Mohamed Kamel Salaani1

Analytical Tire Forces and Moments with

Physical Parameters2

REFERENCE: Salaani, Mohamed Kamel, ‘‘Analytical Tire Forces and Moments with
Physical Parameters,’’ Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 36, No. 1, January –
March 2008, pp. 3-42.

ABSTRACT: The pneumatic tire behaves as a highly nonlinear system. Its complexity has
limited the development of a complete and reasonable theory governing its mechanics. Prac-
tical tire models used in vehicle dynamics simulation and tire-related research rely basically
on curve-fitted experimental data and empirical adjustments of theoretical models. This paper
introduces a validated analytical model based on the physical properties of the tire by formu-
lating the shear contact phenomena with elliptical normal pressure distribution and planar
stress-strain laws. Adjustments are introduced to current methods for estimating distributed
stiffness, the use of friction, and the forces saturation phenomena. The analytical model is
formulated and normalized to accept tire physical parameters that are easily estimated from
force and moments measurements. These parameters are universal to all tires: lateral and
longitudinal stiffnesses, aligning pneumatic trail, overturning effective moment arm, and fric-
tional properties. The method of using fundamental mechanics for modeling contact patch
forces and moments with tire physical parameters constitutes a significant advancement. The
tire model is validated with experimental data.
KEY WORDS: tire mechanics, rubber friction, tire testing, tire forces and moments, tire
modeling

Nomenclature

FX , FY , FZ Longitudinal, lateral, and vertical tire forces

MX , MY , MZ Overturning, rolling, and aligning tire moments
u Longitudinal tire speed
v Lateral tire speed
␻ Wheel spin rate
R Wheel radius
Vជ Tire speed vector
␣ Lateral slip angle
␬ Longitudinal slip ratio
␥ Inclination angle
C␣ Lateral slip angle stiffness

1
Transportation Research Center, Inc., East Liberty, Ohio 43319-0337, USA. E-mail:
Kamel.salaani@dot.gov
2
Presented at the twenty-fifth annual meeting of the Tire Society, Akron, Ohio, September 11–12,
2006.

3
4 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

C␬ Longitudinal slip stiffness

C ␬s Longitudinal stiffness in sliding mode
Cz Normal tire stiffness
C␥ Camber or inclination angle stiffness
C ␥1 , C ␥2 Polynomial coefficients
tz Pneumatic trail
tz1 , tz2 Polynomial coefficients
tx Tire scrub effect
tx1tx2 , tx3 Polynomial coefficients
a Tire contact patch length
b Tire contact patch width
␰ , ␰x , ␰ y Distances from contact patch leading edge
␰s , ␰xs , ␰ys Distances of linear stretch breakpoints
␴x , ␴ y Longitudinal and lateral theoretical slip
kx Longitudinal element stiffness
ky Lateral element stiffness
kxs Longitudinal element stiffness in sliding mode
␮ px Longitudinal peak coefficient of friction
␮ py Lateral peak coefficient of friction
␮sx Longitudinal sliding coefficient of friction
␮sy Lateral sliding coefficient of friction
␴ Adhesion potential rate
␣* Lateral slip angle at maximum adhesion
␬* Longitudinal slip ratio at maximum adhesion
fa Adhesion theoretical function
fs Sliding theoretical function
C ␬s Longitudinal stiffness in sliding mode
␩1 , ␩2 Peak friction empirical coefficients
D␮ , d1 , d2 , d3 Coefficients of decay of peak friction
C1 , C2 Lateral tire stiffness empirical coefficients
C␣m , FZC␣m Lateral stiffness saturation level
n Longitudinal tire stiffness empirical model exponent
C␬m , FZC␬m Longitudinal tire stiffness initial coordinate
FYS Steady-state lateral force
␧sy Aligning moment eccentricity factor
␮p Peak coefficient of friction
␮ p0 Peak coefficient of friction at load Fz0
p Tire pneumatic pressure
P0 Tire maximum normal contact pressure
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 5

Introduction

The tire force theoretical equations are based on three physical concepts:
stiffnesses in longitudinal and lateral directions and moment arms, peak and
decay of friction, and a normalized theoretical shear force contact model. The
goal of the model is to be able to formulate tire forces accurately based on these
physical principles. Degradation or changes due to aging and environments
共temperature and humidity fluctuations兲 are phenomena important in tire sci-
ence, and in particular, tire durability and structural integrity. These are long-
term effects not usually addressed in tire forces modeling.
In general, tire physical parameters can be empirically formulated to in-
clude the effects of pneumatic pressure, longitudinal speed, and temperature. A
first-order variation is provided in Eq 共1兲, and a more complex regression tech-
nique can be used if data are available:

⳵I ⳵I ⳵I
I共FZ,p + ⌬p,u + ⌬u,T + ⌬T兲 = I共FZ,p,u,T兲 + ⌬p + ⌬u + ⌬T, 共1兲
⳵p ⳵u ⳵T
where I = 兵C␣ , C␬ , Cz , tz , tx , C␥其, which corresponds, respectively, to lateral, lon-
gitudinal, and vertical stiffnesses, aligning and overturning effective moment
arms, and inclination angle lateral force stiffness. For dry surfaces, the friction
can be modeled with first-order variation as follows:

