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Analog and Digital Communication (ELE-323) Lecture # 12

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 Analog and Digital
Communication (ELE-323)

Lecture # 12
Dr. Uzma Nawaz 8/23/2020

Course Instructor: Dr. Uzma Nawaz

 Contents

• Digital Communication System

• Line Coding
• Baseband Transmission

Dr. Uzma Nawaz 8/23/2020

Digital Communication System

A digital communication system is made up of several components:

1. Source
2. Multiplexer
3. Line Coder
4. Regenerative Repeater

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Digital Communication System
1. Source:
The input to a digital system is in the form of a sequence of digits. The input
could be the output from such sources as a:
● data set,
● a computer,
● a digitized voice signal (PCM or DM),
● a digital facsimile or television, or telemetry equipment.
Communication schemes using only two symbols 0 and 1 (binary digits). A more
general case is M-ary communication.

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Digital Communication System
2. Multiplexer:
A Multiplexer is a device that allows one of several analog or digital input
signals which are to be selected and transmits the input into a single
medium. Multiplexer is also known as Data Selector.
 Generally, the capacity of a practical channel transmitting data is much larger than
the data rate of individual sources.
 To utilize this capacity effectively, combining several sources through a digital
multiplexer using the process of interleaving results in a channel i.e. time-shared
by several messages simultaneously.
Interleaving is a process or methodology to make a system more efficient, fast and
reliable by arranging data in a noncontiguous manner and is applied prior to
modulation to provide robustness against error propagation.
The processes of rearranging the bits to allows the error correction algorithms to
correct more of the errors that could have occurred during transmission.
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Digital Communication System
3. Line Coder:
The output of a multiplexer is coded into electrical pulses or waveform for the
purpose of transmission over the channel. This process is called line coding or
transmission coding.
There are many possible ways of assigning waveforms (pulses) to the digital data.
 In the binary case (two symbols), for example, the simplest line code is on-off,
where a 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and 0 is transmitted by no pulse (zero
signal), as shown:

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 Digital Communication System
 Another commonly used code is polar, where 1 transmitted by a pulse p(t) and 0 is
transmitted by a pulse -p(t) as shown:

The polar scheme is the most power efficient code, because for a given noise immunity (error
probability) this code requires the least power.
 Another popular code in PCM is bipolar also known as pseudoternary or alternate mark
inversion (AMI), where 0 is enclosed by no pulse and 1 is enclosed by p(t)or -p(t),
depending on whether the previous 1 is enclosed by -p(t)or p(t). In short, pulses
representing consecutive 1’s alternate in sign, as shown:
This code has the advantage that if
an error is made in the detection of
pulses, the received pulse sequence
will violate the bipolar rule and the
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error is immediately detected
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(although not corrected).
Digital Communication System
These on-off , polar and bipolar codes were half-width pulses, full-width pulses are often used
in some applications.
 Whenever full-width pulsed are used, the pulse amplitude is held to a constant value
throughout the pulse interval (it does not have a chance to go to zero before the next
pulse begins).
 For this reason these schemes are called nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) schemes in contrast
to return-to-zero (RZ) schemes (on-off, polar, bipolar).

On-off NRZ

Polar NRZ
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Digital Communication System
4. Regenerative Repeater
Regenerative repeaters are used at regularly spaced intervals along a digital
transmission line to detect the incoming digital signal and regenerate new clean
pulses for further transmission along the line.
This process periodically eliminates and thereby combats the accumulation of noise
and signal distortion along the transmission path.
● If the pulses are transmitted at a rate of 𝑅𝑏 pulses per second, periodic timing
information (the clock signal at 𝑅𝑏 Hz)is required to sample the incoming pulses at
a repeater.
● This timing information can be extracted from the received signal itself if the line
code is chosen properly.
● for example, The polar signal when rectified, results in a periodic signal of clock
frequency 𝑅𝑏 Hz, which contains the desired periodic timing signal of frequency 𝑅𝑏
Hz.
● When this signal is applied to a resonant circuit tuned to frequency 𝑅𝑏 , the output
is a sinusoid of frequency 𝑅𝑏 Hz, can be used for timing.
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 Digital Communication System

 The on-off signal can be expressed as the sum

of a periodic signal (of clock frequency) and a
polar signal as shown:
 Because of the presence of the periodic
component, the timing information can be
extracted from this signal using a resonant
circuit tuned to the clock frequency.
 A bipolar signal, when rectified, becomes an on-
off signal. Hence, its timing information can be
extracted the same way as that for an on-off
signal.

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Digital Communication System

The timing signal (the resonant circuit output) is sensitive to the incoming bit pattern.
 In the on-off or bipolar case, a 0 is transmitted by “no pulse”.
If there are too many 0`s in a sequence (no pulse), there is no signal at the input of the
resonant circuit and the sinusoidal output of the resonant circuit starts decaying, thus
causing error in the timing information.
 A line code in which the bit pattern does not affect the accuracy of the timing
information is said to be a transparent line code.
 The polar scheme (where each bit is transmitted by some pulse) is transparent,
whereas the on-off and bipolar schemes are non transparent.

