Chemistry

Unit 13
13.1 corrosion of metals
corrosion
-() of metal, resulting from ()
when a metal object has corroded, it ()

the () a metal the more rapidly it corrodes.

13.2 corrosion of iron - rusting

Conditions for rusting
Rusting refers to: corrosion of iron
For rusting to occur, () & () must be present along with the piece of iron

tube has rusting occurred? explanation

General equation of rusting

however, the rust formed is just () to the iron surface. It () from the iron surface easily. When
() is exposed to air, it reacts with oxygen & water again. Thus, rusting continues until the iron
piece corrodes completely.

rust is in fact (), which is a ()

factors that speed up rusting

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

13.4 to observe the rusting of iron using rust indicator

We can place an iron nail in a () containing a () of () to detect iron(II) ion, ( ) to detect
hydroxide ion, and ().

color change of the indicator, which’s () in color at the beginning

iron(II) ion: potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)->

hydroxide ion: phenolphthalein->

13.5. methods used to protect iron from rusting

applying a protective layer
a layer of paint () to protect iron from rusting
Painting is a (). this method can be applied to (), (), (), () and other large iron-made objects

small iron-made objects like () and () are often protected by (), which also (). the objects
coated with plastics can () and (). However, coating an iron-made object with plastic is ().

() and () aren’t painted or coated with plastic

reason:
alternative method of protection:

coating with another metal

1)galvanizing ()
-coat the iron surface with ()
-coated iron becomes ()
-coating layer () to protect the iron
-() & () use this method to protect iron from rusting

2)tin plating
-coat the iron surface with ()
-protects iron from rusting by ()
-used in making () as ()

3)electroplating
-definition:
-() as common metal to be electroplated on iron
-protects the iron by:
-appearance:
-disadvantage:
-examples:

catholic protection
-iron objects connect to () of () while () is connected to the ().
-this method protect iron from rusting as: -examples:
*draw the set-up

sacrificial protection
how does it work?

examples of sacrificial protection

1)

galvanized iron isn’t used to make food cans as:

2)
3)

Using alloys of iron

() is an alloy of iron, which is produced by mixing the right amount of () & other metals like ()
with iron. It’s usually used to make () & ()

It’s corrosion resistant as:

disadvantage:

method of rust how do they advantages disadvantages examples

prevention work

painting

coating with
plastic

oiling or
greasing

galvanizing

tin-plating

electroplating
(e.g. chromium-
plating)

cathodic
protection

sacrificial
protection

using alloys of
iron

13.7 corrosion resistance of aluminium

reason that aluminium appears to be less reactive than it really is:
The protective oxide layer on aluminium is very thin but it can be thickened by a process
called ()

overall chemical equation:

*draw the set up

effect:
1)
2)

examples:

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Unit 14
14.1 common acids in daily life & in the laboratory
common acids in daily life
-characterized by a () taste

food, drinks or seasonings acids, formulae if any

tea

yoghurt

vinegar

tomato sauce

soft drinks

spinach

grape

citrus fruits

common acids in laboratory

-
-
-
These 3 acids are () as they are ()

14.2 Characteristics & chemical reactions of acids

() in the laboratory are usually in the form of (). They show some common characteristics &
have typical chemical reactions:
taste:
electrical conductivity:
effect on litmus paper:

word equations:
reaction with metals;
reaction with metal hydroxides & metal oxides:

This reaction is called () , 2 of the observations are:

reaction with carbonates & hydrogencarbonates:

observation:
effervescence occurs, heat releases

14.3 role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of acids

-solid citric acid has () effect on dry blue litmus paper
How to make the acid have effect on dry blue litmus paper?(4m)

-solid citric acid has () reaction with magnesium. but when water is added into the solid acid,
the following reaction occurs :

properties of solid citric acid & an aqueous solution of citric acid

test solid citric acid aqueous solution of citric

acid

electrical conductivity

action on solid CuO

action on anhydrous
Na2CO3

action on solid sodium

hydrogencarbonate

for citric acid to show its acidic properties, ().

acid in water
some molecules () in water to give ()-> the reaction is called ()

word equation - ionization of citric acid in water

the () are responsible for all the acidic properties of aqueous solution of the acid
ionization of hydrogen chloride, sulphuric acid & nitric acid in water
Hydrogen chloride is a (), a () which consists of hydrogen chloride molecules. It ( ) show
acidic properties as (). However when hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, its molecules ()

equation:

pure sulphuric acid & pure nitric acid are ()

ionization:

definition of an acid:

Hydrogen ions H+(aq) () exist alone in aqueous solution, so it ()

explain why fizzy drink powder effervescences in water, with the aid of chemical equation:

It should be stored ()

14.4 basicity of acid

definition of the basicity of acid:

acid ionization in water (equation) basicity of acid

1) 1) 1 ()
2)
3) 2)
4)
3)

4)

1) 1) 2 ()
2)
3) 2)
4)
3)

4)

5) 1) 3 ()

14.5 common alkalis in daily life & in the laboratory

3 definitions of bases:
1)
2)
3)
2 examples of bases
1)
2)

alkali refers to:

examples:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

*6)

common alkalis in daily life

1)
2)
3)

common alkalis in the laboratory

1)
2)
3)
4)