⳵␮
␮共FZ,u + ⌬u兲 = ␮共FZ,u兲 + ⌬u. 共2兲
⳵u
The effect of speed can be modeled with a more elaborate regression technique
than what is suggested in Eq 共2兲; however, public data are not available for this
purpose. In this paper only the effects of normal load are addressed.
The integration of the tire model with vehicle dynamics simulation is
shown in Fig. 1. The inputs to the model are road wheel kinematics variables
and normal load. The kinematics input is composed of longitudinal and lateral
slips, and inclination angle with respect to road surface. The outputs of the
model are longitudinal and lateral ground forces, and aligning and overturning
moments. The friction can also be tuned to include changes due to environmen-
tal conditions, such as a wet surface. Effects due to hydroplaning, ice, or snow
are not addressed in this paper, and the interested researcher should refer to
ASTM special technical publications that deal with these specific tire pavement
interface issues 关1–3兴, and other tire/machine testing 关4兴 done on wet surfaces.
This paper introduces the normalized tire force model and then discusses
predictions and modeling of stiffness and other physical parameters, using ex-
perimental tire data measured with the Flat-Track II machine 关5兴; at the end the
model is validated. The recommended SAE tire axis system is used throughout
6 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 1 — Tire model and vehicle dynamics general interactions.

the paper, as shown in Fig. 2. This figure provides sign conventions for all
angles, forces, and moments consistent with SAE definitions 关6兴. The following
sign conventions are used:

• Longitudinal slip ␬ is positive for braking and negative for acceleration

关Eq 共3兲兴, where u is the circumference tangential speed along the longi-
tudinal tire axis, ␻ is the wheel spin rate with positive sign in clockwise
direction, and R is the rolling radius of the tire:

u − R␻
␬= . 共3兲
u
• Lateral slip angle ␣ has an opposite sign to lateral force 关Eq 共4兲兴, and v
is tire lateral speed:

␣ = arctan 冉冊v
u
. 共4兲

• Inclination angle ␥, as shown in Fig. 2, is positive when the wheel is

oriented toward the y-axis positive direction.
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 7

FIG. 2 — SAE tire axis system.

Modeling Tire/Surface Shear Contact Phenomena

Tire Normal Pressure Distribution

The tire normal pressure distribution model is fundamental for the tire
shear force contact formulation. Having a valid normal pressure distribution is
necessary for the accuracy of the tire force model. The most common ap-
proaches are to formulate normal pressure distribution with parabolic or ellip-
tical equation along the length of the contact patch and uniform across the
width. The parabolic distribution has been widely used to formulate the brush
model, and a good explanation is provided by Pacejka 关7兴 and others 关8兴. How-
ever, measurements have shown that the elliptical distribution better fits experi-
mental data 关9兴. When the tire is under severe loading, the contact patch shape
is no longer rectangular and the normal pressure distribution is not symmetrical
between the leading and trailing edges of the tire. The shear control model does
not adjust for this contact pressure phenomena, and the physical parameters of
the model accounts for this contact pressure changes.
The tire model developed in this paper uses the elliptical pressure distribu-
tion similar to Schallamach analysis 关10兴. The elliptical distribution is formu-
lated using Eq 共5兲, and the parameters are defined in Fig. 3:
8 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 3 — Tire normal pressure elliptical distribution.

p共␰兲 = p0 冑 冉 冊1−
2␰ − a
a
2
. 共5兲

The normal load, with a unit width is as follows where the variables are defined
in Fig. 3. The contact patch is assumed to be rectangular, and all tire properties
are constant along the width of the contact

FZ = b 冕0
a
p共␰兲d␰ = p0
ab␲
4
. 共6兲

Figure 4 shows the difference between the two methods, elliptical versus
parabolic.

Formulation of Footprint Contact Physics

Lateral direction. First the footprint physics is explained along the lateral
direction, then longitudinal direction, and the solution for the resultant ground
force is derived. Figure 5 is a detailed schematic of the lateral force formation.
As the tire travels with velocity V ជ making an angle with the heading direction
共line of the tire contact patch兲, the elastic foundation of the tire deforms linearly
with a deformation rate parallel to the traveling velocity direction. This defor-
mation reaches its peak where the friction can no longer hold the tangential
stress, and consequently sliding mode starts. The linear deformation part can be
formulated using principles of elastic deformation 共Hooke’s law兲, and Cou-
lomb’s law to predict the friction breakaway and the start of sliding mode. The
linear deformation is formulated using a kinetic ratio of lateral speed to longi-
tudinal speed, which is basically a representation of the deformation angle of
the tire elastic foundation, and is provided in Eq 共7兲:
v
␴y = − = − tan共␣兲. 共7兲
u
This kinetic ratio is known as the tire theoretical slip angle. It is perhaps mis-
leading to use this descriptive name for Eq 共7兲, given the fact that it has nothing
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 9

FIG. 4 — Normalized pressure distribution—elliptical versus parabolic.

to do with mechanical “slip.” The tire does not literally slip; it deforms propor-
tionally to a kinetic ratio, and then slides when peak friction values are reached.
The force along the linear deformation region will be derived using element
force expressed in Eq 共8兲. This force acts like a gearing contact between the
surface and the tire elastic foundation:

FIG. 5 — Tire footprint physics—lateral force.

