uEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Topic Checklist When baby is born in family, everybody looks for his/her resemblances to father and
a a
mother. Sometimes, the baby resembles one of his/her parent more and sometimes
Heredity, Variations a n d neither of them. All this occurs due to heredity.
Mendel's C o n t r i b u t i o n
Heredity deals with the resemblances and differences or variations among related
Variations organisms.
SexDetermination The biological science, which deals with the mechanism of heredity or inheritance and
OganicEvolution causes of variation within same species or between different species is termed as
anations in a Population
genetics.
Acquiredand Inherited
Trats
Speciation
Evolution: Classification,
Relationships and Stages
TOPIC Heredity, Variations and
Evolution and Classification Mendel's Contribution
Eolution by Stages
The transmission of characters or traits from one generation to other (trom parents
to
Evolution Versus Progress characters take
This inheritance of
offsprings) is known as inheritance or heredity.
may

rise t o
place during sexual or asexual reproduction. These reproductive processes give
new individuals which may differ in certain
characters o r traits.

VARIATIONS
the individuals of a species a r e called
The differences in the characters (traits) among
variations.
asexual mode of reproduction (due to the
Variations may also be produced during
but sexual reproduction produces a large
small inaccuracies in copying of DNA),
are seen
less v a r i a t i o n s n comparison to animals,
number of variations, e.g. in plants,
which reproduce mainly by sexual reproduction.
for organic evolution. These variations may be
Variations a r e beneficial and necessary
environmental or genetic.

Environmental Variations
which includes diet, chemicals, radiations and
These a r e caused by our environment,
environmental pollution.
Genetic Variations
In free carlobes, the carlobe is not attached to the side of
are caused by genetic differences
head and in attached carlobe, the earlobe is closely attache
Majority of the variations the side of the head. This trait is hereditary.
aise due to mutation, meiosis
in a population, which may
and sexual reproduction.
intluenced by both
Many other characteristics
are

environment and genes trom parents, e.g people

in
a

to be tall but unless they eat

family may have a tendency become tall.
properly at the growing age they may
not

Accumulation of Variations During

Reproduction
Inheritance from the previous generation provides both
common body design and subtle changes in it, for the next
generation. Now, when the new generation reproduces, the
second generation produced will have variations that they
inherit from the first generation, as well as newly created
difterenceS.
For example, if one bacterium divides and give rise to two
individuals, each of them will divide again and give rise to
two other individuals in the next generation. The four
individual bacteria generated would be very similar with
minor differences that occurred due to small inaccuracies in
copying of DNA. However, in sexual reproduction, greater
diversity will be generated. Depending upon the nature of
variations, different individuals would have different
advantages, like bacteria, which can withstand heat, will
survive berter in a heat wave.
(a) Free Earlobe (b) Attached Earlobe
a
Mendel's Contribution towards the
Inheritance of Traits
The rules for inheritance of traits in human beings are
relati
to the fact that both father and mother
contribute e
amount of genetic material to the child. This means that
ea
trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA
Thus, for each trait there will be two versions in the child
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
He was an Austrian Geneticist who. due to his
knowledge of mathematics, was thefirst to keep
count of individuals exhibiting a particular trait
in each generation to study inheritance patterns
in pea plants. Some of the basic laws of
inheritance were proposed by him and now he is
known to world as the Father of Genetics.