14.6 characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis

taste:
feel:
electrical conductivity:
effect on litmus paper:
reaction with acids:
reaction with non-metal oxides:

limewater is actually (), which turns ( ) with carbon dioxide, as ()

It’s commonly used to ()

reaction with ammonium compounds:

*suggest how to identify NH4^+

reaction with metal ions in aqueous solution

metal hydroxides except () and () are () in water. when aqueous solutions of alkalis are
added to solutions containing metal ions, ()

e.g. few drops of sodium hydroxide solution add to magnesium sulphate solution
full equation:
ionic equation:
 metal ion precipitation with a action of excess action of excess
small amount of NaOH(aq) on NH3(aq) on
NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq) precipitate precipitate

Ca^2+(aq) with NaOH(aq): /

with NH3(aq): /

Mg^2+(aq)

Al^3+(aq)

Zn^2+(aq)

Fe^2+(aq)

Fe^3+(aq)

Pb^2+(aq)

Cu^2+(aq)

metal ions solution color precipitate color

Ca^2+(aq) N/A

Mg^2+(aq)

Al^3+(aq)

Zn^2+(aq)

Fe^2+(aq)

Fe^3+(aq)

Pb^2+(aq)

Cu^2+(aq)

note: () is soluble in NH3(aq)

precipitates that redissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution:

1)
2)
3)
these are () precipitates, and all of them () to give ()
when excess NaOH is added to them, () form.
precipitates that redissolve in excess aqueous ammonia:
1)
2)

14.7 role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of alkalis

when alkalis dissolve in water, they give () which are responsible for the characteristic
properties of alkalis.

NaOH in water
sodium hydroxide is an ( ) compound which consists of ( and () ions. In solid state they’re ()
while they () in water. This process is called ( )

equation:

ionization of ammonia in water

ammonia is a () which contains () molecules . When ammonia dissolves in water, it () as it
forms ions slightly to form () and (). Aqueous ammonia is also known as () or ()

equations:

Another definition of alkali:

14.8 corrosive nature of concentrated acids and alkalis

concentrated acids are usually () , which would ()

concentrated hydrochloric acid is a (), which gives out () and (), and contains ()
It’s corrosive nature is due to (), and it attacks eyes & skin

concentrated nitric acid

-() nitric acid by mass
-() liquid
-gives out () and ()
-() in storage as ()
equation:
-store in () as ()
-attacks the skin very readily & (), corrosive nature due to ()

concentrated sulphuric acid

-() sulphuric acid by mass
-() liquid
-() give acid mist when exposed to air as ()

effect on skin
-
-

corrosive nature of concentrated alkalis

concentrated sodium hydroxide & potassium hydroxide solution are very corrosive when
they’re (). Concentrated alkalis attack the skin readily and stain it () or (). The highly
corrosive nature of these alkalis is due to ()

safety precautions in handling concentrated acids and alkalis

1)
2)
3)

—————————————————————————————————————-

Unit 2
Planet Earth as a source of chemicals
Major source of chemicals
1)
2)
3)

In each of them, give examples:

1:
2:
3:

Classification of matter
Matter can be classified into: (state with definition)
1)
2)

The first one may be () – 1 type of atom, and () - 2 or more types of atoms.
The former is () that ()

Examples:
Water can be broken down into () and () by () so it’s not an element.
Word equations:

Differences between mixtures and compounds

Take mixing black iron filings & yellow sulphur powder as an example
-forms a ()
-() is observed

If we strongly heat it
-elements ()
-() forms
-give out ()
-have ()

Summary of main differences between mixtures and compounds

aspects mixture compound

composition by mass variable (substance in fixed(e.g. in water, ratio of

mixture can be mixed with masses of hydrogen &
different proportions) oxygen are always:8)

changes in formation no chemical reaction takes chemical reaction takes

place, no heat is given place, heat is usually
out/absorbed absorbed/released

melting point & boiling point melts/boils at different melts/boils at definite

temperatures(doesn’t have temperature (has sharp
sharp m.p./b.p.) m.p./b.p.)

general properties constituent substances properties are entirely

retains its own properties different from its constituent
substances

separation of constituents constituent substances can constituent substances can

be separated by physical only be separated by
methods, according to their chemical methods, but not
own physical properties physical methods

properties of substances
-can be classified into its (physical properties) and (chemical properties)
The first one have several examples:
1) odor
2)taste
3)appearance
4)hardness
5)thermal conductivity
6)electrical conductivity
7)malleability
8)ductility
9)melting point
10)boiling point
11)density
12) solubility

So physical property is: properties of substances that can be defined without substance
changing into another substance

Give an example of chemical property:

magnesium burns with oxygen vigorously to form magnesium oxide
So chemical property of a substance (is the ability of a substance to react with other
substances/ change from 1 substance to another)

Atmosphere
-(gaseous) layer that’s about (80km) thick surrounding the Earth.