10 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

f y = − ky␴y␰y . 共8兲

The deformation along the lateral direction is ␴y␰y, and with the linear spring
analogy ky is the lateral element stiffness 共unit of force per unit area兲. This
tangential force saturates and reaches peak value at peak friction multiplied by
the tire normal pressure. Figure 5 displays the line of linear elongation break
points. According to Coulomb’s law of friction, the maximum possible element
force is formulated in Eq 共9兲, and the relation of element force deflection to
normal pressure is formulated in Eq 共10兲:

f y max = ␮ py p共␰ys兲, 共9兲

ky␴y␰ys = ␮ py p共␰ys兲. 共10兲

This formulation basically states that the element force increases with a linear
proportion of lateral slip angle until reaching the maximum allowable stretch
provided by the tire normal pressure and the rubber peak coefficient of friction.
Beyond that point, the tire starts sliding and the friction begins to decay. The
smaller the slip angle the longer the linear stretch. The linear break points are
mapped in Fig. 5 using Eq 共11兲:

关␮ py p共␰ys兲/ky兴
tan共␣兲 = . 共11兲
␰ys
Longitudinal direction. The longitudinal force is formulated using the same
principles developed for the lateral direction. It is the result of either increasing
or decreasing tire kinetic ratio. Element deformation along the longitudinal
direction can be formulated to have a linear relation with respect to a ratio of
kinetic gain or loss as shown in Fig. 6. The angle of the longitudinal linear rate
of deflection of the elastic foundation is given by this kinetic ratio,

␪ = arctan 冉 u − R␻
u + R␻
冊
. 共12兲

As for the lateral direction, the theoretical longitudinal slip is expressed with Eq
共13兲:

u − R␻
␴x = tan共␪兲 = . 共13兲
u + R␻

Equation 共13兲 is expressed also using the SAE longitudinal slip defined in Eq
共3兲, as follows:
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 11

FIG. 6 — Tire footprint physics—longitudinal force.

␬
␴x = . 共14兲
1−␬
Again this variable is called theoretical longitudinal slip, but the word “slip” has
nothing to do with the actual physics. It is rather a kinetic ratio that relates gain
or loss of wheel longitudinal kinetic energy. It is also the slope of the linear
deformation of the tire. The longitudinal and lateral theoretical slips provide the
connection between kinetic energy and the potential energy of distortion of the
footprint contact.
The longitudinal element force is formulated using spring analogy, Eq 共15兲,
where the tire element force is proportional to the deformation, ␴x␰x, and kx is
the longitudinal element stiffness 共force per unit area兲:
f x = − k x␴ x␰ x . 共15兲
The maximum element force is obtained at peak friction saturation and it is,
f x max = ␮ px p共␰yx兲 共16兲
The longitudinal saturation line that relates friction, element stiffness, and tire
normal pressure is represented in Eq 共17兲 and plotted in Fig. 6. The procedure is
similar to the lateral direction:
␮ px p共␰xs兲/kx
␴x = . 共17兲
␰xs
Composite direction. Traditionally the composed force is computed based
on the resultant force of the longitudinal and lateral tire element forces. How-
12 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ever, the longitudinal and lateral frictions and saturation points are different and
the resultant cannot be derived algebraically without adding more assumptions.
To avoid this problem, the longitudinal and lateral equalities in Eqs 共11兲 and
共17兲 are written as follows:

ky␴y p共␰ys兲
= , 共18兲
␮ py ␰ys

kx␴x p共␰xs兲
= . 共19兲
␮ px ␰xs
If we add the squares of Eqs 共18兲 and 共19兲, we obtain the following algebraic
equation:

冑冉 冊 冉 冊 冑冉 冊 冉 冊
ky␴y
␮ py
2
+
k x␴ x
␮ px
2
=
p共␰ys兲
␰ys
2
+
p共␰xs兲
␰xs
2
. 共20兲

Equation 共20兲 can be written using an equivalent break point pressure as

冑冉 冊 冉 冊ky␴y
␮ py
2
+
k x␴ x
␮ px
2
=
p共␰s兲
␰s
. 共21兲

Using the elliptical distribution of normal pressure, the equivalent break point in
terms of lateral and longitudinal components is analytically solved to be equal
to

冉 冊
␰s = . 共22兲
␰sx + ␰sy 2
a − +1
␰sx␰sy a
Equation 共22兲 does not provide a resultant break point in traditional terms
共Pythagorean method兲, it is rather an algebraic solution that relates the mechani-
cal properties of the elastic foundations of the tire contact patch. Equation 共22兲
is an exact theoretical solution, and it is going to provide the basic fundamental
principles of the combined tire ground force formulations.
The location of the linear break point for the resultant force is given by Eq
共23兲, and shown in Fig. 7,

p共␰s兲

冑冉 冊 冉 冊
␰s = . 共23兲
ky␴y 2
k x␴ x 2
+
␮ py ␮ px
The linear resultant element force vector is then expressed in Eq 共24兲:
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 13

FIG. 7 — Tire contact footprint physics—composite longitudinal and lateral.

e 冋 册
ជf = − kx␴x ␰d␰.
ky␴y
共24兲

For the composite direction, the lateral theoretical slip is actually a kinetic ratio
of lateral speed to tire tangential speed, Eq 共25兲:
v
␴y = − . 共25兲
R␻
Equation 共25兲 can be expressed using longitudinal wheel hub speed as follows:
v/u
␴y = − . 共26兲
u − R␻
1−
u
Using SAE lateral and longitudinal slip definitions, the theoretical lateral slip
for composed direction is
tan共␣兲
␴y = − . 共27兲
1−␬
Tire element stiffness. Schallamach in chapter 6 of Mechanics of Pneumatic
Tires 关10兴 estimated tire element stiffness by assuming the tire at full adhesion
at very small slip angles. Pacejka and Sharp come to the same conclusion using
14 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 8 — Tire element stiffness using consistent small angle approximation.