Significance of Variations
Mendel worked out the main rules of such inheritances.Th
) They form the basis of heredity.
heredity in most of the living organisms is found to
i) Adaptability to adverse conditions is brought about
regulated by certain definite principles. Mendel optedfu
by variations.
garden pea (Pisum sativum) to conduct his experiments. Hi
(iin) New varieties of an organism may arise due to the
experiments with garden pea along with the inferencesdraw
genetic variations laying the foundation for evolution.
together constitute, the foundation of modern genetics
ote Mutation sudden inheritable change in the gene or
is a
Mendel selected garden pea for his experiments because
chromosome, which usuaily produces a detectable effect in
organism concerned and is transmitted to the offsprings. )these grow quickly and are casier to study.
i ) pea plants can be crossed or self-pollinated and hawi
Inheritance of Traits flower structure that limits accidental contact.
Traits or
characteristics, which are passed on from parents ) garden pea has a number of easily detectab
to their
offspring generation to generation are controlled by contrasting characters.
genes. Due the differences in
to
Mendel's contributions were unique because of the us
genetic makeup human
populations show a
great deal of variations in expression of distinct variables and application of mathematics to th
various traits, e.g.
height,
nose, lips and ears, blood
skin colour, eye colour,
shape oft problem. He kept the record of each generation separ
groups, etc. and studied the inheritance of only one pair of charactes
Like attached and free relne

human
earlobes are two variants found in time. Before going further, we will discuss some tersre

earlobe.
populations. The lowest part of the ear is called the to inheritance of characters, so that we can
undeb
lerstand

Mendel's work in a better way.

 Heredityand Evolution
157
Important Terms and Definitions
Some used in Heredity More than a century ago, Mendel worked out the main ruies tor
inheritance.
Definition
Term
He performed following rwo experiments
A functional unit of heredity present on
Gene chromosomes of cell nucleus It is
1. Inheritance of Traits for
composed of DNA and codes for one
polynucleotide (protein) One Contrasting Character
It determines a particular character
Mendel took pea plants with different characteristics such as
(phenotype)
height (tall and short plants)
One of the different forms of a particuiar
The progeny produced from them
Allele gene, e g. hair colour
were all tall. Mendel then alowed
Fgeneration plants)
An allele, whose phenotype will be F, progeny plants to
Dominant allele
expressed even in the presence of another
undergo self-pollination.
I n the
allele of that gene. F,-generation, he found that all plants were not tall.
It is represented by a capital letter, e.g. T. three quarter were tall and one of them
quarter sho
This observation indicated that both the traits of shortness
were

Recessive allele An allele, which gets masked in the

and tallness were inherited in
presence of dominant alele and can only F -generation but only the
affect the phenotype in the absence of a tallness trait was expressed in
F-generation. This is known
dominant gene. as the law of dominance.
It is represented by a small letter, e.g.t.

Genotype Genetic composition of an individual.

Phenotype The expression of the genotype, which is an

observable or measurable characteristic.

Punnett square Probability diagram, ilustrating the possible

offsprings of mating.

Chromosome A long rod-like structure in a nucleus. It Tall Short Al tall chsprings

appears during cell division and is thought (TT)x (tt)
to carry genes.
PxP
Hybrid An individual having two different alleles for Mendel's experiment showing law of domnance
the same trait.
Monohybrid cross A hyoridisation cross in which inheritance of Two copies of the traits are inherited in each sexuualy
only one pair of contrasting characters is reproducing organism.
studied.
TT and Tt are phenotypically plants, whereas tt is a
tall
Dihybrid cross A cross in which inheritance of two pairs of short plant. For a plant to be tall, the singie copy of Tis
contrasting characters is simultaneously
enough. traits lt. Tisadominane trait while
Therefore, in
studied tis a recessive trait. In F-generation, boeh the characters
HomozygOUS A condition in which an individual are recovered, though one ot these
is not seen in stage.
possesses a pair of identical genes formation, the factor or allele of a pair
a given character and will breed
During gamete known as the law of
Controlling other. This is
true for this character (e.g. occurrence of segregate trom each
two identical alleles for tallness in aP, tall segregation.
pea plant).
Heterozygous A condition in which an individual has a pair
of contrasting genes for any one character

and will not breed true for this character

(e.g. existence of dominant and recessive
alleles in F hybrid tall pea
plant)
Progerny A descendant or offspring as a daughter alt Tall Snort
Tall
organism. Tall
(Tt) (T tt J
Gametes (T)(T)E