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 Digital Communication System

Block
diagram

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Digital Communication System

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Line Coding
Digital data can be transmitted by various transmission or line codes, such as on-off, polar,
bipolar, and so on. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Among other desirable
properties, a line code should have the following properties:
1. Transmission Bandwidth: it should be as small as possible.
2. Power Efficiency: For a given bandwidth and a specified detection error probability, the
transmitted power should be as small as possible.
3. Error detection and correction capability: it should be possible to detect, and preferably
correct, detection errors. In a bipolar case, a single error will cause bipolar violation and
can easily be detected.
4. Favorable power spectral density: It is desirable to have zero PSD at w=0 (dc), because ac
coupling and transformers are used at the repeaters. Significant power in low-frequency
components causes dc wander in the pulse stream when ac coupling is used. The ac
coupling is required because the dc paths provided by the cable pairs between the
repeater sites are used to transmit the power required to operate the repeaters.

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 Line Coding
5. Adequate timing content: it should be possible to extract timing of clock information
from the signal.
6. Transparency: it should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of
the pattern of 1`s or 0`s.
As a long string of 0`s could cause errors in timing extraction in on-off and bipolar
cases. If the data are so coded, that for every possible sequence of data the coded
signal is received faithfully, the code is transparent.

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 Baseband Transmission
 Waveform Representation of Binary
Digits:
Analog waveforms are transformed into binary digits
using PCM.
There is nothing “physical” about the digits resulting
from this process. Digits are just abstractions - i.e. a
way to describe the message information. Thus, PCM Sequence
something physical is required to represent or “carry”
the digits.
 Electrical pulses are used to represent the binary
digits, in order to transmit them through a
baseband channel as shown
 Codeword time slots are shown in figure a, where
the code word is a 4-bit representation of each Pulse Representation of PCM
quantized sample.
 In figure b, each binary one is represented by a
pulse and each binary zero is represented by the
absence of a pulse.
Thus a sequence of electrical pulses having the
pattern shown in figure b, can be used to transmit the
information in the PCM bit stream, and hence the Pulse waveform 8/23/2020
information in the quantized samples of a message.
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 Baseband Transmission
 At the receiver, a determination must be
made to the presence or absence of a pulse
in each bit time slot.
There is an advantage in making the pulse
width T’ as wide a possible i.e. to correctly
detect the pulse as area under pulse or pulse
energy.
 If we increase the pulse width to the
maximum possible (equal to the bit time T),
as shown in figure c.
 The waveform can be described as a
sequence of transitions between two levels.
When the waveform occupies the upper
voltage level it represents a binary one;
when it occupies the lower voltage level it
represents a binary zero.
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 Baseband Transmission
 PCM Waveform Types:
When pulse modulation is applied to a binary
symbol, the resulting binary waveform is called a
pulse-code modulation (PCM) waveform.
 In telephony applications, these waveform are
often called line codes.
When pulse modulation is applied to a non binary
symbol, the resulting waveform is called an M-ary
pulse-modulation waveform.
 There are several types of PCM waveforms that
falls in four groups.
1. Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)
2. Return-to-zero (RZ)
3. Phase encoded
4. Multilevel binary
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 Baseband Transmission
1. Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ):
The NRZ group is probably the most commonly used PCM waveform.
It can be partitioned into following subgroups:
i. NRZ-L (L for Level): A binary one is represented by one voltage level and a binary
zero is represented by another voltage level.
ii. NRZ-M (M for Mark): With NRZ-M, the one or mark is represented by a change in
level and the zero or space is represented by no change in level. This is often referred to
as differential encoding. NRZ-M is used primarily in magnetic tape recording.
iii. NRZ-S (S for space): NRZ-S is the complement of NRZ-M: A one is represented
by no change in level and a zero is represented by a change in level.
NRZ-L is used extensively in digital logic circuits.

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Baseband Transmission
2. Return-to-zero (RZ):
The RZ waveforms consists of:
i. Unipolar-RZ,
ii. Bipolar-RZ, and
iii. RZ-AMI
These codes find application in baseband data transmission and in magnetic recording.
i. Unipolar-RZ: a one is represented by a half-bit-wide pulse , and a zero is
represented by the absence of a pulse.
ii. Bipolar-RZ: the ones and zeros are represented by opposite-level pulses that are
one-half bit wide. There is a pulse present in each bit interval.
iii. RZ-AMI: (AMI for “alternate mark inversion”) is a signalling scheme used in
telephone system. The ones are represented by equal-amplitude alternating pulses.
The zeros are represented by the absence of pulses.