small angle approximation method 关11兴 with pure adhesion and no sliding at the
trailing edge. This is basically the solution for a small angle elastic deformation
with uniform normal pressure distribution. This element stiffness estimate is
universally used in analytical tire models, and it is considered as a standard
estimation. In fact, tire element stiffness dependents on the normal pressure
distribution. Using element stiffness from a uniform normal pressure distribu-
tion into models with other distributions provides a tire model that underesti-
mates the total linear stiffness of the tire. To overcome this problem, the small
angle approximation is used while setting a consistent pressure distribution, that
is, equal normal loads for the uniform and elliptical pressure distributions 共same
procedure applies for the parabolic distributions兲. Figure 8 shows the small
angle footprint physics, and the differences between the elliptical and uniform
pressure distribution. Similar observations can be formulated for the parabolic
normal pressure distribution. For a consistent small angle approximation, the
lateral force in pure adhesion is expressed as follows:

FY =
␲ky
4
冉冕 冊
b
0
a
␰yd␰y tan共␣兲 =
ky␲ba2
8
tan共␣兲. 共28兲

And the tire linear stiffness is then

冏 冏
⳵FY
⳵␣ ␣=0
=
ky␲ba2
8
= C␣ . 共29兲

A similar procedure is applied for the longitudinal direction, that it is

 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 15

FX =
␲kx
4
冉冕 冊
b
a

0
␰xd␰x tan共␪兲 =
kx␲ba2
8
tan共␪兲. 共30兲

Then if we substitute the SAE longitudinal slip, we get the following:

FX =
kx␲ba2 ␬
8 1−␬
.冉 冊 共31兲

And the tire longitudinal linear stiffness is then

冏 冏
⳵FX
⳵␬ ␬=0
=
kx␲ba2
8
= C␬ . 共32兲

The lateral and longitudinal element stiffnesses are in terms of tire stiffnesses

ky = 冉 冊
4 2C␣
␲ ba2
, 共33兲

kx = 冉 冊
4 2C␬
␲ ba2
. 共34兲

The tire element stiffnesses using the method introduced in this paper are
4 / ␲ ⬇ 1.273 times larger than the traditional values 关included in parentheses in
Eqs 共33兲 and 共34兲兴. These traditional estimates are noticeably undervalued.
Pacejka 关7,11兴 element stiffnesses estimates are undervalued by a factor of 3 / 2
with the parabolic pressure distribution model. This underestimation of element
stiffness rendered theoretical models unsuccessful in their widespread utiliza-
tion. Therefore empirical models or semiempirical models are the state of the art
in tire forces modeling, especially for vehicle dynamics applications. Pacejka
developed the “magic” tire model, which is purely a curve-fitting transcendental
formulation, known under the name “Magic Formula.” Other successful tire
models are semiempirical such as the one provided by STI 关12兴 where theoret-
ical formulations are augmented with empirical saturation functions.
Footprint physics can be understood using tire stiffnesses by substituting
Eqs 共33兲 and 共34兲 as shown in Fig. 9. This provides better insight into what is
happening at the tire contact patch using tangible physical properties such as
stiffnesses, normal pressure, and friction. Figure 9 introduces a new physical
tire concept, that is, the maximum possible linear stretch. It occurs at the center
of the tire where the tire normal pressure is at its maximum, and it is provided
by the variable q defined in Fig. 9. Around that position, the maximum linear
breakpoints are scaled by the ratio of pressure distribution to maximum pres-
sure. In the sliding region, the shear force capacity of the tire is limited by two
factors; the normal pressure distribution and the effect of the frictional decay
due to the tribological sliding phenomena. This explanation of the footprint
16 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 9 — Footprint physics with tire physical properties.

physics provides a direct link between the tangible physical properties of the
tire that we can estimate from experiments and the shear mechanism responsible
for the distortion effect of the elastic foundation and sliding at the trailing edge.
These physical phenomena are manifested in the concepts of forces and mo-
ments interacting between the boundaries of tire contact with the road surface.
Breakpoint of linear stretch position. The limiting value of the element
force expressed in Eq 共10兲 is reached when the tire vertical pressure combined
with friction can no longer support additional shear load 共Coulomb law兲, as
explained by Schallamach 关10兴. At that particular location, the tire stretching
saturates and begins sliding up to the trailing edge. Using the resultant force
developed earlier, sliding occurs when Eq 共35兲 holds:

冑 k2x ␴2x
␮2px
+
k2y ␴2y
␮2py
␰s = p共␰s兲. 共35兲

When Eq 共35兲 is simplified further by using tire linear stiffnesses from Eqs 共33兲
and 共34兲, we get the following:
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 17

FIG. 10 — Sliding position from leading edge versus composite slip function.

p共␰s兲

冑冉 冊 冉 冊
␰s = . 共36兲
8 C ␬␴ x 2
C ␣␴ y 2
+
ba2␲ ␮ px ␮ py

If we substitute the elliptical distribution of normal tire pressure in Eq 共36兲, we

get the position of the linear tire stretching position provided in Eq 共37兲:

a
␰s = , 共37兲
␴ +1
2

where the adhesion potential rate is defined in Eq 共38兲 共traditionally it is called

normalized composed slip兲. This variable does not depend on geometric values.
That is the contact patch length is not part of this physical property, it is rather
a function of longitudinal and lateral stiffnesses, peak friction, and tire normal
load. Figure 10 shows the location of the sliding position versus the adhesion
potential rate function. The sliding position moves from the leading edge to the
trailing edge in a hyperbolic fashion. Figure 10 is a theoretical prediction and it
is standard to all pneumatic tires:
18 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