showing law of
set segregation
Heproductive cells containing only one Mendel's experiment
(haploid) of dissimilar chromosorme.
 2. Inheritance of Traits for Two Visible
Mendel took pea plants with two Contrasting Characters Parents
RRyY r

round seed and the other one withcontrasting characters, i.e. one with green a (Round green) (Wrinkled yello)
When the F, progeny was obtained
yellow wrinkled seed.
a

they had round and Gametes

establishing that round and yellow are dominant traits. yellow seeds,
thus
Fi-generation
Mendel then allowed the
Fprogeny to be
obtain F2 progeny. He found that seeds self-crossed (self-pollination) to
Rry
(Round yellow)
were round
wrinkled yellow and some were yellow, round green,
green wrinkled.
The ratio F
of plants
with above characteristics was 9:3:3:1,
respectively Fa-generation 315 round yellow
Ratio
(Mendel observed that two new 9
combinations had appeared in F2). 108 round green
C
InFa-generation, all the four characters were assorted out independent of the 101 wrinkled yellow ) 3
others. Therefore, he said that a pair of alternating or contrasting
behaves characters
independently of the other pair, i.e. seed colour is independent of
32winkled green 1
seed coat. This is known as the law of independent assortment. 556 seeds 16
Independent inheritance of two
Note

Always remember that the dominant trait is given in a capital letter (T) and the separate traits, shape and colour of
recessive trait is given in a small letter (t).

ASummary of Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

Law States That Parent Cross Offspring
Dominance When parent plants are pure for contrasting traits, only one TTxtt Tt (All tal)
form of the trait will appear in the next generation, that is known
(Tall) (Short)
as dominant trait (T). The hidden trait () is recessive
Segregation In F hybrid, the dominant and recessive traits though remain TtxTt 3:1
together for long time but do not mix with each other and
(Tall) (Tal) (Tall Short)
separate or segregate at the time of gamete formation.

independent The inheritance of one character is always independent of the RRyy x rrYY 9:3:3:1
Assortment inheritance of other character within the same individual.
(Round green, wrinkled yellow) (Round yellow: round green
wrinkled yellow: wrinkled green)

Basis of Expression of Traits

Cellular DNA is the source ofinformation for making proteins in the cell. A section of DNA that provides information tur
one particular protein is called a gene (unit of heredity that controls the characteristics of living organism).
For example, as we know that plants have hormones that can trigger growth so, the amount of plant hormone formed w
determine the plant's height. The amount of plant hormone made, will depend on the efficiency of the process for making it
works etticiently, a lot of hormones will be made (i.e. al
Consider an enzyme important for this process. If this enzyme
will be less efticient hence, amount of hormone produced will
olant). Ifthe gene for enzyme has an alteration, the enzyme
ess (i.e. small plant).This proves that the
traits (characters) are controlled by genes only. Just like plants, the traits in anima
from the parents by the process of sexual reproduction.
and human beings are also transmitted through genes
Mechanism of inheritance
Ifboth parents help to determine the trait in the progeny, both parents
must be contributing a copy same gene. ofthe
one inherited from each parent. So, each germ cell must
of all genes,
have on
Thus, each pea plant must have two sets
nd
one gene set.
thread of DNA but as separate independent pieces called chromosome 3
of gene is present not as a single
ont

Each set and

chromosome, one inherited from each parent, i.e. one from male parent
each cell will have two copies of each
from female parent. number of chromosomes in the progeny, ensuring
theywill restore the normal
germ cells combine,
is
When two the result of Mendel's experiments and
Such mechanism of inheritance explains
stability of the DNA of species.
reproducing organisms.
by all sexually and asexually
 159
SEX DETERMINATION
have either a male sexor a female sex.
can

rn individual is determined is called sex The process by which sex of

Aperson

by which sex is determined in determination. There are

a
strategies
factors are important in different species. In different
determining the
environmentali

some
sez of the species
individual.

