Lesson 2: Presentation of Data

Objectives:

1. Describe the elements of frequency distribution and integrate these in creating

tables and graphs.
2. Describe how the three types of frequency distribution graphs—histograms,
polygons, and bar graphs—are constructed and identify when each is used.
3. Understand and apply the process of creating a frequency table and histogram
using SPSS.

Definition of Frequency Distribution

Based on the previous lesson, descriptive statistics aims to simplify the

organization and presentation of data. This goal allows a researcher to organize scores
into simpler and easy to understand form, hence making the data easily communicated
to others. One of the most common procedures for organizing a set of data is to place
the scores in a frequency distribution.

Frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of score values and their

frequency of occurrence.

A frequency distribution takes a disorganized set of scores and places them in

order from highest to lowest, grouping together individuals who all have the same score.
If the highest score is X = 10, for example, the frequency distribution groups together
all the 10s, then all the 9s, then the 8s, and so on. A frequency distribution can be
structured either as a table or as a graph, but in either case, the distribution presents
the same two elements:

1. The set of categories or scores that make up the original measurement scale.

2. A record of the frequency, or number of individuals in each category.

Frequency Distribution Table

The simplest frequency distribution table presents the measurement scale by listing
the different measurement categories (S values) in a column from highest to lowest.
Beside each S value, we indicate the frequency, or the number of times that particular
measurement occurred in the data. It is customary to use an S as the column heading
for the scores and an f as the column heading for the frequencies.
A. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Table
This is useful in organizing small data, specifically when the number of scores
obtained is below 30.

Example: The following set of scores was obtained from a 10-point statistics quiz.
These scores can be organized by constructing a frequency distribution table.
8 9 8 7 10 9 6 4 9 8
7 8 10 9 8 6 9 7 8 8

Steps:
1. Make 2 columns – S and f wherein S stands for the scores and f for the
frequency
2. Take note of the highest and lowest score
3. List all scores from the highest to the lowest score on the S column.
i. Even if the score does not exist, include it. All scores between the
highest and lowest scores should be present.
ii. Make sure to arrange the scores in order, either ascending or
descending.
4. Count the number of scores in the data set. Example: How many 10s are
in the data set? This will be the frequency and will be recorded in the f
column.
5. Add all the values on the f column. The ∑f is also equal to N or the total
number of individuals.
∑f = N

S (Scores) f (Frequency)
4 1
5 0
6 2
7 3
8 7
9 5
10 2
∑f = 20

6. Add additional columns to your table namely the proportion and percentage.
Proportion is represented by rf while percentage by p.

A relative frequency distribution indicates the proportion of the total

number of scores that occurs in each interval. While the percentage is the
percentage form of the relative frequency distribution.
 7. Compute for the proportion using the formula below:

𝒇
𝒓𝒇 =
𝑵

8. Compute for the p by multiplying rf by 100.

p = rf x 100

S f rf p
4 1 0.05 5%
5 0 0.00 0%
6 2 0.10 10%
7 3 0.15 15%
8 7 0.35 35%
9 5 0.25 25%
10 2 0.10 10%
∑f = 20 ∑rf = 1 ∑p = 100

B. Grouped Frequency Distribution Table

This is useful in organizing large data, specifically when the number of scores
obtained is 30 and above.

Example: A researcher had 50 freshmen psychology students keep a diary of their

social interactions for a week during the regular trimester. Each time a participant
had a social interaction lasting 10 minutes or longer, he or she would fill out a
card. The card had questions about various aspects of the conversation and the
conversation partner. Excluding family and work situations, the number of social
interactions 10 minutes or longer over a week for these students were as follows:

53 15 33 3 21 19 17 16 44 25
30 3 5 9 35 32 26 13 14 14
47 47 18 11 5 19 24 17 6 25
8 18 29 3 19 22 3 22 29 2
6 10 29 10 29 21 38 41 16 17
Steps:

1. Take note of the highest and lowest scores.

2. Compute for the range.
R = highest score – lowest score
R = 53 – 2
R = 51
3. Determine the number of class intervals (k) by using the Sturge’s rule.
The class interval consists of 2 values, the upper limit and the lower
limit. They represent the score categories.