␴= 冑冉 冊 冉 冊C ␬␴ x
␮ pxFz
2
+
C ␣␴ y
␮ pyFz
2
. 共38兲

The Adhesion Force

To find the total longitudinal and lateral forces at the tire contact patch,
element forces are integrated in sliding and adhesion regions. Along the tire
contact patch linear stretch the theoretical longitudinal and lateral slips are
constant. The adhesion section acts like a gearing mechanism between the road
and the tire with rubber/surface friction at its peak value. The total adhesion
force is integrated as follows:

Fជ a = − b 冕冋 册
␰s

0
k x␴ x
ky␴y
b␰2 kx␴x
␰d␰ = − s
2 ky␴y
.冋 册 共39兲

And it is reduced to the following form:

Fជ a = −
ba2
2
2共␴ + 1兲 2
k x␴ x
k y␴y
.冋 册 共40兲

The adhesion force expression is formulated by eliminating tire contact patch

length, and expressed in using longitudinal and lateral friction, longitudinal and
lateral linear stiffnesses, normal load, longitudinal slip ratio, and lateral slip
angle:

Fជ a = −
冋 C ␬␬
C␣ tan共␣兲
册
冑冉 冊 冉 冊
f 共␴兲,
2 a
共41兲
C ␬␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲
+
Fz␮ px Fz␮ py

where the adhesion theoretical slip function is

4 ␴
f a共␴兲 = . 共42兲
␲ 共␴ + 1兲2
2

If we examine the properties of the adhesion function, we notice that it in-

creases up to saturation then decreases with the increase of the adhesion poten-
tial rate, as shown in Fig. 11. The grip or gear mechanism between the tire and
contact surface is an indicator of tire performances. The maximum grip is math-
ematically expressed by solving for the maxima as follows:
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 19

FIG. 11 — Adhesion or tire gearing.

⳵ f a共␴兲 4 共1 − 3␴2兲 * 1
= 3 =0⇒␴ = 冑 . 共43兲
⳵␴ ␲ 共␴ + 1兲
2
3
For pure lateral direction, the maximum grip happens at the following lateral
slip angle:

␣* = arctan 冉冑 冊
␮ pyFz
3C␣
. 共44兲

For pure longitudinal direction, the maximum grip happens at the following
longitudinal slip ratio:
␮ pxFZ
␬* = . 共45兲
␮ pxFZ + 冑3C␬
Equations 共44兲 and 共45兲 are not only important in understanding the physics of
the grip mechanism, but are used later in this paper to provide a consistent
systematic approach in estimating the longitudinal and lateral tire stiffnesses.

The Sliding Force

The tire force in the sliding region is obtained by integrating the sliding
element force from the beginning of the linear breakaway position to the trailing
20 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

edge. In sliding mode the peak coefficient of friction decreases with the increase
of slip. In the combined sliding mode the longitudinal stiffness transforms
gradually with the increase of slip to lateral stiffness value. This is basically
consistent with the conceptual directional mechanics of stiffnesses and wheel
kinetic ratios. A model of this concept is presented in Eq 共46兲, and a comparison
of tire forces with the experimental data proves this equation to be a reasonable
approximation. At saturation, tire longitudinal stiffness merges progressively
into lateral stiffness as follows following Szostak et al.’s approach 关12兴.
For the longitudinal element stiffnesses,

kxs = kx + 共ky − kx兲冑sin2共␣兲 + ␬2 cos2共␣兲. 共46兲

And for the tire longitudinal stiffness,

C␬s = C␬ + 共C␣ − C␬兲冑sin2共␣兲 + ␬2 cos2共␣兲. 共47兲

Equation 共47兲 states that at full saturation or close to saturation the longitudinal
stiffness and lateral stiffness are about the same. The mechanics of sliding is
basically similar.
The tire sliding force is integrated as follows:

冤 冥
kxs␴x
␮sx
␮sx
ky␴y

冕
␮sy a
␮sy
Fជ s = −
冑冉 冊 冉 冊
b p共␰兲d␰, 共48兲
kxs␴x 2
ky␴y 2
␰s
+
␮sx ␮sy
which is reformulated using tire longitudinal and lateral stiffnesses in Eq 共49兲:

Fជ s = −
冋 C␬s␬
C␣ tan共␣兲
册 冕 a

冑冉 冊 冉 冊
b p共␰兲d␰. 共49兲
C␬s␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2
␰s
+
␮sx ␮sy
If we substitute the pressure distribution, we get the following:

ជ =−
冋 C␬s␬
C␣ tan共␣兲
册
4FZ
冕冑 冉
a
2␰ − a
冊 2

冑冉 冊 冉 冊
F s 1− d␰. 共50兲
C␬s␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2 a␲
␰s a
+
␮sx ␮sy
The solution to this irrational function is
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 21

ជ =−
冋 C ␬␬
C␣ tan共␣兲
册
冑冉 冊 冉 冊
F s f 共␴兲,
2 s
共51兲
C ␬␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲
+
FZ␮sx FZ␮sy
where the theoretical sliding function is defined as

f s共␴兲 = 冋
1 ␲
−
2␴ 1 − ␴2
␲ 2 1 + ␴2 1 + ␴2
− 冉 冊
arcsin
1 − ␴2
1 + ␴2
冉 冊册 . 共52兲