Composition of air:
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
0.03% carbon dioxide
~0.9% noble gases like argon,helium,neon,krypton & xenon
(argon) have highest percentage among noble gases

Separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air

Process: fractional distillation
How does it work?
stage 1 is purification of air. Air is cooled to -80C which carbon dioxide & water vapor
become solid & are removed from the air

stage 2 is liquefaction of air. Air is passed into the liquefaction unit and cooled to -200C and
becomes liquid.

stage 3 is fractional distillation. Liquid air is passed into the fractionating column and warmed
up bit by bit. Different gases have different boiling points, so they can be collected one by
one separately. Nitrogen has the lowest boiling point, thus it’s collected first at the top of the
column. Gases with lower boiling point, like argon & oxygen, are collected next at lower parts
of the column.

Use of oxygen: medical uses, burn fuels, breathing

Use of nitrogen: food packaging, refrigerant to store living tissues, make ammonia (used in
making fertilizers)

Test for oxygen: oxygen relights a glowing splint in the glowing splint test

Unit 3
About (70%) of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. About (97%) of the water is found in
the oceans.
The oceans are an important source of (food) and (salt).

Sea water contains about (3.5%) by mass of dissolved substances, which are mostly (salts).
The main one is (common salts) – (sodium chloride)

Salts in seawater by percentage:

68% NaCl
14.6% MgCl2
11.4% Na2SO4
3.1% CaCl2
2.9% other salts

Sea water can also be regarded as (solution), which is a (mixture) formed when:
One or more substances(solute) dissolve in water(solvent)
A substance that dissolves in a solvent is said to be (soluble) in the solvent.
A substance that doesn’t dissolve in a solvent is said to be (insoluble) in the solvent.

A (dilute solution) contains a small amount of solute in a given amount of solvent, while a
(concentrated solution) contains a large amount of solute.

A saturated solution is a solution in which: has dissolved the maximum amount of solute it
can at a particular temperature
The undissolved solute will: remain at the bottom of the container

Extraction of common salt from sea water

Insoluble substances can be removed from seawater by (filtration).
It is a method that: separates an insoluble solid from a liquid/solution

How is sea water filtrated?

seawater is poured on a piece of folded filter paper. The filter paper acts like a sieve, which
has a lot of tiny holes. These holes allow small particles of water & dissolved salts to pass
through, but not the large insoluble particles like sand to pass through. The insoluble sand is
left on the filter paper as residue, while the sea water passing through the paper is called
filtrate.

*draw the experimental set-up

Common salt can be separated from the filtered seawater by (evaporation) which refers to:
change of state from liquid to gas at any temperature below boiling point

Natural evaporation is a (slow process). In laboratory-> obtain common salt from filtered sea
water quickly by: heating it to dryness
*draw the set-up
a) direct heating
b) heating with a steam bath

solid left behind will be:

-a mixture containing salts, common salt NaCl and other salts like MgCl2
-a powder, but not crystals

To obtain crystals of common salt, the method of (crystallization) should be used. It is a

process of: formation of solid crystals from a saturated solution

And it can: separate a solute from a solution

2 common techniques and how do they work:

1)slow cooling of hot saturated sea water. Seawater is heated to remove some water. As
water is boiled away, the seawater becomes more and more concentrated, and finally
becomes saturated. Hot seawater can dissolve more common salt than cold water. When
hot saturated seawater cools slowly, the seawater can no longer hold all dissolved common
salts. Hence, some crystals of common salt can be separated out (which are smaller in size)
2) slow evaporation of seawater at room temperature
When seawater is allowed to evaporate slowly under room temperature, it becomes more
and more concentrated and finally becomes saturated. Further evaporation causes common
salt crystals to be separated out. As evaporation continues, the common salt crystals grow
slowly in size. After several days, they can be filtered out and be larger in size.
*draw set-ups

Comparison between methods of evaporation and crystallization

evaporation( heating crystallization (slow crystallization (slow

sea water to cooling of hot evaporation of
dryness) saturated sea water) seawater at room
temperature)

method heating seawater to heating seawater evaporating

dryness directly/ until it becomes seawater at room
heating seawater to saturated, followed temperature until it
dryness with a water by slow cooling becomes saturated,
bath followed by further
evaporation

form of common salt powder smaller crystals larger crystals

obtained

purity of common lower higher higher

salt obtained

Isolation of pure water from sea water

We can obtain pure water from sea water by a process called (distillation).

(quickfit) apparatus is used.

How does the process work?
During distillation, seawater is boiled and the water become water vapor, which is then
cooled & condensed into water again

*draw the set up

Purposes of adding anti-bumping granules in sea water before heating:

To prevent bumping. Otherwise when bumping occurs, some water (not yet vaporized) may
spurt out into the receiver (conical flask)
Cold running water is passed into (condenser) from (lower) opening and leaves from (upper)
opening.
Purpose: to provide better cooling effect for water vapor

The water vapor is passed through the (inner tube of condenser) and is cooled by the (cold
running water flowing around the condenser).
Then the water vapor (condenses into pure water) and is collected in the (receiver - conical
flask)
The pure water that distils over is called the (distillate). The solid left behind is called the
(residue) which is (mixture of salts) in this example.