k = 1+3.3logN (key this in to your scientific calculator)

k = 1+3.3log(50)

k = 6.6 (general rule in rounding off applies here)

k = 7

4. Determine the class width or class size (i).

The class width refers to the number of values between the upper
limit and lower limit of each class interval.

i = R/k
i = 51/7
i = 7.2 (always round up)
i = 8

i. Since you already have your class width and number of class interval,
you can start making your class intervals. Since the lowest class
interval must contain the lowest score, you must start with 2. Use
the class width to determine the class interval. The class width
represents how many values should be present within the class
interval. The first class interval would be 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9
or 2-9. There are 8 values within the class interval of 2-9 so you
have met the requirement of your class width. Continuing counting
until you reach 7 class intervals as you have determined in step 3.
The next class interval would start at 10 so it will be 10, 11 12, 13,
14, 15, 16, and 17 or 10-17.
 C.I.
8 values 2-9
10-17
18-25
7 class
26-33
intervals
34-41
42-49
50-57
5. Make 2 columns first, Class intervals and f. Class intervals will contain your
class intervals while f will be the frequency.

6. Tally the frequency for each class intervals. Go to the data set and count
how many scores are present in each class interval. Fill in the column of
f with your tally.

53 15 33 3 21 19 17 16 44 25
30 3 5 9 35 32 26 13 14 14
47 47 18 11 5 19 24 17 6 25
8 18 29 3 19 22 3 22 29 2
6 10 29 10 29 21 38 41 16 17

C.I. f
2-9 11
10-17 12
18-25 12
26-33 8
34-41 3
42-49 3
50-57 1

7. Get your ∑f or N.
8. Add another column for the cumulative frequency (cf). This is a common
factor used in future computations.
A cumulative frequency distribution indicates the number of scores
that fall below the upper real limit of each interval.

9. In getting the cf, you must start with the lowest class interval. Copy the f
of the lowest class interval in the cf column. After that, continue adding
the frequency until you reach the highest class interval. You know that
what you are doing is right when you reach the highest class interval and
the corresponding cf is equal to your N.
 ii. Example:
Class Intervals f cf
2-9 11 11
10-17 12 23
18-25 12 35
26-33 8 43
34-41 3 46
42-49 3 49
50-57 1 50
N = 50
iii. The lowest class interval 2-9 has a f of 11 so you can just copy
that for its cf. For the cf of 10-17 add its f to the cf of 2-9 which
is 11 so that will be 23. For the cf of 18-25, add its f to the cf of
10-17 so that would be 35. Do this until you reach the bottom.

Frequency Distribution Graph

A frequency distribution graph is basically a picture of the information available in a

frequency distribution table. It has two perpendicular lines called axes.

Guidelines:

1. A graph has two axes: vertical and horizontal. The vertical axis is called the
ordinate, or Y axis, and the horizontal axis is the abscissa, or X axis.
2. Very often the independent variable is plotted on the X axis and the dependent
variable on the Y axis. In graphing a frequency distribution, the score values are
usually plotted on the X axis and the frequency of the score values is plotted on
the Y axis.
3. Suitable units for plotting scores should be chosen along the axes.
4. To avoid distorting the data, it is customary to set the intersection of the two
axes at zero and then choose scales for the axes such that the height (Y-axis)
of the graphed data is about two-thirds or three-fourths of the length (X-axis).

I. Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data

When the scores are measured on a nominal or ordinal scale (usually non-
numerical values), the frequency distribution can be displayed in a bar graph.

Bar Graph
Frequency distributions of nominal or ordinal data are customarily plotted
using a bar graph. This type of graph is shown below. A bar is drawn for each
category, where the height of the bar represents the frequency or number of
members of that category. Since there is no numerical relationship between
the categories in nominal data, the various groups can be arranged along the
 horizontal axis in any order. In the figure found below, they are arranged from
left to right according to the magnitude of frequency in each category. Note
that the bars for each category in a bar graph do not touch each other. This
further emphasizes the lack of a quantitative relationship between the
categories. For a nominal scale, the space between bars emphasizes that the
scale consists of separate, distinct categories. For ordinal scales, separate bars
are used because you cannot assume that the categories are all the same
size.