Longitudinal and lateral forces theoretical solution. If we add the adhe-

sion and sliding forces, we get the following expressions for the longitudinal
and lateral forces, respectively:

冢 冑冉 冣
C␬s
f s共␴兲
f a共␴兲 C␬

冊 冉 冊 冑冉 冊 冉 冊
FX = − ␬C␬ + ,
C ␬␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2
C␬s␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2
+ +
Fz␮ px Fz␮ py Fz␮sx Fz␮sy
共53兲

冢 冑冉
f a共␴兲

冊 冉 冊
FY = − C␣ tan共␣兲
C ␬␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2
+
Fz␮ px Fz␮ py

冊冣
f s共␴兲

冑冉 冊 冉
+ . 共54兲
C␬s␬ 2
C␣ tan共␣兲 2
+
Fz␮sx Fz␮sy
Figure 13 shows the theoretical location of important tire linear stretch break-
points along the contact patch and the corresponding locations on the adhesion
and sliding functions in Fig. 12. These graphs explain the relation of sliding and
adhesion vis-à-vis the mechanics of tire stretching and sliding. The points pre-
sented in Figs. 12 and 13 are: A = trivial zero slip, B = maximum adhesion, C
= adhesion function equal to sliding, D = adhesion potential rate is unity, E
= adhesion at 20% of the total contact patch, and F = complete sliding. These
points are normalized and true for all pneumatic tires.
Traditionally the adhesion and sliding functions are combined into one
function as in Eq 共55兲. This is obtained with the assumption of uniform friction
and other physical properties in the adhesion and sliding regions. This function
关Eq 共55兲兴 is called slip saturation function and it is previously published in the
Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires 共Fig. 6.3, page 507, 1971 edition and the same
with other editions兲 by Schallamach 关10兴. In fact, Eq 6.3 of chapter 6 does not
22 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 12 — Adhesion and sliding fundamental properties—A: trivial zero slip, B: maximum adhe-
sion, C: adhesion function is equal to sliding, D: adhesion potential rate is unity, E: adhesion only
20% of total contact patch, and F: complete sliding.

reflect his discussion. The equations were wrongly typed in the first edition,
then carried to the second edition, and unfortunately the latest book published
by NHTSA copied exactly the wrong equations 关9兴. However the procedure of
adding the adhesion and sliding theoretical functions with the same physical
proprieties is not an appropriate assumption due to the large discrepancy be-
tween the actual physics and the assumed simplification. Pacejka 关7,11兴 adds the
adhesion and the sliding functions to come up with a single total theoretical slip
function 共with polynomial normal pressure distribution兲. The adhesion and the
sliding contacts are different physical phenomena with different frictions and
mechanical properties. This procedure does not yield accurate theoretical forces
and moments values:

f共␴兲 = f a共␴兲 + f s共␴兲 =

1 ␲
冋 2␴
+ 2
␲ 2 ␴ +1
− arcsin
1 − ␴2
1 + ␴2
冉 冊册 . 共55兲

Moment Analytical Formulations

The aligning moment is formulated by adding the moment due to the ad-
hesion force multiplied by the pneumatic trail plus the eccentricity effect. In this
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 23

FIG. 13 — Normalized footprint break points [(.) depends on tire friction values].

model only the lateral force effect is modeled. The aligning moment from
longitudinal force and normal force are small and can be ignored since they
have no practical effect on the stability of vehicle motion. The formulation
presented, Eq 共56兲, is a simplified semianalytical approximation where the ec-
centricity effects of sliding and adhesion forces are added to complement the
linear adhesion. A pure theoretical model did not yield a reasonable approxima-
tion of the measured aligning moment. Theoretically m1 = ␲ / 4 but a value of 0.6
provided a better fit of the experimental data:

M z = tz
C␣ tan共␣兲
共m1␴2 + m0兲2
+ FY ␧x f s共␴兲 再
with m0 =
␲
4
m1 ⬇ 0.6 ␧x 艋 0.01ft . 冎
共56兲
The overturning moment is derived from the effects of lateral and vertical
forces. It is simply formulated in Eq 共57兲 with the lateral force obtained from
24 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Eq 共54兲. This moment is primarily due to tire scrub, which is a lateral tire
deflection that acts as a moment arm between the normal load and the center of
the tire:

M x = 共tx1Fz2 + tx2Fz + tx3兲Fy . 共57兲

Defining Tire Physical Parameters

The properties of tire forces and moments can be formulated using three
fundamental mechanical properties; stiffness to slip 共or to kinetic ratio兲, peak
and decay of friction, and moment arms with respect to contact patch center
position. The load dependency of these parameters is formulated with empirical
equations. Empirical relations of physical properties are well established meth-
ods in science, where the principal relations between the physical and chemical
laws of the material are beyond the scope of the problem at hand. This empirical
method does not diminish the theoretical integrity of tire forces formulations
developed based on principles of mechanics. This section goes over some tech-
niques of estimating these physical parameters.