Using simple apparatus for distilling sea water

Working principle: Water vapor is passed into a test tube, which is placed into a beaker of
cold water. The water vapor then condenses into pure water

*draw the set up

Test for the presence of sodium in common salt:

-method:flame test
-the wire is either (nichrome) or (platinum)
Reason : chemically inert, won’t react with the metal compound
-it is dipped in (concentrated hydrochloric acid)
Purpose: to convert the compound into metal chloride
-it is heated strongly in (non-luminous flame)
Purpose: easier to observe flame color than under luminous flame
Colors of some metallic element in a compound

compound of potassium sodium calcium copper

flame color lilac golden yellow brick-red bluish green

Then to show that chloride is present in common salt, we can use the (silver nitrate test)
Procedures: dissolve salt example in deionized water->add excess dilute nitric acid to the
solution to prevent formation of other precipitates->add silver nitrate to the solution->if
chloride is present, white precipitate (insoluble AgCl) will form.

Tests for presence of water in a sample

1)using anhydrous copper(II) sulphate: anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is a white powder,
however it turns blue with water
2)using dry cobalt(II) chloride: water turns dry cobalt(II) chloride paper from blue to pink
Do they show the sample under test is pure water?
no
If not, what test should be carried out?
boiling point test: it’s pure water if the water boils at 100C at 1 atmospheric pressure

Electrolysis of sea water & uses of products

Electrolysis means: decomposed by electricity
A compound can be: broken down into simpler substances using electricity
Sea water’s mainly a mixture of 2 compounds: sodium chloride & water

By passing electricity through sea water, these compounds can be broken down. (hydrogen
gas) and (chlorine gas) form at negative electrode & positive electrode respectively. Finally,
the sea water left behind becomes (sodium hydroxide).

Word equations: seawater -electricity-> hydrogen + chlorine + water

*draw the set up

Electrolysis of seawater is the basic principle applied in (chloroalkali industry).

List some products form from the industry:
a) Hydrogen: margarine, rocket fuels, ammonia
b) Chlorine: sterilize swimming pool water, make PVC plastic(polyvinyl chloride) and
solvents like thinner in correction fluids
c) sodium hydroxide: soap, drain cleaner, neutralize acidic effluents from factories
d) hydrogen & chlorine: hydrochloric acid
e) chlorine & sodium hydroxide: chlorine bleach

unit 4
(Earth’s crust) is made up of rocks and soils(breakdown of rocks)

What is a rock?
solid mass of minerals/ mixture of minerals
Minerals are: naturally occurring chemicals

They may be elements like (gold) and (carbon in diamonds) which are found free in rocks.
More commonly, they are (compounds) like: metal oxide/carbonate/sulphate

e.g. the rock marble contains mostly the mineral (calcite). The chemical composition of that
is (calcium carbonate).

The rock granite is (). The three main minerals it contains are (quartz),(feldspar ) and (mica).
The first one is a compound made up of (silicon) and (oxygen). Other two are different
compounds of (silicon), (oxygen) and other elements.

Minerals and ores

An (ore) is the type of rocks that contains minerals:

ores chemical composition

bauxite aluminium oxide

copper pyrite copper iron sulphide

 haematite iron(III) oxide

galena lead(II) sulphide

Physical change – what’s that?

-properties like appearance and physical state of the substance change, but the substance
doesn’t change into another substance
-a chance in which no new substances are produced
-(reversible)
-example: melting of ice - change of state

Some substances such as (dry ice - carbon dioxide) and (iodine) change directly from solid
state to gaseous state on heating. This kind of change is called (sublimation) . Its reversed
reaction is called (deposition)

Chemical change
-substance changes to one or more new substances
-a change in which one or more new substances are formed
-example: burning paper->give out carbon(black ashes), carbon dioxide & other gases
-reaction can be summarized by (word equation) e.g. copper + chlorine -> copper(II) chloride
Copper and chlorine are (reactant) while copper(II) chloride is (product)

Physical methods used to extract metals from their ores

A few (unreactive metals ) like (gold) & (platinum )exist as (free elements) in Earth’s
crust->extracted by (mechanical separation) like (panning)

Chemical methods
1) heating the ore alone
2) heating the ore with carbon
3) electrolysis of molten ore

rocks containing calcium carbonate:

1) chalk
2) limestone
3) marble

Arrange their hardness in ascending order:

Chalk, limestone, marble

How are they formed?

Skeletons & shells of sea animals contain calcium carbonate. After these animals die, they
sink to the bottom of the ocean and are covered by sand & mud. Then over millions of years,
due to high temperature, high pressure & Earth movements, the calcium carbonate are
compressed into chalk, limestone and marble.
Uses of limestone
1) powdered limestone to neutralise acidic soil
2) make cement
3) make glass
4) make limestone statues
5) construction materials of some footpaths

Weathering of rocks occurs due to (change in atmospheric conditions), such as

(temperaturechange ). Actions of (water) and (chemicals ) in the environment e.g. (carbonic
acid in rainwater) also cause weathering.

Weathering of rocks is a (slow) process and usually takes place over (thousands of years) in
which exposed rocks are (broke. down into small pieces) or (changed into new substances ).
The weathered rock pieces are (transported away by gravity, wind and water ). They act like
(sand paper) wearing away other rocks a.k.a. (erosion).

