(1.) What is Machine learning? How it work?

Ans:-Machine Learning is a sub-area of artificial intelligence, whereby the term refers to the ability of IT
systems to independently find solutions to problems by recognizing patterns in databases. In other
words: Machine Learning enables IT systems to recognize patterns on the basis of existing algorithms
and data sets and to develop adequate solution concepts. Therefore, in Machine Learning, artificial
knowledge is generated on the basis of experience.

-In order to enable the software to independently generate solutions, the prior action of people is
necessary. For example, the required algorithms and data must be fed into the systems in advance and
the respective analysis rules for the recognition of patterns in the data stock must be defined. Once
these two steps have been completed, the system can perform the following tasks by Machine Learning:

•Finding, extracting and summarizing relevant data

•Making predictions based on the analysis data

•Calculating probabilities for specific results

•Adapting to certain developments autonomously

•Optimizing processes based on recognized patterns

♠Machine Learning: How it works

- In a way, Machine Learning works in a similar way to human learning. For example, if a child is shown
images with specific objects on them, they can learn to identify and differentiate between them.
Machine Learming works in the same way: Through data input and certain commands, the computer is
enabled to “learn” to identify certain objects (persons, objects, etc.) and to distinguish between them.
For this purpose, the software is supplied with data and trained. For instance, the programmer can tell
the system that a particular object is a human being (=”human”) and another object is not a human
being (=”no human”). The software receives continuous feedback from the programmer. These
feedback signals are used by the algorithm to adapt and optimize the model. With each new data set fed
into the system, the model is further optimized so that it can clearly distinguish between “humans” and
“non-humans” in the end. As a discipline it has its predecessors (Al), and it has been evolving in stages of
increasing complexity in the following four clearly differentiated steps:

1. The first stage of ML concerned on rule-based (condition-based) decisions and a straightforward level
of data-based algorithms that includes in itself, and as a requirement, all the feasible ramifications and
decision rules, implying that all the feasible alternatives will be hardcoded into the model in advance by
an specialist in the field. This formation was implemented in the majority of applications developed
since the first programming languages appeared in 1950. The main data type and function being
handled by this kind of algorithm is the Boolean, as it solely deal with yes or no decisions.

2. During the second stage of statistical reasoning, we started to let the probabilistic features of the data
have a say, in addition to the preceding choices set up in advance. This better reflects the unclear nature
of real-world problems, where outliers are common and where it is more important to take into account
the nondeterministic tendencies of the data than the inflexible approach of fixed questions. This
discipline adds to the mix of mathematical tools elements of Bayesian probability theory. Methods
pertaining to this category include curve fitting (usually of linear or polynomial), which has the common
property of working with numerical data.

3. The machine learning stage is the territory in which we are going to be working throughout this unit,
and it involves more difficult tasks than the simplest Bayesian elements of the previous stage. The most
exceptional feature of machine learning algorithms is that they can simplify models from data but the
models are capable of generating their own feature selectors, which are not limited by a inflexible target
function, as they are generated and defined as the training process evolves. Another differentiator of
this kind of model is that they can take a large range of data types as input, such as speech, images,
video, text, and other data susceptible to being represented as vectors.

4. Artificial Intelligence is the last step in the level of abstraction capabilities that, in a way, include all
previous algorithm types, but with one key difference: AI algorithms are able to apply the learned
knowledge to solve tasks that had never been measured during training. The types of data with which
this algorithm works are even more nonspecific than the types of data supported by machine learning,
and they should be able, by definition, to transfer problem-solving capabilities from one data type to
another, without a complete retraining of the model. In this way, we could develop an algorithm for
object discovery in black and white images and the model could abstract the information to apply the
model to color images.

(2.)Unsupervised problem solving-clustering ?

-The vast majority of unsupervised problem solving consists of grouping items by looking at similarities
or the value of shared features of the observed items, because there is no certain information about the
apriori classes. This type of technique is called clustering.

•Clustering:-Clustering is used to find similarities and differences. It groups similar things together. Here
we don’t provide any labels, but the system can understand data itself and cluster it well. Unlike
classification, the final output labels are not known beforehand.

-This kind of algorithm can help us solve many obstacles, like create clusters of similar tweets based on
their content, find groups of photos with similar cars, or identify different types of news.

-Outside of these main problem types, there is a mix of both, which is called semi- supervised problem
solving, in which we can train a labelled set of elements and also use inference to assign information to
unlabeled data during training time. To assign data to unknown entities, three main criteria are used-
smoothness (points close to each other are of the same class), cluster (data tends to form clusters, a
special case of smoothness), and manifold (data pertains to a manifold of much lower dimensionality
than the original domain).

