T2 Perm material and
some of the Spanish materials analysed (Fuente et al., 2019a). Therefore,
although the results obtained apply to the considered conditions used in
the study, it could be assumed that outcomes from Irish granular fill
materials tested might have application to similar characteristics gran­
ular fill materials, such as the analysed Spanish standards.
Besides laboratory tests, a monitoring study was carried out in an
experimental house with extremely high levels of radon, located in a
Spanish old mine exploited to extract uranium (see Fig. 3). The case
study in the house examined the ability of active and passive SD systems
and their efficiency. Different testing phases were alternated to build up
radon concentration by closing the house completely and then testing
performance of the SD system. Several active radon monitors (Fuente
et al., 2018) and a system formed by various pressure sensors were used
to monitor variations of indoor radon concentration as a function of the
depressurisation induced and the PFE under the house slab in relation to
radon reductions.
A relatively homogeneous pressure distribution was found under the
house slab and from the analysis of the pressure field induced, it was
M. Fuente et al.
Fig. 3. a) Map of Spain locating the experimental house and recent photograph of the house; b) Section view of the experimental house and basement’s plan view
(modified from Fuente et al., 2019b and Frutos et al., 2011).
obtained that linear drop of the pressure induced at SD system suction
point is linearly proportional to the depressurisation in the sub-slab
layer. Reductions of the radon levels reached for all the SD system
variations tested were the over 85%, and from the active SD system
performance, under the given conditions of the experimental tests, a 20
W mechanical extractor was found to be sufficient to obtain optimal soil
depressurisation achieving 85% radon reduction (Fuente et al., 2019b).
To summarise, the monitoring study at the Spanish experimental
house makes a contribution to the specifications for the optimal per­
formance of soils depressurisation systems and the research outcomes
apply to dwellings with similar sub-lab layer characteristics and com­
parable building type.
4. Conclusions
A National Radon Control Strategy for Ireland was developed and
first published in 2014, with a four year implementation plan from 2014
to 2018. Phase 1 of the NRCS has finished and Phase 2 has been
launched in 2019 to continue addressing radon exposure from the
public, fulfilling EU 2013/59/EURATOM Directive requirement that has
been implemented in the Irish S.I. Regulations (NRCS, 2019c).
Among the achievements accomplished in the NRCS phase 1, in
relation to awareness raising, a dedicated website (www.radon.ie) was
launched in 2016 and several awareness campaigns were held across the
country, focused on the twelve priority counties with higher radon
levels, including the establishment of an annual “Radon Day” in
November. Several training courses were developed and are running,
one targeted to construction site staff on radon prevention and another
on radon remediation for local authorities, public bodies and radon
contractors. Regarding the use of property transaction to drive testing,
now contract of sale for homes include 3 radon questions. Registration
schemes for both radon remediation and radon measurement services
were established too, and a research survey to inform the development
4
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 163 (2020) 109210
of a national grant scheme was conducted, based on assessment of the
response to free radon testing offered in conjunction with a 50% grant
towards necessary remedial work (NRCS, 2019c).
Additionally, significant body of research was conducted. Key find­
ings from research include the knowledge that 1998 Building Regula­
tions implementation resulted in a 13% reduction of the radon exposure
average level, the updated figure of 300 radon related lung cancers per
year, and the development of a high-resolution radon risk map matching
radon measurement data with geological parameters that is envisaged to
replace the existing radon map (NRCS, 2019c). Regarding the OPTI-SDS
research project, suitability of standard types of granular fill materials
for radon extraction by SD was characterised and initial work on passive
SD effectiveness was studied. Outcomes are expected to inform the
revision of the Irish Building Regulations.
To be highlighted from the OPTI-SDS project, experimental tests and
numerical simulations conducted give insight to the air permeability
granular fill materials characterisation. Therefore, contributing to the
understanding of the optimal sub-slab aggregate layer to obtain the best
PFE when designing SD systems in practice. Besides, the case study on
the experimental house adds to the specification for SD systems in an
international broader context, in line with the implementation of the EU
Directive 2013/59/EURATOM.
National radon programmes mean an important effort to protect the
population from the arising dangers related to radon gas exposure,
which is considered a significant public health concern.
Indoor radon exposure is the most significant contribution to ionising
radiation exposure for the general public and the main cause of lung
cancer for non-smokers, being the responsible for 9% of lung cancer
deaths annually in the European Union (Darby et al., 2005). Thus, the
necessity to bring the radon problem to people’s attention as a risk to
human health needs to be emphasised.
M. Fuente et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the OPTI-SDS project, funded by the
Irish Environmental Protection Agency through Grant No. 2015-HW-
MS-5.
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