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 Baseband Transmission
3. Phase encoded:
The phase-encoded group consist of:
i. bi-ø-L (bi-phase-level) also known as Manchester coding
ii. bi-ø-M (bi-phase-mark)
iii. biø-S (bi-phase-space)
iv. Delay modulation (DM) or Miller coding
i. bi-ø-L: one is represented by a half-bit-wide pulse positioned during the first half of the
bit interval; a zero is represented by a half-bit-wide pulse positioned during the second half
of the bit interval.
ii. Bi-ø-M: a transition occurs at the beginning of every bit interval. A one is represented
by a second transition one-half bit interval later; a zero is represented by no second
transition.
iii. bi-ø-S: a transition also occurs at the beginning of every bit interval. A one is
represented by no second transition; a zero is represented by a second transition one half
bit interval later.
iv. Delay modulation: a one is represented by a transition at the midpoint of the bit
interval. A zero is represented by no transition, unless it is followed by another zero. In this
case a transition is placed at the end of the bit interval of the first zero
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The phase-encoding schemes are used in magnetic recording systems an optical communication and
in some satellite telemetry links.
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Baseband Transmission
4. Multilevel binary:
Many binary waveforms use three levels, instead of two, to encode
the binary data. Bipolar RZ and RZ-AMI belong to this group.
The group also contains formats called dicode and duobinary.
i. Dicode-NRZ: the one-to-zero or zero-to-one data transition changes the pulse
polarity without a data transition, the zero level is sent.
ii. Dicode-RZ: the one-to-zero or zero-to-one transition produces a half-duration
polarity change otherwise a zero level is sent.

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 Baseband Transmission
Each type of PCM waveform has its performance characteristics. In choosing a PCM
waveform for a particular application, some of the parameters worth examining are the
following:
1. Dc component: Eliminating the dc energy from the signal`s power spectrum enables
the system to be ac coupled. Magnetic recording systems, or systems using
transformer coupling, have little sensitivity to very low frequency signal components.
Thus low-frequency could be lost.
2. Self-Clocking: Symbol orbit synchronization is required for any digital
communication system. Some PCM coding schemes have inherent synchronizing or
clock features that aid in the recovery of the clock signal. For example, the
Manchester code (bi-ø-L) has a transition in the middle of every bit interval whether a
one or a zero is being sent. This guaranteed transition provides a clocking signal.
3. Error detection: Some schemes such as duobinary, provide the means of detecting
data errors without introducing additional error-detection bits into the data sequence.

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 Baseband Transmission
4. Bandwidth compression: Some schemes such as multilevel codes, increase
the efficiency of bandwidth utilization by allowing a reduction is required
bandwidth for a given data rate; thus there is more information transmitted
per unit bandwidth.
5. Differential encoding: This technique is useful because it allows the polarity
of differentially encoded waveforms to be inverted without affecting the data
detection.
In communication systems where waveforms sometimes experience
inversion, this is a great advantage.
6. Noise immunity: The various PCM waveform types can be further
characterized by probability of bit error versus signal-to-noise ratio.
Some of the schemes are more immune than other to noise. For example,
the NRZ waveforms have better error performance than the unipolar RZ
waveform.

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 Baseband Transmission
 Spectral Attributes of PCM
Waveforms:
The most common criteria used for comparing
PCM waveforms and for selecting one waveform
type from the many available are:
i. spectral characteristics
ii. bit synchronization capabilities
iii. error-detecting capabilities
iv. interference and noise immunity
v. cost and complexity of implementation
Figure shows the spectral characteristics of some of
the most popular PCM waveforms.

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 Baseband Transmission
 The figure plots power spectral density in watts/hertz versus normalized bandwidth WT
where W is the bandwidth and T is the duration of the pulse. WT is often referred to as the
time-bandwidth product of the signal.
 The pulse or symbol rate 𝑅𝑠 is the reciprocal of T. Therefore, normalized bandwidth can
also be expressed as W/𝑹𝒔 .
 Units of normalized bandwidth are hertz/(pulse/s) or hertz/(symbol/s).
This is a relative measure of bandwidth; it is valuable because it describes how efficiently the
transmission bandwidth is being utilized for each waveform of interest.

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 Baseband Transmission
 Any waveform type that requires less than 1.0 Hz for sending 1 symbol/s is
relatively bandwidth efficient. For example, delay modulation and duobinary.
 Any waveform type that requires more than 1.0 Hz for sending 1 symbol/s is
relatively bandwidth inefficient. For example, bi-phase (Manchester) signalling.
The spectral concentration of signalling energy for each waveform type. For
example, NRZ and duobinary schemes have large spectral components at dc and
low frequency, while bi-phase has no energy at dc.
 An important parameter for measuring bandwidth efficiency is R/W having units
of bits/hz. This measure involves data rate rather than symbol rate.
For a given signalling scheme, R/W describes how much data throughput can be
transmitted for each Hertz of available bandwidth.

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