Friction
The friction between the tire and road surface contact exhibits peak and
sliding characteristics. The rubber compound properties make these character-
istics different from other materials in mechanical systems. These differences
stem from the viscoelastic property of the rubber compound that varies with
contact pressure, temperature, tread design, speed, surface topography, and en-
vironmental properties, such as road surface contaminants. This tribological
problem is solved in the tire industry using experimental observations or em-
pirical methods.
This remains as good as the measured data quality, and constrained within
the number of different combinations of tire constructions and rubber compound
materials, test surfaces, test speed, and loads. In this paper, the friction is mod-
eled with normal load dependency only.
Peak friction. The peak coefficient of friction represents the complete satu-
ration point of the tire’s force response characteristic. Beyond the peak coeffi-
cient of friction, the tire force output decreases to lower values until complete
lock up or sliding, or a combination of both as shown in Fig. 14. Tire peak
friction emulates rubber viscoelastic properties and it is highly dependent on
vertical load, speed, and temperature. In practice, when developing a tire model,
the temperature and speed are held constant and only the vertical load is varied.
Traditional peak friction models 关13,14兴 used a second order polynomial
function to fit the peak friction with normal load. The polynomials are excellent
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 25

FIG. 14 — Peak coefficient of friction.

fitting tools if used within the range of fitted vertical loads, that is, extrapolating
polynomials outside their range provides wrong results for most of the cases.
This limitation makes the use of polynomials very limited in vehicle dynamics
simulations where tire normal loads might exceed measured data envelope. To
avoid this limitation, the peak coefficient of friction of tires is plotted using a
bounded logarithmic method where extrapolating beyond the measured enve-
lope can be considered a reasonable estimation.
Figure 15 shows a plot of log共␮ p / ␮ p0兲 versus log FZ / FZ0. This is basically
a second order polynomial trend that can be fitted as

log冉 冊␮p
␮ p0
= ␩1 log2
FZ
冉 冊
FZ0
+ ␩2 log
FZ
FZ0
. 冉 冊 共58兲

And the peak coefficient of friction is given in Eq 共59兲:

␮ p = ␮ p0 冉 冊
FZ
FZ0
␩2+␩1 log共FZ/FZ0兲.
共59兲

When the dependency is linear, ␩1 = 0, Eq 共59兲 is the same formulation pub-

lished in the NHTSA tire book 关9兴. The model results are shown in Figs. 16 and
17 and compared with polynomial models. It is obvious that the polynomial
extrapolation provides unrealistic estimation outside the measured envelope.
26 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 15 — Logarithmic trend of peak friction.

FIG. 16 — Peak friction model results—lateral direction.

 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 27

FIG. 17 — Peak friction model results—longitudinal results.

The lateral and longitudinal peak coefficients of friction are different for the
same tire as experimental results show.
Decay of friction. Beyond the lateral slip level where the tire reaches peak
friction value, the tire enters sliding mode and as shown in Fig. 18. The decay
of friction is load dependent, and can be empirically represented with polyno-
mial functions, Eq 共61兲. Figure 19 is a comparison for the lateral direction and
Fig. 20 is for the longitudinal direction:

D␮ = d1FZ2 + d2FZ + d3 , 共60兲

␮s = ␮ p共1 − D␮冑sin2共␣兲 + ␬2 cos2共␣兲兲␧s . 共61兲

Tire Lateral Stiffness

The lateral stiffness shown in Fig. 21 is estimated at different normal loads
with lateral slip angle envelope about maximum adhesion force. The plot of
log共1 − C␣ / C␣m兲 versus log共FZ / FZC␣m兲 in Fig. 22 shows a second order trend
that is fitted as follows:
28 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 18 — Decay of peak friction.

FIG. 19 — Decay of peak friction model—lateral direction.

 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 29

FIG. 20 — Decay of peak friction model—longitudinal direction.

FIG. 21 — Tire lateral stiffness.

30 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 22 — Tire lateral stiffness model.

冉
log 1 −
C␣
C␣m
冊
= C1 log2
FZ
冉 冊
FZC␣m
+ C2 log
FZ
FZC␣m
. 冉 冊 共62兲

The tire lateral stiffness is then

2共F /F
C␣ = C␣m共1 − eC2 log共FZ/FZC␣m兲+C1 log Z ZC␣m兲 兲. 共63兲
Figure 23 shows the results from using the empirical method suggested with Eq
共63兲 and compared to a polynomial second order fit. The polynomial model
provides an erroneous estimate when extrapolated beyond the experimental nor-
mal load envelope, while the empirical method used in this paper provides a
reasonable bounded estimate at all levels of normal loads.

Tire Longitudinal Stiffness

To determine the property relation between tire longitudinal stiffness to tire
normal load, log共C␬ / C␬m兲 versus log共FZ / CZC␬m兲 is plotted in Fig. 24 and the
trend is linear. The tire longitudinal stiffness is given is Eq 共64兲. If the exponent
n is equal to 1, then the relation is linear as modeled previously 关13兴. Figure 25
shows the comparison between the model and experimental data. It is clear that
the relation is not exactly linear and the proposed logarithmic method provides
a better estimate. Unfortunately tire data for longitudinal force testing cannot
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 31

FIG. 23 — Tire stiffness empirical model compared to polynomial fit.

FIG. 24 — Longitudinal stiffness normal load relation.

32 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 25 — Longitudinal stiffness model.

include higher normal loads due to tire machine limitation. The data used in this
paper do not suggest that the longitudinal stiffness is bounded. Yet, this obser-
vation should be confirmed with data with larger normal loads:

C␬ = C␬m 冉 冊 FZ
FZC␬m
n
. 共64兲

Aligning Moment Parameters

Figure 26 shows the relation of the aligning moment, M Z, to lateral force,
FY , at different normal loads. The trend is linear about the origin until the lateral
force reaches saturation and moment rolls off to a small value in the opposite
direction. The pneumatic trail fades away as the lateral force reaches saturation.
At complete saturation, the eccentricity of the sliding part of the force causes
the slight moment in opposite direction. Figure 27 provides a model of the
pneumatic trail with normal load variations, where a polynomial of a second
order is used:

tz = tz1FZ2 + tz2FZ . 共65兲

The lateral eccentricity,␧sy, is estimated from aligning moment divided by the
lateral force at saturation.
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 33

FIG. 26 — Experimental data of aligning moment to lateral force.