Describe the process of

1) weathering by temperature changes
Temperature changes break rocks apart. Rocks are usually mixtures of minerals, which
expand and contract at different rates due to temperature change . This creates pressure
and breaks the rock apart. This is very common in deserts due to extreme temperature
change in one day

2) weathering by frost action

Rainwater can fill in the cracks of rocks. At night, when temperature falls below 0C, rainwater
freezes and expands to become ice. This causes the rock to break down.

3) weathering by acidic substances

Rainwater is slightly acidic as carbon dioxide in air dissolve in it to form carbonic acid;

Carbon dioxide + water -> carbonic acid

CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3

The carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate in chalk, limestone and marble, and forms
calcium hydrogencarbonate.

Calcium carbonate + carbonic acid -> calcium hydrogencarbonate

CaCO3 + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2

As calcium hydrogencarbonate is soluble in water, rock is slowly worn away, resulting in

sinkholes in limestone areas and damage of limestone statues.

Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate (decomposes) to (calcium oxide ) and (carbon dioxide ) when it’s
(strongly heated )
Equation:
CaCO3->CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide formed is commonly known as (quicklime). When (water) is added to
calcium oxide, (calcium hydroxide ) – (slaked lime) forms and (a lot of heat) is produced
Equation: calcium oxide + water -> calcium hydroxide CaO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2

Calcium hydroxide is (only slightly soluble in water). When water is added to calcium
hydroxide, (a saturated solution with white suspension ) forms. After that is (filtered ), a
(colourless solution ) is obtained. The filtrate obtained is called (limewater).

Test for carbon dioxide:

Limewater turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed into it for a few seconds, as carbon
dioxide reacts with the calcium hydroxide in limewater into insoluble calcium carbonate

*draw the set up

What happens if excess carbon dioxide is continuously passed into the limewater?
The milky solution will become colorless again as calcium carbonate reacts with the excess
carbon dioxide and water to form soluble calcium hydrogencarbonate

Equation: calcium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water -> calcium hydrogencarbonate

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -> Ca(HCO3)2

*draw the chart of the fate of calcium carbonate

Test for the presence of calcium:

Calcium compounds give a brick-red flame in the flame test

Test for the presence of carbonate:

Sample is added with hydrochloric acid. If carbonate is present, carbon dioxide will be given
out, which turns limewater milky.

*draw the set up

———————————————————

Unit 10 Occurrence and Extraction of Metals

Uses of metals according to their properties

Metals uses properties

iron constructions, cars & ship hard & strong, malleable &
bodies ductile, cheap

copper electrical wires, water pipes excellent conductor of

and cooking utensils electricity, corrosion
resistant, very ductile,
malleable, non-poisonous
 aluminium aircraft bodies, kitchen foils, corrosion resistant, strong
window frames and soft but low density, malleable,
drink cans cheaper than copper,
non-poisonous, good
conductor of heat

titanium supersonic aircraft bodies, malleable, strong but low

metal implants in body density, extremely high
melting point, biocompatible

gold jewellery and coins very corrosion resistant,

attractive golden yellow
colour, quite soft when it’s
pure, malleable

Mercury thermometers liquid in room temperature,

expands on heating

silver jewellery and coins, attractive silvery colour,

electrical/electronic moderately soft, best
components conductor of electricity,
ductile, corrosion resistant

Occurrence of metal in nature

Where to find metals
1) ocean
2) Earth’s crust

% by mass of elements in the Earth’s crust

elements percentage

oxygen 45%

silicon 27%

aluminium 8%

iron 6%

calcium 5%

magnesium 3%

sodium 2.5%

potassium 1.5%

others 2%

The most abundant metal on Earth crust:

Aluminium
Only a few of them like (gold) ,(platinum) and (silver ) exist as (free elements) in the Earth.
Most of them exist as (compounds) in nature

Extracting of metals from their ores

Getting a metal from its ore is called (extracting) the metal.
Two kinds of method: physical methods and chemical methods

The first method is suitable for metals found in the form of (free elements)
Example: panning
Crush rocks containing gold into pieces
Put them on a pan containing water
Wash away small rocks & sands and leave small grains of gold
3 methods:
a) heating the ore alone
b) reducing with carbon
c) electrolysis of molten ore

a is the (cheapest) among 3 of them

examples + chemical equations:
1) extracting Mercury from cinnabar(mercury (II) sulphide)
HgS(s) + O2(g) -> Hg(s) + SO2(g)
2) extracting silver from silver oxide
2Ag2O(s) + O2(g) -> 4Ag(s) + 2O2(g)

In b, carbon’s used as a (reducing agent)

Reduction - How?
Examples:
Carbon removes the oxygen from the metal oxide and forms the metal & carbon dioxide

Iron’s extracted from its ore in a (blast furnace ) and (carbon monoxide ) is a reducing agent

Involved equations:
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2C(s) + O2(g) -> 2CO(g)
CO2(g) + C(s) -> 2CO(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

c. to extract more (reactive ) metals, we may carry out (electrolysis of molten ore), which’s an
(expensive) method.