reptiles the temperature at hich the

developing
cg in
offspring. In turtles, at high fertilised eggs are kept, determines
cg
the sex ofthe
tne
while inlizards,
it gives rise to more temperature more females are formed.
males. In other
can change sex in different conditions, animals, such
individ as snails,
genetically determined. indicating that sex is not ikase Femak
S
The determination of sex occurs
from the parents
largely by genetic control in human Gamee
genes
inherited
determine the sex of the
individual.
beings. The
fn human beings, there are 25 pairs of chromosomes, out
Cmes and one pair is sex chromosome. These sex of which 22 pairs are
males and females. A male has one X and one chromosomes vary in
ametes or
Y-chromosome, ie. half male
sperms will have short Y-chromosome and
Zygote
X-chromosome. A female has two X-chromosomes, i.e. allother half wil have
the female
(0va) will have only X-chromosome. gametes
All children obtain either chromosome from both
parents. Females have a perfecta Ofisprings
pair of sex chromosome (homogametic) and thus, contribure
both the sexes of progeny but males have a mismatched X-chromosome to

which one is X (normal sized) and the other is pair (heterogametic) in Femae lae
Y-chromosome (short in size). Sex determination in human beings
Hence, an egg fertilised by X carrying results in with XX, which
sperm a
zygote
becomes a female and if an egg is fertilised by Y carrying sperm, it results in a XY zygote that becomes male. Thus, the sex of
the children will be determined
by what they inherit from their father. A child who inherits an X-chromosome will be a girl
and one who inherits a
Y-chromosome will be a boy.
Allchildren will
inherit an X-chromosome from their mother, regardless of whether they are boys or girls.

Genetics
e
of inheritance form the basis of genetics. We study genetics because of is various practical applications.
rules
Practical applications of
genetics are
Animal husbandry Improvement of domestic animals.
G Legal
Legal application
appl Analysis of blood group is used to solve court cases of disputed parentage, baby mix in hospitals, ete.
un) Agriculture With the helo of genetic knowledge, plant breeders have succestuly produced several superior varieties of
different food crops.
TOPIC Organic Evolution
Ealtion or organic evolution is the sequence of
from simple life Suppose twelve red beetles live in bushes with
gradual
gradual changes
forms. i.e. trom primitive
forms to complex life
organisms that lived over population grows by sexual reproductiongreen and
leaves, their
variations. generates
illions otyears ago to new organisms that exist today.
In
Since. the evolution involves the living organisms, so it
a
population of beetles, variation
may occur through the
is called organic evolution. following means.
Evolution is all about changes, improvement and Situation I During reproduction, a colour variation may
modification of simple life forms. The theory of arise, which may lead to the production of a green beetle.
It passes the
evolution states that all living
things that exist today or green colour to its progeny.
existed before have evolved from As crows cannot see green coloured beetles
simple life forms. The on green leaves, so
evidence for evolution comes from the studies they cannot eat them.
According to Darvin, evolution is "Descent with
of fossils.
Hence, the grey ones continues be eaten and number of
to
Modifications'. green
beetles increases in the population. In this case, variation
gives a
survival advantage. The natural selection exerted by the crows
will lead to the survival of green beetles.
VARIATIONS IN A POPULATIOON
ariation refers the changes observed in
to
phenotype
and genorype, the individuals in a population or
berween parents and their offspring.
Survival due to the variation
 Situation I In another situation. a colour vaniation t proves that change in non-TegONductive z
passed on to the DNA of the germ ceils
arising during reproduction m a v result in a blue Deetie
instead of grey and all its progeny wil be bluc.Crows can see Inberieed araits thce dharacreristCS w h are
are
both blue and grey coloured bectles and therefore. can cat b ofisprings iroern their paremes (ie trom ome gmer
them. At the outset. there are a few blue becties and more of another because they are coerolied bry
grey beetles. Suddenly, an clephant stumps on the bushes
gems Sukir aok
Fhair and cyes. shape of nose. eariobes enc.
and kills most of the beetles. By chanoe, the few beetdes that
There is aiso restuftiang of
survived were mostly blue. which gradually increase in gme chromosome cha
number. This change in the frequenc of some genes ina dur1ng sparatsomo chremosomes at the te
gametogenesis and fertilisation whach night asea
population which provides diversity without any survivald
varnavon.
disadvantage is called genetic drif