FIG. 27 — Aligning moment pneumatic trail.

34 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 28 — Overturning moment versus lateral force.

Overturning Moment Parameters

Figure 28 shows a typical relation between the overturning moment,M X,
and the lateral force, FY , at different normal loads. The effective slopes are
obtained for different normal loads, and Fig. 29 shows the results of a second
order polynomial fit provided in Eq 共66兲:

tx = tx1FZ2 + tx2FZ + tx3 . 共66兲

Inclination Angle Parameters

The inclination angle has a second order effect on tire lateral forces when
compared to slip angles. Figure 30 shows a typical relation of inclination angles
with lateral forces and the nonlinear trend for each normal load. However, for
simplicity a linear slope is estimated for each load. Figure 31 shows the incli-
nation angle stiffness variation with normal load and is modeled using a second
order polynomial fit 关Eq 共67兲兴. Equation 共68兲 is the lateral force due to inclina-
tion effect which is added to lateral force from Eq 共54兲 to get the total force. The
linear slope estimation for each load can be improved by using piecewise linear
slopes, for example a slope up to about 5° of inclination, and a second slope
from 5° to 10° of inclination. This would provide a better fit for this nonlinear
behavior, or a higher order regression model should be used:
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 35

FIG. 29 — Overturning moment arm.

FIG. 30 — Lateral force versus inclination angle.

36 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 31 — Inclination angle stiffness (camber thrust stiffness).

C␥ = C␥2FZ2 + C␥1FZ , 共67兲

FY␥ = C␥␥共1 − f s共␴兲兲. 共68兲

Conicity and Plysteer

The phenomenon that a steering torque must be applied when driving
straight ahead is called tire or vehicle pull. If the tire is unconstrained to steer,
the vehicle deviates from its straight path. If the left and right tires are identical,
conicity forces cancel each other. In contrast, the ply steer forces of the left and
right tires act in the same direction, but are compensated by side forces that
arise through a small slip angle of the whole vehicle. If the front and rear ply
steer angles are not the same, a small steer angle of the front wheels 共equal to
the difference of ply steer slip angles front and rear兲 is required for the vehicle
to run straight ahead. The whole vehicle will run at a slip angle equal to that of
the rear wheels. Therefore the plysteer effect is important to measure and use in
tire models to be able to predict the appropriate vehicle on center sensitivity
 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 37

FIG. 32 — Lateral force validation.

关15兴. Data for longitudinal forces include longitudinal slip offset which was
removed when model parameters were derived.

Tire Model Validation

Figures 32–39 present comparison of modeled tire forces and moments

with experimental values. The results prove that the theoretical model presented
in this paper is an appropriate approximation of tire forces. The small discrep-
ancy seen at high longitudinal slip in saturation mode at high normal loads in
Fig. 36 共negative longitudinal slip兲 is due to the unsymmetrical property of the
tire during braking and driving. This is not a practical important difference with
experimental measurements. With braking/driving unsymmetrical behavior, the
model is optimized to predict braking with higher accuracy. The model pre-
dicted very well forces in combined longitudinal and lateral slips. The param-
eters of the model do not use the combined slip data, it is used only for vali-
dation purpose. The close comparison of the model with experimental data in
this complex combined slip is another indication of the validity of the theoret-
ical model advanced in this paper. The author validated this model with differ-
ent tires, the data, validation graphs and the MATLAB® code are published 关16兴.
38 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 33 — Aligning moment validation.

FIG. 34 — Aligning moment validation (moment versus force).

 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 39

FIG. 35 — Overturning moment validations.

FIG. 36 — Longitudinal force validations.

40 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FIG. 37 — Combined forces validations.

FIG. 38 — Lateral force composite slip validations.

 SALAANI ON ANALYTICAL TIRE FORCES 41

FIG. 39 — Longitudinal force composite force validations.

Conclusion

This paper presented a validation of a theoretical tire model derived by the

author. The model is simple to use and the parameters are easily estimated from
experimental tire data. Testing for combined slips is not needed for model
parameters.
The understanding of friction decay should be improved through research
involving nontraditional testing techniques. This phenomenon is complex to
measure and predict, and a scientific approach based on nanotechnology meth-
ods advanced in tribology science should be tried. The estimation of friction
decay is an approximation that can fit well with machine measurements, but not
necessarily road pavements made of concrete, asphalt, and others. Research
should also be done to approximate and understand the differences between the
surfaces used in testing machines and road pavements. The peak and decay of
friction measured on the machine should be correlated with road pavements,
and possible adjustments should be investigated.
Formulations of the aligning moment and overturning moment can be fur-
ther improved by adding the effects of combined slips and inclination angles.
This paper also addresses the need to have tire machines with greater force
and energy capacity to be able to perform tire testing at higher loads. Testing at
42 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

different speeds should be done to understand variations of tire physical prop-

erties with speed.
The validation of the model demonstrates that the theoretical contribution is
scientifically valid. The model is continuous and does not include special cases
or different formulations at different stages of tire forces formation mechanism.

References

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Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, ASTM STP 929, 1986.
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Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, ASTM STP 1164, 1992.
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