Metal that use this method of extraction [which oxides]: K2O, Na2O, CaO, MgO, Al2O3
Equations:
2K2O(s) -> 4K(s) + O2(g)
2Na2O(s) -> 4Na(s) + O2(g)
2CaO(s) -> 2Ca(s)+ O2(g)
Unit 11 revision

How do metals react with oxygen in air?

metal chemical equation observations

potassium 4K(s) + O2(g) -> 2K2O(s) white powder, burns with

lilac flame

sodium 4Na(s) + O2 ->2Na2O(s) white powder , burns with

golden yellow flame

calcium 2Ca(s) + O2(g) ->2CaO(s) white solid, burns with

brick-red flame

magnesium 2Mg(s) + O2(g) -> 2MgO(s) white solid, burns with

intense white light

aluminium 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) -> white solid, sparks

2Al2O3(s)

zinc 2Zn(s) + O2(g) -> 2ZnO(s) a powder( hot-yellow,

cold-white)

iron 3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) -> black solid, sparks

Fe3O4(s)

lead 2Pb(s) + O2(g) -> 2PbO(s) a powder (hot-orange,

cold-yellow)

copper 2Cu(s) + O2(g) -> 2CuO(s) black solid

mercury 4Hg(l) + O2(g) -> 2Hg2O(s) red solid

How do metals react with water or steam?

Equations for reacting potassium, sodium and calcium with water
2K + H2O -> 2KOH + H2
2Na + 2H2O -> 2NaOH + H2
Ca + 2H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + H2
Observation for reaction of potassium and sodium with water
1) white fumes are produced
2) K burns with a lilac flame
3) Na burns with a golden yellow flame
4) move about the water surface quickly
5) melt to form silvery ball
6) hissing sound is produced

Experimental set-up for the reaction between calcium and cold water
Observations:
1) colorless gas bubbles evolved
2) Ca sinks to the bottom of the test tube
3) test tube becomes warm
4) Ca dissolves
*draw the labeled diagram in the drawing app or paper

Reaction between steam and Mg/Al/Zn/Fe

Mg(s) + H2O(l) -> MgO(s) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2O(l) -> Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Observation:
Mg: white solid
Al: white solid
Zn: a powder (hot-yellow, cold-white)
Fe: black solid

*draw the labeled diagram in the drawing app or paper

Question:
1) why there’s no need to heat the damp mineral wool directly?
enough heat spreads along the combustion tube to turn the water in damp mineral wool into
steam.
2) Suggest a safety precaution in this experiment
disconnect the delivery tube before turning off the Bunsen burner after the experiment,
otherwise water in the trough will be sucked back and crack the combustion tube.

How do metals react with dilute acids?

1) metal + dilute hydrochloric acid -> metal chloride + hydrogen
2) metal + dilute sulphuric acid -> metal sulphate + hydrogen
3) metal + very dilute nitric acid -> metal nitrate + hydrogen
Remarks
(K) and (Na) react explosively with dilute acid.
(Al) is often covered with a thin (oxide) layer which (prevents the reaction between metal &
the steam) and (must be removed before reactions can take place)

Observations for the reactions of Ca/Mg/Al/Zn/Pb with hydrochloric acid:

1) colorless gas bubbles evolve
2) metal dissolves
3) test tube becomes warm

Examples of insoluble layers:

1) lead(II) chloride
2) lead(II) sulphate
3) calcium sulphate

What do they do with the metal/acid?

1) form a protective layer on the surface of the metal
2) prevent further reaction between metal & the acid

reactivity series
potassium
sodium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
lead
copper
mercury
silver
platinum
gold

displacement reactions
adding zinc to copper(II) sulphate solution
observation:
reddish brown solid deposits
Zn dissolves
solution turns from blue to pale blue

adding copper to zinc sulphate solution

no reaction

adding copper to silver nitrate solution

grey solid deposits
Cu dissolves
solution turns from colorless to pale blue

adding magnesium to iron(II) sulphate

colorless gas bubbles and hissing sound
grey solid deposits
Mg dissolves
solution turns from pale green to colorless

what’s displacement reaction

reactivity means: readiness to lose electrons
take the first experiment as example,
Zn is more reactive than Cu,
so it loses electrons more readily.
It transfers 2 electrons to Cu^2+ in CuSO4,
so Cu^2+ ions become Cu atoms,
Zn atoms become Zn^2+ ions.
Zn displaces Cu metal in CuSO4(aq)

Relationship between reactivity of metals, stability of metal oxides, ease of extraction of

metals and the year of discovery of metals
 reactivity high low

stability of metal oxides higher lower

ease of extraction harder easier

the year of discovery of later earlier

metals

Experiment questions: extraction of metals by carbon reduction

Metal oxide initial colour observation does reaction occur

CuO black reddish brown solid yes

PbO orange grey solid yes

Purpose of covering the reaction mixture with charcoal lumps in step 3?

