Introduction to Operational Amplifiers

Read Chapter 9 of “Microelectronics –Circuit Analysis and Design”, by D. Neamen, 3rd ed.,
McGraw Hill, 2007.

Department of Electronic and Information Engineering

Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

1
 Overview
 Analyze the properties of an ideal amplifier.
 Explore the features of a general-purpose amplifier circuit
(i.e. operational amplifier).
 Understand the fundamental properties of an operational
amplifier through the examples and exercises.
 Basic op-amp circuits:
1. Inverting amplifier, 2. Non-inverting amplifier,
3. Summing amplifier, 4. Difference amplifier,
5. Integrating amplifier, 6. Differentiating amplifier
 Specific op-amp circuits:
1. Voltage follower or buffer, 2. Current-to-voltage converter,
3. Voltage-to-current converter, 4. Instrumentation amplifier
 Design applications

2
 Amplification
 Amplification is the most important application in
electronic instrumentation.
 Why amplification?
 It increases the strength of the signals to perform further process.
 Example: The signal from a compact disc player is amplified to a level
suitable for driving a pair of speakers.

3
 Amplifier Characteristics
Rs

vs + A RL
vL

For an ideal voltage amplifier, v L = Av s

where A = the gain of the amplifier
For A = 10 and v s = 10 V, v L = 100 V
Practically, vL depends not only on A but also on the input
resistance and output resistance of the amplifier.

4
 Input and Output Resistances
Rs
Ro Rin = input resistance
Ro = output resistance
+ Rin + RL vL Avin = voltage controlled
vs Avin voltage source
vin

Rin
v in = ´ vs
Rs + Rin
RL
vL = ´ Av in
Ro + RL
æ RL Rin ö
Þ vL = ç ´ ÷ ´ Av s
è Ro + RL Rs + Rin ø
5
 Ideal Voltage Amplifier
Rs
Ro If Rin >> RS and Ro <<
RL, an ideal voltage
vs + Rin +
Avin RL amplifier results.
vin vL

+
vL=Avin=Avs
vs Rin + RL
Avin
vin vL

6
 Current Amplifier
Rs
Ro
vs + Rin +
Avin RL
vin vL

ii

Change to their Norton’s Aiii

equivalents is Rs Rin Ro RL

7
 Ideal Current Amplifier
ii

Aiii If Rin << Rs and Ro >> RL,

is Rs Rin Ro RL an ideal current
amplifier results.

ii iL

Aiii iL = Aiii = Aiis

is Rin

RL

8
 Exercises
1. What is the equivalent circuit of an ideal trans-
conductance amplifier?
(Hint: voltage input and current output)
2. What is the equivalent circuit of an ideal trans-
resistance amplifier?
(Hint: current input and voltage output)

9
 Non-inverting

For A > 0, vs and vL

are in phase.

10
 Inverting

For A < 0, vs and vL are

in 180o out of phase.

11
 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers
Amplifier # 1 Amplifier # 2

Rin1 Rin2 RL
v1 = vs , v2 = A1v 1, v L = A2v 2
Rin1 + Rs Rin2 + Ro1 RL + Ro2
RL Rin2 Rin1
Þ vL = ´ ´ A1A2v s
RL + Ro2 Rin2 + Ro1 Rin1 + Rs

12
 Operational Amplifiers
 An operational amplifier (or op-amp) is a special-
purpose amplifier intended to be used with external
feedback components for proper operation.
 It can perform a great number of operations, such as
addition, filtering, and integration.

13
 Circuit Symbol
Inverting The differential input voltage:
vi = v + - v -
The output voltage:
Noninverting vo = Avi

 The op-amp requires dc power to sustain its operation (as do all

transistor circuits) so that it has a positive dc voltage-supply
terminal V + & a negative dc voltage-supply terminal V–.
 These V + & V– are used to bias the transistors of the op-amp in the
active region.
Typically, A = 100,000.
For a finite vo, vi is small, i.e. v+ ≈ v-.
14
 Inverting and Non-inverting Inputs
Inverting input: If a voltage
Vmcosωt is applied to the
inverting input with the non-
inverting terminal grounded, a
voltage -AVmcosωt will produce at
the output.

Non-inverting input: If a voltage

Vmcosωt is applied to the non-
inverting terminal with the
inverting terminal grounded, a
voltage AVmcosωt will produce at
the output.

15
 Ideal Op-amp
Ro
v -
+

vi = v + - v - Ri + Av vo Equivalent circuit
d

v+ -

An ideal op-amp has the properties of:

1. Infinite voltage gain, A = ∞;
2. Infinite input resistance, Ri = ∞;
3. Zero output resistance, Ro = 0;
4. Infinite bandwidth, BW = ∞; and
5. Zero input offset voltage, vo = 0 for v+ = v-.

16
 Transistor-Level Schematic for an Op-Amp
Input stage:
Differential amplifier

Current Mirrors

Output bias stage:

Voltage level shifter

Gain stage:
Class A voltage amplifier

Output stage:
Class AB push-pull emitter
follower amplifier

 20–30 transistors are normally required to make up an op-amp.