(3.)Why the model works on new data?

- Why is a machine-leamed model capable of predicting correctly the labels of new, previously unseen
examples? To understand that, look at the plot in below given Figure. If two classes are separable from
one another by a decision boundary, then, obviously, examples that belong to each class are located in
two different subspaces which the decision boundary creates.

- If the examples used for training were selected randomly, independently of one another, and following
the same procedure, then, statistically, it is more likely that the new negative example will be located on
the plot somewhere not too far from other negative examples. The same concerns the new positive
example: it will likely come from the surroundings of other positive examples. In such a case, our
decision boundary will still, with high probability, separate well new positive and negative examples
from one another. For other, less likely situations, our model will make errors, but because such
situations are less likely, the number of errors will likely be smaller than the number of correct
predictions.

- Naturally, the larger is the set of training examples, the more unlikely that the new examples will be
dissimilar to (and lie on the plot far from) the examples used for training. To minimize the probability of
making errors on new examples, the SVM algorithm, by looking for the largest margin, explicitly tries to
draw the decision boundary in such a way that it lies as far as possible from examples of both classes.
The reader interested in knowing more about the learnability and understanding the close relationship
between the model error, the size of the training set, the form of the mathematical equation that
defines the model, and the time it takes to build the model is encouraged PAC (for “probably
approximately correct”) learning theory helps to analyze whether and under what conditions a learning
algorithm will probably output an approximately correct classifier.

(4.)How Supervised Learning works. (Using Example)?

For example, you want to train a machine to help you predict how long it will take you to drive home
from your workplace. Here, you start by creating a set of labelled data. This data includes

•Weather conditions

• Time of the day

• Holidays

-All these details are your inputs. The output is the amount of time it took to drive back home on that
specific day.

-You instinctively know that if it’s raining outside, then it will take you longer to drive home. But the
machine needs data and statistics.

-Let’s see now how you can develop a supervised learning model of this example which help the user to
determine the commute time. The first thing you require to create is a training set. This training set will
contain the total travel time and corresponding factors like weather, time, etc. Based on this training
set, your machine might see there’s a direct relationship between the amount of rain and time you will
take to get home.

-So, it ascertains that the more it rains, the longer you will be driving to get back to your home. It might
also see the connection between the time you leave work and the time you’ll be on the road.
-The closer you’re to 6 p.m. the longer it takes for you to get home. Your machine may find some of the
relationships with your labelled data.

-This is the start of your Data Model. It begins to impact how rain impacts the way people drive. It also
starts to see that more people travel during a particular time of day.

Basically, algorithms play an important role in Machine Learning: On the one hand, they are responsible
for recognizing patterns and on the other hand, they can generate solutions. Algorithms can be divided
into different categories:

4.6.1 Supervised Learning

Supervised machine learning builds a model that makes predictions based on evidence in the presence
of uncertainty. A supervised learning algorithm takes known set of input data and known responses to
the data (output) and trains a model to generate reasonable predictions for the response to new data.
Use supervised learning if you have known data for the output you are trying to predict.

Supervised learning uses classification and regression techniques to develop predictive models.

Classification techniques:-predict discrete responses-for example, whether an email is genuine or spam,

or whether a tumor is cancerous or benign Classification models classify input data into categories.
Typical applications include medical imaging, speech recognition, and credit scoring.

Use classification if your data can be tagged, categorized, or separated into specific groups or classes.
For example, applications for hand-writing recognition use classification to recognize letters and
numbers. In image processing and computer vision, unsupervised pattern recognition techniques are
used for object detection and image segmentation.
Common algorithms for performing classification include support vector machine (SVM), boosted and
bagged decision trees, k-nearest neighbor, Naïve Bayes,discriminant analysis, logistic regression, and
neural networks.

Regression techniques:-predict continuous responses-for example, changes in temperature or

fluctuations in power demand. Typical applications include electricity load forecasting and algorithmic
trading.

Use regression techniques if you are working with a data range or if the nature of your response is a real
number, such as temperature or the time until failure for a piece of equipment.

Common regression algorithms include linear model, nonlinear model, regularization, stepwise
regression, boosted and bagged decision trees, neural networks, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy learning.

Resulting Supervised learning algorithms are task-oriented. As we provide it with more and more
examples, it is able to learn more properly so that it can undertake the task and yield us the output
more accurately. Some of the algorithms which are mentioned in regression and in classification that
come under supervised learning are summarized below:

• Linear Regression

In linear regression, we measure the linear relationship between two or more than two variables. Based
on this relationship, we perform predictions that follow this linear pattern.