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

Ht was t Brsh Trarahst vhn farmaiare s

atural sciecTim omd zresec The

Sheory
natural selection zlso knrum os DaraS
He was m arcompshed r u r a s t cnd hr als
comdiaczed StudhES om he oit of e r u m s

Darwin's theorr wa based inberited rairs

on
ad
variations.
Concept of genetic orift
The four observations are
Situation III The bushes catch a plant disease and the Individuals within a species diter rom each h
amount of leaf material for the beetles has reduced due to there is variationn.
expansion in population of beetes. As a result, the beedes are (i) Offsprings Tesemble their arems
poorly nourished and an average weight of an adult beeile characteristiCS are inheritad
has decreased. After a few (72) The number of offsprings
years, the plant disease may get proacad a e moe t
eliminated and there will be a lot of food for the beetles. the number sunIrad to reah
maturiv. l r s u
Then, they will regain their normal weight. In this case. from predation. disease and
oompeute
there is no genetic
change occurring. Hence, only a (i) Populations remain fairly conscant i
phenotypic variation between the organisms with identical
genotypes may arise. Origin of Life on Earth
When a species cannor evolve iast enough to Omete ma
Changing evironrment. i may berome encine Ths
happen.i the environment changes ery Qu
eg. extinction of rigers. esc
JBS Haldane a Brtish bidiosgs. biochemis an
evs
Phenotypic variation among population proposed in 192 that hre mus haue originared m
Simpie inorganac moietueS Whah migni hae ogaei
Earth throuugth a ong serieS phisSNhEmACB HangS
ACQUIRED AND Comple Organat moleTues that nere brgh anu .
chemical evoltOn This TAda change dY e
INHERITED TRAITS E
complex forms from sumpier fomms s Knoan s ogak
evolution.
The characteristics developed during the lifetime of an Stanley L Miller and Harold C U'rey n 5 ave a
individual, that cannot be passed on to its progeny are
experimental support 10 Haldane s they i r g *
termed as acquired traits (characters). The lifetime created an atmosphere sumaiar io that whach esa
experiences of an individual cannot be passed to their Earth icontain1ng hydrogen. ammon.a marhane. i
Sulphide ànd waièr vapour. but no ougeni e r u a
offsprings and are not controlled genetically aiTighi apparatus This was maintamed ar a e e r
For example, if we breed a group of mice and remove the below 100°C and sparks were nassed thrugh the m
**
tails of these mice by surgery, the progeny would not be gases hghienmng Ar n e end oi a weeh.
io stimulatè
the tarbon irom CR, had been : e e e sa
tailless because removal of the tail cannot change the genes of nakt
Compouncs.including amino acids which
germ cells of the mice and cannot direct the evolution. Thus, molecule
SPECIATION However, in breeding continues within the isolated
producing more and more generations. Eventually, populations
thc
Aspecies is defined as a group of interbreeding organisms
members of these two groups will be
that produce fertile offspring and are reproductively with each other even
incapable of reproducing
other groups.
if they happen to mcet. Over generations,
isolated from genetic drift accumulates different changes in a
isolation means that sexual reproduction Also, natural selection may also operate variablysub-population.
Reproductive in these
between different species is impossible because of the different geographic locations. c.g. in the
territory
of one
physical, ccological, behavioural, temporal or sub-population, crows may get eliminated by eagles. But this
developmental reasons. may not be the case in the other sub-population, whereas a
result the crow numbers will become very high. As an outcome
.Physical There may be a sea, mountain or desert
between them.
of this, the
green variation will not be selected at the first sire,
while it will be strongly selected at the second. Together, the
Behavioural Populations may have different processes of genetic drift and natural selection may make rwo
courtship patterns. isolated sub-populations more and more different from each
Temporal (time based) Plants may be flowering at other. This will lead to generation of new species.
different times. These new species may have developed