Sample figure:

Steps:

1. List the categories of measurement along the X-axis and then the scale of
frequencies along the Y-axis.
2. Draw a bar above each category so that the height of the bar corresponds to
the frequency for the category.
3. Since the values of a nominal variable are not in any particular order, you
leave a space between the bars.
II. Graphs for Interval and Ratio Data

A. Histogram
The histogram is used to represent frequency distributions composed of interval
or ratio data. It resembles the bar graph, but with the histogram, a bar is
drawn for each class interval. The class intervals are plotted on the horizontal
axis such that each class bar begins and terminates at the real limits of the
interval. The height of the bar corresponds to the frequency of the class
interval. Since the intervals are continuous, the vertical bars must touch each
other rather than be spaced apart as is done with the bar graph. This type of
graph is most appropriate for discrete data.

Histogram for Ungrouped Frequency Table

1. Prepare your ungrouped frequency table.

2. Plot your X and Y axis. The Y axis would contain the frequency while the
X axis would contain your scores.
3. Put the bars per corresponding score stopping once it reached the
frequency for that specific score.
4. All bars should be next to each other and should not have spaces among
them. This is the main difference between having a bar graph and a
histogram.
5. Take note that each score on the X axis should be aligned with the center
of each bar.

Sample figure:
Histogram for Grouped Frequency Table

1. Prepare your grouped frequency table.

2. Plot your X and Y axis. The Y axis would contain the frequency while the
X axis would contain your class intervals.
3. Put the bars per corresponding class interval stopping once it reached the
frequency for that specific Class interval.
4. All bars should be next to each other and should not have spaces among
them. This is the main difference between having a bar graph and a
histogram.
5. Take note that each class interval on the X axis should be aligned with
the center of each bar.

Sample figure:

B. Frequency Polygon
The frequency polygon is also used to represent interval or ratio data. The
horizontal axis is identical to that of the histogram. However, for this type of
graph, instead of using bars, a point is plotted over the midpoint of each
interval at a height corresponding to the frequency of the interval. The points
are then joined with straight lines. Finally, the line joining the points is extended
to meet the horizontal axis at the midpoint of the two class intervals falling
immediately beyond the end class intervals containing scores. This closing of
the line with the horizontal axis forms a polygon, from which the name of this
graph is taken. This type of graph is mot appropriate for continuous data.
Frequency Polygon for Ungrouped Frequency Table

1. Prepare your ungrouped frequency table.

2. Plot your X and Y axis. The Y axis would contain the frequency while the
X axis would contain your scores.
3. Put a dot where each score meets its corresponding frequency.
4. Connect all the dots. Start from the 0 point on both X and Y axis and
connect until the last dot. Once you are at the last dot, the final line is
drawn to reach the X axis such that it is one frequency lower than the
lowest frequency and one score higher than the highest score.

Sample figure:

Frequency Polygon for Grouped Frequency Table

1. Prepare your grouped frequency table.

2. Plot your X and Y axis. The Y axis would contain the frequency while the
X axis would contain the midpoint of the class intervals.
3. Put a dot where each class interval meets its corresponding frequency.
4. Connect all the dots. Start from the 0 point on both X and Y axis and
connect until the last dot. Once you are at the last dot, the final line is
drawn to reach the X axis such that it is one frequency lower than the
lowest frequency and one midpoint higher than the highest midpoint.
 Sample figure:

Difference between Histogram and Polygon

The major difference between a histogram and a frequency polygon is the following: The
histogram displays the scores as though they were equally distributed over the interval,
whereas the frequency polygon displays the scores as though they were all concentrated
at the midpoint of the interval. Some investigators prefer to use the frequency polygon
when they are comparing the shapes of two or more distributions. The frequency polygon
also has the effect of displaying the scores as though they were continuously distributed,
which in many instances is actually the case.
Using SPSS