•Random Forest

Random Forests are an ensemble learning method that is for performing classification, regression as
well as other tasks through the construction of decision trees and providing the output as a class which
is the mode or mean of the underlying individual trees.
•Gradient Boosting

Gradient Boosting is an ensemble learning method that is a collection of several weak decision trees
which results in a powerful classifier.

•Support Vector Machine

SVMs are powerful classifiers that are used for classifying the binary dataset into two classes with the
help of hyperplanes.

•Logistic Regression

It makes use of a bell-shaped S curve that is generated with the help of logit function to categorize the
data into their respective classes.

• Artificial Neural Networks

Artificial Neural Networks are modeled after the human brain and they learn from the data over time.
They form a much larger portion of machine learning called Deep Learning.

Unsupervised Learning

In the case of unsupervised learning algorithm, the data is not explicitly labelled into different classes,
that is, there are no labels. The model is able to learn from the data by finding implicit patterns.
Unsupervised Learning algorithms identify the data based on their densities, structures, similar
segments, and other similar features. Unsupervised Learning Algorithms are based on Hebbian Learning.

Cluster analysis is one of the most widely used techniques in supervised learning. Let us look at some of
the important algorithms that come under Unsupervised Learning.

Common algorithms for performing clustering include k-means and k-medoids, hierarchical clustering,
Gaussian mixture models, hidden Markov models, self organizing maps, fuzzy c-means clustering, and
subtractive clustering.
CLUSTERING

Clustering, also known as cluster analysis, is a technique of grouping similar sets of objects in the same
group that is different from the objects in other group. Some of the essential clustering techniques
which are mentioned above are summarized as follows –

a) K-means

The aim of the k-means clustering algorithm is to partition the n observations in the data into k clusters
such that each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean. This serves as the prototype of
the cluster.

b) DBSCAN

This is a clustering method that groups the data based on the density. It groups together the points that
are given in the space and marks the outliers in the low-density region.

c)Hierarchical clustering

In this form of clustering, a hierarchy of clusters is built.

Anomaly Detection

Anomaly Detection techniques detect outliers in the unlabeled data under an assumption that most of
the data examples are normal by observing the instances that fit the remainder of the data set.

Autoencoders

Autoencoders are a type of Neural Networks that are used in Unsupervised Learning for representation
learning. They are used in denoising and dimensionality reduction.

Deep Belief Network

It is a generative graphical model which is also a class of neural network designed for unsupervised
learning. It is different from the supervised type of neural networks in the sense that it probabilistically
reconstructs its inputs to act as feature detectors.
Principal Component Analysis

Principal Component Analysis It is a class of unsupervised learning paradigm which is used for reducing
the dimensions of the data.

Semi-Supervised Learning & Reinforcement Learning

In the previous two types of Machine Learning techniques, there are no labels or labels are present for
all the observations. Sometimes, we need something between these two. In such situations we can use
Semi-Supervised Learning, which refers to a learning process in which lots of output values (the ones we
want to predict) are missing. It requires applying both supervised and unsupervised methods in order to
obtain useful results. This is often the case within medical applications, in which medical doctors are
unable to manually classify/mark all types of illness due to the overwhelming amounts of data.

Sometimes, the required value of the output is not known explicitly, but the system provides feedback
on the provided output. Learning based on such feedback is called Reinforcement Learning. This is used,
for example, for training the gaming Al in the game NERO. Another example can be found in schools.
Students learn about a specific topic (reinforcement learning), then they sit an exam, and the teacher
gives them grades without specifying which answers were correct and which were not.

Supervised Learning strategies – regression versus classification:-

Classification and Regression are two major prediction problems which are usually dealt with Data
mining and machine learning.

Classification is the procedure of finding or discovering a model or function which helps in unscrambling
the data into multiple definite classes. i.e. discrete values. In classification, data is categorized under
different labels according to some parameters given in input and then the labels are predicted for the
data.
The derived mapping function could be demonstrated in the form of “IF-THEN” rules. The classification
process deal with the problems where the data can be divided into binary or multiple discrete labels.

Let’s take an example, suppose we want to predict the possibility of the wining of match by Team A on
the basis of some parameters recorded earlier. Then there would be two labels Yes and No.

Regression is the process of finding a model or function for distinguishing the data into uninterrupted
real values instead of using classes or discrete values. It can also recognize the distribution movement
depending on the past data. Because a regression predictive model predicts a quantity, therefore, the
skill of the model must be reported as an error in those predictions

Let’s take a similar example in regression also, where we are finding the possibility of rain in some
particular regions with the help of some parameters recorded earlier. Then there is a probability
associated with the rain