Ecological Species inhabit different places and () if the DNA changes are severe enough, such asa change
in the number of chromosomes, eventualy the germ
never meet up.
other.
cells of the two groups cannot fuse with each
Speciation is the development of one o r more species
which females are only able
trom an existing species. The geographical isolation (i1) if a new variation emerges in their
to mate with few males due
to specific trait. This
alopatric speciation) of two groups of population leads selection tor that trait.
to their reproductive isolation (sympatric speciation) due allows very strong natural
ecies irom
to which no genes are exchanged between them. is the formation of new
Note Allopatric speciation areas due to son phrsical
factor for occurring in ditferent
Geographical isolation is the major populations
barrier.Sympatric speciation
is the development
of new

Teproductive isolation in sexually reproducing animals species within

that area due to reproductive IScation,
muion
only, it cannot be in case of asexually reproducing etc.

organisms..
TOPIC Evolution:Classification,
Relationships and Stages
EVOLUTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Evolution is the process by which newer types of organisms are
from the pre-existing ones through modification.
developed
Characteristics are the details of appearance or behaviour; in
orher words, a particular form or a particular function.
cg. the forelimbs of human beings is a characteristic and that
the plants perform photosynthesis is also a characteristic
can
Classification is the arrangement of organisms intoa series of
groups based on physiological, biochemical, anatomical or
other relationships. All systems of dasification are hierarchial.
Hierarchy is a type of social organisation in which
individuals are ranked according to their status or
dominance relative to the membcrs of their groups.
Basic
Characteristics of an Organism
Ceil is the basic unit of lite in all
organasms.
Cells of some organisms do not have
organased
nucdeus, eg bacterial cell. while the cels of some
otherorganisms havea well-organised nucleus
Amongt organisms with nucleated celis, some are
unicellular and others are multicellular.
Arnong multicellular organisms also, some organismns
can manufacture their own food (photosynthesis)
while others cannot
Other difference berween unicellular and muiicellular
organisms is that some multicellular organisms have
skeleton inside the body, while others have skelenon
around the body.
Evolutionary Relationships with
Classification
The more dosely two species are related. the more
characteristics they will have in conmon and the more
recently they will have had their common ancestors. Let us
understand this concept with the help of an example as given
below.
A brother and a sister are closely related and they have a
common ancestor in the first generation before them.
i.e. their parents.
A girl and her first cousin are closely related but less related
than herbrother. The cousins havea common ancestor. 1.c.
their grandparents in the second generation. Thus.
evolutionary relationships are traced in the dassification ot
organisms.
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
In order to find out the evolutionary relationships among
organisms. their common features have to be looked upon.
These common features in different organisms point out
towards common ancestry. Evidenoes have been provided by
various fields as given below.
Homologous Organs
According to Darwin. more cdosely related species have
evolved from a common ancestor. The characteristics and
fundamentally similar structrures suggest the possibility of a
common ancestor. e.g. the forelimbs of vertebrates.
Such phenomenon of similarity of structure due to common
ancestry is known as homology.
Characteristics of homologous organs are given below
() Similar in basic structure and have the same
developmental origin.
(i) Have different functions in different organisms.
i ) Their similariry is due to common ancestry.
eg. the fordimbs of vertebrates (lizard, man, frog
and bird) have a similar strucrure, bur perform
different functions.
Pros ard
Human
Homologous organs showng
the forelimbs of vertebrates
Analogous Organs
The organs, which have different origin and basic stru
but show similar appearance and pertorm i
(plan). of bat
functions too, e.g wings of birds and wings
Characteristics of analogous organs are as listed below
(i) Differ in basic structure.
(in Resemble cach oxher in function
(i) Their similaricy is a superficial resemblance.
e.g. the wings of bats and birds are different in their struc
and origin but have same function of fiying
Bird
Analogous organs showing the wing
of a bird and the wing of a bat
Vestigial Organs
These are organs that have been reduced or diminished
size during evolution. There are abour 180 vestigial parsa
humans. Some of them are vermiform appendix, bodyh
nictitating membrane, coccyx or tail bone, wisdom terh.
pinna muscles, canines, etc.
Fossils
These are the dead and decayed remains of organisms ie
the geological past, i.e. preserved traces of living orgmi
that lived millions ofyears ago.It is not always necessary
every part of a dead organism decomposes, e.g. a dead izs
caught in a hot mud. The mud does not allow the insea
decompose quickly. On the contrary, the mud
eventually harden and retain the impression of the bo
parts of the insect. This provides us evidence about
presence of insect and also tells us about the strucTure of
s
insect.
Imprints of leaves, stems, footprints, skin impressions
othertraces provide indirect evidences of past life. In o
words, fossils record helps us to analyse the connec
between the Earth's and life's evolution. By this, we
reconstruCt the patterns and trends that existed in the his
f life. Science of fossils is known as palacontology.
Kinds of Fossils
rebras
Fosils are of various kinds like tree trunk fossils, inverte
fossils (Ammonite), fish fossils (Knightia) and dinosa
fossils (Rajasaurus recently found in Narmada
det
depending upon their differences in appearance and
and mode of preservation.
 is the connectingg link
Arbveoprera
between
Ass This because, it has feathered wings and birds
is
iles butrteeth aid tail like those
hut beak Diagram Detall
thase
of
bircds,