 The typical op-amp has parameters close to the ideal characteristics,
so it can be treated as a fundamental electronic device for the design
17
of a wide range of electronic (or op-amp) circuits.
 Op-amp in Industrial Packages

Op-amp 741 in dual in-line plastic (DIP) Op-amp 741 in metal can
package package

Dual op-amp 358 in DIP package

18
 The Op-amp Golden Rules (Horowitz and Hill)
For an op-amp with external feedback,
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the
voltage difference between the inputs zero.
- The voltage gain of a real op-amp is so high that a fraction of a
milli-volt input will swing the output over its full range.
2. The inputs draw no current.
- The input current is so low that only 0.08 μA is drawn for the
741.
Feedback is used to control and stabilize the amplifier gain.

19
 Inverting Amplifier
Rule 1:
vin - vA vin
RF
iin = =
iF
RI RI
RI
vin v A - v o -v o
iin
vA
A vo iF = =
vB + RF RF

Rule 2:
v in vo
iin = iF Þ =-
RI RF
vo RF
Av = =-
v in RI
20
 Non-inverting Amplifier
Rule 2:
vin vB
+
vo RI
vA
A
vA = vo
RI + RF
RF
Rule 1:
ii iF
RI vo vo
Av = =
v in v A
RI + RF RF
= = 1+
RI RI

21
 Non-inverting Amplifier with a Voltage Divider
at the Input

R2 vB
vin + æ RF ö
A vo v o = ç1 + ÷ v B
vA è RI ø
R3
æ R3 ö
RF vB = ç ÷ v in
è 2
R + R3ø

ii iF v o æ R3 ö æ RF ö
Þ Av = =ç ÷ ç1 + ÷
RI v in è R2 + R3 ø è RI ø

voltage-divider closed-loop
gain gain

22
 Inverting Amplifier with a T-Network

23
 Op-amp Circuit with Two Inputs (1)
RF
Find vo in terms of vA and vB.

vA
RI Hint: Use superposition
A vo
vB +

RF
i. vB = 0
RI
vA æ R ö
vo = çç - F ÷÷v A
1
A vo
è RI ø
+

24
 An Op-amp Circuit with Two Inputs (2)
ii. vA = 0
RF vB +
A vo2
RI RF
A vo
vB + RI

æ RF ö
vo 2
ç
= ç1 + ÷÷v B
è RI ø

æ RF ö æ RF ö
vo = çç - ÷÷v A + çç1 + ÷÷vB
è RI ø è RI ø

25
 Voltage Follower (Impedance Transformer)

vi +
A vo
-

RF

vo
= 1, Rin ® ¥, Ro ® 0
v in

26
 Inverting Summer
R1
v1 v1 v2 v3 v
R2 RF + + =- o
v2 R1 R2 R3 RF
R3 iF RF RF RF
v3 Þ v o = (- )v 1 + (- )v 2 + (- )v 3
- RI R2 R3
A vo
+

For n inputs :
RF R RF
v o = (- )v 1 + (- F )v 2 + + (- )v n
RI R2 R3

27
 Difference Amplifier

With vI2 = 0,
If R4 / R3 = R2 / R1,
With vI1 = 0,

By Superposition,
28
 Differentiator
R
C iF
vin -
vA A vo
iC vB +

dv c dv in
iC = C =C
dt dt
v A - v o -v o
iF = =
R R
iC = iF
dv in -v o dv in
C = Þ v o = -CR
dt R dt
29
 Integrator C

R vA iC
vin -
iin vi A vo
vB +

v in
iin =
R
dv C
iC = C
dt
d(v A - v o ) dv o
=C = -C
dt dt
iin = iC
v in dv o 1
= -C Þ v o = - ò v in dt
30 R dt CR
 Current-to-Voltage Converter

Since RS >> Ri in most cases, i2 = i1 = iS and vO = -i2 RF

vO is directly proportional to iS and RS gives the magnitude of the ratio.

31
 Voltage-to-Current Converter
Since v1 = v2 = v L = iL Z L and i1 = i2
v I - iL Z L iL Z L - vO
i1 = i2 Û =
R1 RF

At the non-inverting terminal,

i3 = iL + i4
vO - iL Z L iZ
Û = iL + L L
R3 R2

æR Z Z ö æ R ö
Solving for iL and v I , we have iL ç F L -1- L ÷ = v I ç F ÷
è R1R3 R2 ø è R1R3 ø
RF 1
To make iL independent of Z L , we replace =
R1R3 R2
so that the coefficient of Z Lis zero.
æ R ö v
iL = -v I ç F ÷ = - I
32 è R1R3 ø R2
 Instrumentation Amplifier
Non-inverting amplifiers