To prevent air from coming into contact with the reaction mixture

Word and chemical equations

2CuO(s) + C(s) -> 2Cu(s)+ CO2(g)
2PbO(s) + C(s) -> 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Suggest 1 way to show that a metal’s formed in this experiment

metals can conduct electricity

—————————————————————————————————————

Unit 5-9 (按需要去溫）

metal vs non-metal

aspects metal non-metal

physical states at room solid except mercury solid/gas except bromine

temperature

appearance shiny solid usually dull

melting point and boiling usually high usually low (except diamond
point & graphite)

malleability and ductility malleable & ductile not malleable/ductile

density usually high usually low

strength hard & strong usually brittle

thermal and electrical good conductors of heat & non-conductors of electricity,

 conductivity electricity poor-conductors of heat

Metalloids have (both properties of metals & non-metals). They conducted electricity only
when(heated/slightly impure).

Definitions
Atomic number= no. of protons in an atom
Mass number= protons + neutrons in an atom
Isotopes: diff. atoms of an element , same no. of protons but diff. no. of neutrons

Reason that isotopes have the same chemical properties:

sam electronic arrangement in their atoms

Reason that they have slightly different physical properties:

diff. no. of neutrons in their atoms

Relative isotopic mass=mass number

Relative atomic mass=weighted average of all relative isotopic masses of all naturally
occurring isotopes of an element on carbon-12=12.00 scale

In the modern Periodic Table, elements are arranged in: increasing atomic numbers

Group number= no. of outermost shell electrons in the atoms

Chemical properties of an element depend mainly on: number of electrons in the outermost
shells of atoms

Group I
Name: alkali metals
5 similarities:
1.all of them are soft and can easily be cut with a knife
2. all of them are reactive, react readily with moisture and oxygen in air and must be stored
under paraffin oil
3.all have low densities and can float on water
4.all react readily with water to produce hydrogen and form an alkaline solution
5.all react with non-metals to form ionic compounds

Difference in reactivity
Lithium: floats on water, producing hydrogen
Sodium: moves about water surface quickly, melts to form silvery ball, burns with golden
yellow flame
Potassium: moves about water surface quickly, melts to form silvery ball, burns with lilac
flame
Rubidium: reacts more vigorously than K does, explosive
Caesium: reacts more vigorously than rubidium does, explosive
Trend:reactivity increases down the group

Group II
Name:alkaline earth metals
5 similarities:
1. reactive but less reactive than group I metals
2. low density but denser than group I metals
3. react with dilute hydrochloric acid readily to produce hydrogen
4. all, except beryllium, react less vigorously with water than group I does
5. react with non-metals to form ionic compounds

Difference in reactivity
Beryllium: floats, produce hydrogen readily
Magnesium: doesn’t react with cold water, but reacts readily with steam
Calcium: reacts with cold water readily
Strontium: reacts with cold water vigorously
Barium: reacts more vigorously than strontium does
Trend: reactivity increases down the group

Group VII
Name: halogens
4 similarities:
1.all have colors and become darker down the group
2.all are reactive
3. all react with metals to form ionic compounds
4. all react with non-metals to form covalent compounds

Difference in reactivity
Fluorine: react explosively even in the dark
Chlorine: reacts explosively under sunlight, but the reaction’s slow in the dark
Bromine: reacts only under sunlight/when heated
Iodine: doesn’t have reaction even under sunlight
Trend: reactivity decreases down the group

Group 0
Name: noble gases
2 similarities
1. all are colorless gas under room conditions
2. all have no or little reactions with the surroundings
-Have (duplet) or (octet) of electrons
-octet rule is: strong tendency of all atoms to attain the stable electronic arrangement of
noble gas

Chemical bonds

conductors electrolytes non-conductors

 electrical properties conduct electricity in conduct electricity doesn’t conduct
all states, without only in aqueous electricity in all
undergoing solution/ molten states
chemical changes state, decomposed
during conduction by electricity during
conduction

examples all metals and 1 compounds made of all non metals

non-metal(graphite) metals & except graphite,
non-metals, like compounds made of
CuSO4, PbBr2 non-metals: ethanol,
distilled water & oil

So chemical bonding refers to: electrostatic attraction( attraction between the opposite
charges) between particles

Types of chemical bonding and where to find them

ionic bonds metallic bonds covalent bonds

metals & non metals only metals only non-metals

How an ion is produced: atoms other than noble gases are not stable, but they can attain
stable electronic arrangement of noble gas by gaining/losing electrons. When an atom
gains/loses electrons, an ion is produced

Single atom->simple ions

Group of atoms->polyatomic ions

Names and formulae of ions

formula name

Na^+ sodium ion

K^+ potassium ion
Cu^+ copper(I) ion
Ag^+ silver ion
Hg^+ mercury(I) ion
H^+ hydrogen ion
NH4^+ ammonium ion

Mg^2+ magnesium ion

Ca^2+ calcium ion
Ba^2+ barium ion
Pb^2+ lead(II) ion
Fe^2+ iron(II) ion
 Co^2+ cobalt(II) ion
Ni^2+ nickel(II) ion
Mn^2+ manganese(II) ion
Cu^2+ copper(II) ion
Zn^2+ zinc ion
Hg^2+ mercury(II) ion

Al^3+ aluminium ion

Fe^3+ iron(III) ion
Cr^3+ chromium(III) ion

H^- hydride ion

Cl^- chloride ion
Br^- bromide ion
I^- iodide ion
OH^- hydroxide ion
NO3^- nitrate ion
NO2^- nitrite ion
HCO3^- hydrogencarbonate ion
HSO4^- hydrogensulphate ion
CN^- cyanide ion
MnO4^- permanganate ion
ClO3^- chlorate ion
ClO^- hypochlorite ion

O^2- oxide ion

S^2- sulphide ion
SO4^2- sulphate ion
SO3^2- sulphite ion
SiO3^2- silicate ion
CO3^2- carbonate ion
CrO4^2- chromate ion
Cr2O7^2- dichromate ion

N^3- nitride ion

P^3- phosphide ion
PO4^3- phosphate ion

What’s ionic bonding? What’s it formed by?