birds have evolved from

of reptiles. So
ike ed that
s evidenee reptiles, Thus.
Asws provide that living beings (plants and
The mud also gof compressed
into rocks, Over the earlier rocks
that exist today have originated from
animals)

arough the pocess of organic evolution. primitive containing earlier invertebraie

fossils
porneres
Dating o f Fossils

by which we can Again miflions of years later, the

here a r e
rwao Ways
way determine the age of bodies of horse-like creatures
fasss
were also fossilised in rocks
I fwe start digging the Earth and find fossils, the above the rocks containing
dinosaur fossils
deepest layers generall contain the oldest fossils, as
compared to the surtace layers.
Relative position of the rock and the rate of its
Later then, due to erosion, MEBtEr
erosion can also indicate the same. flowed and exposed the
( Carbon dating can also be used. In this, the age of the horse-like fossils. On digging
deeper, ore can find older
fossil can be determined by measuring the ratio of the
different isotopes of carbon element in the fossil fossits
material.

Uses of Fossils
EVOLUTION BY STAGES
To determine the history of plants and animals. Complicated organs, such as the eyes are selected for an
(i These give us an idea about evolution. advantage that they are not generated by a
single DNA
(it) These give us an idea about climatic conditions of change. Such complex organs are created bit by bir
Earth in the past. Over generations and seem to be a very popular adaptation
(ir) Ir helps us to analyse the geological time scale. The structure is different in different organisms and is
sufficient enough to suggest separate evolutionary origins.
Note Geological time scale is a system of chronological Feathers, e.g. evolved to provide insulation in cold weather,
measurement that relates stratigraphy to time and is used but later were adapted to be used for flight in animals ike
by palaeontologists, geologists and other Earth scientists to birds. In fact, some dinosaurs had feathers too, although they
describe the timing and relationships between events that
have occurred throughout Earth's history. could notfly using them. Thus, we can infer that birds are
since dinosaurs were reptiles
very closely related to reptiles,
Fossil Formation (Fossilisation) Sometimes, dissimilar appearing strucrures also
evolved from
can be
Fossils are formed layer by layer in a sequence. It is a siow common ancestors. Thus, evolutionary relationship
fossils. To study such evolutionary
process that is totally dependent on where the organism cstablished by studying
of the one current example is ot wild cabbage plant.
sLenerally, fossils are formed from the hard parts relationship,
Humans have, cultivated
wild cabbage tor more than two
organism,such as tree trunks or skull. and generated ditferent
thousand years as tood plant
selection. This is artiticial selection
Process of Fossilisation vegetables from it by
of species by selective breeding by nan)
Diagram Detail (i.e. modification selection. Varieties like cauliflower,
rather than natural
kohlrabi and kale have
-