Difference
amplifier

Voltage
follower
Difference amplifier

 In difference amplifier, it is difficult to obtain a high Ri & a high Av with reasonable

resistor values.
 A solution is to insert a voltage follower between each source & the corresponding
input at the expense of difficulty in changing Av due to the difficulty in maintaining
equal ratios between R2 / R1 & R4 / R3 .
 Instrumentation amplifier is an integrated amplifier to provide high Ri & adjustable Av
33 by changing only a single resistor (R1 in the circuit).
 Instrumentation Amplifier

 Since vI1 & vI2 are applied directly to the 2 non-inverting amplifiers, Ri
is vey large, ideally infinite.
 The differential gain is a function of R1, which can easily be varied
34
using a potentiometer.
 Application Examples
1. An op-amp circuit to have an output of v o = 2v 1 + 5v2.
R2 R4
R11
v1 R3
- -
v2
R12
vo
+ +

35
 vo = 2v1 + 5v2
R2 R4
R11
v1 R3
- vx -
v2
R12
vo
+ +

R4
R vo = - vx
With v2 = 0, v1x = - 2 v1 R3
R11
R R4 æ R2 R2 ö
With v1 = 0, v = - 2 v2
2
Þ vo = ç v + v2 ÷
x
R3 è R11 R12 ø
1
R12
æR R ö Put R3 = R4 , R2 = 2R11 , and R2 = 5R12
Thus, by Superposition, vx = - ç 2 v1 + 2 v2 ÷
è R11 R12 ø

36
 2. Use op-amp summers and integrators to solve the
differential equation
d2v o dv o v o
2
+3 + = Vim coswt
dt dt 4
d2v o dv v
Þ 2 = Vim coswt - 3 o - o
dt dt 4

1MW 1mF
-Vim coswt

4MW
vo - dvo
1 + dt
MW
dv o 3
dt

37
 1mF 1MW

dv o 1MW 1MW

dt vo
+ +

1MW 1mF 1mF 1MW

-Vim coswt
1MW 1MW
4MW
vo + + +
vo
dv o
1
MW
dt 3

38
 3. Determine the output voltage Vo for V1 = 2.5 V, V2 = -1.5 V, V3 = 5 V,
and V4 = 2 V. You may assume that the operational amplifier is ideal.

10k 10k 10k 10k

Vo = - ´ v1 - ´ v2 - ´ v3 - ´ v4
40k 40k 40k 40k
= - ´ ( v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 )
1
Vx
4
= -2 V

OR, by KCL at Node X, we have

-V1 -V2 -V3 -V4 -Vo

+ + + + =0
40k 40k 40k 40k 10k
Þ Vo = - ´ ( v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 )
1
4
= -2 V

39
 4. The circuit shown is called the Howland current source. Assume that the
operational amplifier is ideal. Determine the resistance R such that the
load current iL is 2 mA when the input voltage vI is 5 V.
X

At Node X, by KCL ,we have

vx - vI vx - vo
+ =0
R R
At Node Y, by KCL ,we have
vx vx - vo
+ - iL = 0
R R
Eliminate vx and vo , we have
v
iL = I
40 R
 5. The circuit is used to drive an LED with a voltage source. Assuming the
operational amplifier is ideal, show that the diode current iD is given by:
R2 + RF
iD = vI
R1 R2
2

At Node 1, by KCL, we have

vI v R
= - 2 Þ v2 = - F vI
R1 RF R1 R2 + RF
iD = vI
At Node 2, by KCL, we have R1 R2
v2 v2 æ 1 1ö æ 1 1öR
+ + iD = 0 Þ iD = - ç + ÷ v2 Þ ç + ÷ F vI
RF R2 è RF R2 ø è RF R2 ø R1

41
 6. The circuit shown is an adjustable gain difference amplifier. The
variable resistor RV is used to vary the gain. Assuming the operational
amplifier is ideal, show that the output voltage vO is given by:
2R2 æ R2 ö
vO = ç 1 + ÷ ( vI 2 - vI1 )
R1 è RV ø
3 1

v1o

2
At Node 1, by KCL, we have At Node 3, by KCL, we have
v1 - v3 v1 - v2 v1 - v o
1
v3 - vI1 v3 - v1
+ + =0 + =0
R2 RV R2 R1 R2
At Node 2, by KCL, we have Eliminate v1 , v2 , and v3 , we have
v2 - v3 v2 - v1 v2 2R2 æ R2 ö
+ + =0 v1o = - 1 + vI1
R2 RV R2 R1 çè RV ÷ø
42
 v2o

By Superpositon, we have
2R2 æ R2 ö
vO = ç 1 + ÷ ( vI 2 - vI1 )
R1 è RV ø

43
 Manufacturer’s Data Sheet

44
 Manufacturer’s Data Sheet

45
 Manufacturer’s Data Sheet

46
 Summary of Objectives
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
1. Understand the general properties of an amplifier
2. Define various gains of an amplifier and discuss their physical
significance.
3. Define and explain the significance of the input and output resistance
of an amplifier.
4. Determine the net gain of an amplifier.
5. State all assumptions and the associated implications used in the
idealized analysis of op-amp circuits.
6. Analyze basic op-amp circuits.

47