About 100 million years ago,

died on the broccoli, cabbage, red cabbage,
Some invertebrates c o m m o n ancestor,
i.e. wild cabbage.
sea bed and got
buried in the evolved from a the
more relationships depends on
sand. As time passed, The tracing of evolutionary are
sand accumulated and in DNA during reproduction
sand-stones were formed. original idea that changes This method is extensively used
evolution.
basic events of as comparing
detine evolutionary relationship
these days to estimate of how
the us a direct
Millions of years later, ditferent species gives
in the a r e a and the DNA of the formation of
DNA has changed during
dinosaurs died
mud. much the
were buried in the
different species.
 Allinone sCIENCE Class10th Term
170
More and more complex body designs have emerged over the
Molecular Phylogeny time during evolution, but that doesn't mean older and
of related group of
is the evolutionary history
Phylogeny
organisms. Molecular traces the evolutionary
phylogeny simpler life forms were inefficient. Many of these life forms
that a r e m o r e still survive, e.g. bacteria, the simplest life form can survive
relationships the concept that organisms,
on
number of difference in
distantly related will have a greater even in critical environmental conditions (like hot spring
is greatest among the most closely
their DNA. DNA similarity
related species and least among the
most distant. deep-sea thermal vents and the ice in Antarctica).
Human Evolution
EVOLUTION VERSUS PROGRESS There is a great diversity of human forms and features across
the planet. The tools used to trace evolutionary relationships
Evolution should not be equated with progress. There is no
have also been used for studying human evolution.
real progress in the concept of evolution. It is simply the and studying fossils well
i.e. excavating, time dating as as,

generation of diversity by natural selection and its shaping determining DNA sequences.
by environmental selection.
and the Skin colour used to be the commonest way for identifying the
The concept of evolution is not that the animals races due to the diversified
forms of human and their fearures.
from each other or
plants, we see around us have evolved However, there is no biological basis to the notion of human
that after the evolution of one species the other got are of a single species. The earliest member
races. All humans
eliminated. depend
It will all on the environment. It is just
led to of the human species, Homo sapiens can be traced to Africa.
that natural selection and genetic drift have together A couple of hundred thousand years ago, some of our
with
the formation of a population that cannot reproduce ancestors left Africa, while others stayed back,
the original one. Infact, some species
share similar features
ancestor. Take for .The residents spread across Africa and the migrants
as they evolved from a common

and chimpanzees. It is snread across the planet trom Africa to West Asia,
example, the case of human beings have evolved from Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia, East Asia, Indonesia.
not true that human beings
and chimpanzees
more share Philippines, Australia and America.
chimpanzees. Rather, humans
of apes, which m e a n s that They did not go in a straight line, so they were not
similarities than the other types
recent ancestor or common
visiting diterent places just for the purpose
purpose of
o
share a more
they probably travelling.
than the others.
ancestor

illustrates, how
humans and .They instead went
forward and
backward with group
shown below
The diagram ancestor. separating from each other or
sometimes coming
have evolved from a
common

together.
back
ing back
apes may
Human
. Like, all other speCies on the planet,
Chimpanzee
Gorilla existence as an accident of evolution
they had come into
Orangutan n to live their lives to the best of and were also
their abilities.
Common Ancestor