Strong non-directional electrostatic attraction that holds the oppositely charged ions together.
Transfer of 1/>1 electrons from 1/1 group of atoms to another

Ionic compound
-consist of (ions)
-electrically (electrically neutral)

ion color

Cu^2+ blue/green

Fe^2+ pale green

 Fe^3+ yellow/brown

Co^2+ pink

Ni^2+ green

Cr^3+ green

CrO4^2- yellow

Cr2O7^2- orange

Mn^2+ very pale pink

MnO4^- purple

Migration of ions
Purpose of moistening the paper with sodium sulphate solution:
to increase electrical conductivity

What happens after the circuit is closed?

the spot moves to one side of the paper
Reason: ions are attracted to the opposite charge electrode

Metallic bonding
What is metallic bond?
The outermost shell electrons of metal atoms are far away from the nucleus, so it’s easy for
it to escape and leave a positive metal ion. All outermost shell electrons of metal ions move
freely and randomly in the metal. These are delocalized electrons, as they’re no longer held
on their original atoms. We can say that the +ive metal ions
are surrounded by a sea of -ive delocalized electrons.

So metallic bonding is the strong non-directional electrostatic attraction between the ‘sea’ of
-ive delocalized electrons and +ive metal ions

Metallic bonds are (non-directional) and same in all directions.

how metals conduct electricity

metals can conduct electricity. Initially, the delocalized electrons move freely in random
directions. However when the metal’s connected to battery, they move in one direction only:
some electrons flow towards the positive electrode of it, leaving the metal; on the other end
of the metal, an equal number of electrons flow into the metal, away from the battery. Hence,
metals can conduct electricity.

Explanation of there’s no chemical change when the metal conducts electricity.

the number of electrons remains unchanged during conduction.

Molecules in compounds
-compounds made up of (non-metals) consists of (neutral) particles called molecules
-(different kinds) of atoms

Definition of molecule
smallest unit of elements and compounds that can exist on its own under room conditions
Definition of atomicity
number of atoms in an element/compound
Argon is (monoatomic ), oxygen is (diatomic ) ozone is (triatomic) and so on.

How covalent bond’s formed:

Take chlorine as an example. An atom of it isn’t stable. It has 7 outermost shell electrons, i.e.
1 electron less than an octet. To attain stable electronic structure of a noble gas, it shares 1
outermost shell electron with another Cl atom, forming a single covalent bond. Thus, 1
chlorine molecule has 2 chlorine atoms, each with a stable octet.

So covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between shared electrons
and the nuclei of the bonded atoms.

how to form covalent compound

To get a stable electronic arrangement, some electrons from 1 kind of atom are shared with
1 or more other atoms to form covalent bonds. Therefore a molecule consists of these kinds
of atoms - of certain numbers.

What’s dative covalent bond/ coordinate bond

A covalent bond formed between 2 atoms in which both electrons of the shared pair are
contributed by the same atom.

Names of covalent compounds

Name these elements first: B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
Relative molecular mass=sum of all relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a
molecule of element/compound on carbon-12=12.00 scale
Formula mass=sum of all relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of
substances/species on carbon-12=12.00 scale

Structure of a substance – description of

1)what are its constituent particles
2)how are they arranged together
The (physical properties) of a substance are closely related to its structure.

Molecular structures
-consist of (molecules)
-atoms within molecule bonded together by (strong covalent bonds)
-each molecule attracted to neighbouring molecules by (weak intermolecular Van der Waals’
force between molecules) only.

2 types of molecular structures depending on size

A) (simple molecular structure)
B) (macromolecules)
-usually (solid) under room conditions
-e.g.(plastic),(proteins),(carbohydrates like starch in breads)
Giant structure
-all particles held together by (strong chemical bonds)
-form a continuous (giant lattice)
-particles packed in (regular pattern)
-no (discrete molecules)exist

4 properties of substance with simple molecular structure

1.low m.p. & b.p. as little energy required to overcome weak Van der Waals’ force between
molecules
2.soft as easy to separate molecules (linked by weak Van der Waals’ force) apart
3.insoluble in water but soluble in non-aqueous solvents, as weak Van der Waals’ force can’t
overcome strong attraction force between water molecules, but can overcome weak
attraction force between non-aqueous solvent molecules
4.non-conductors of electricity, doesn’t contain delocalized electrons/mobile ions

Why do aqueous solutions of a few molecular substances like hydrogen chloride and
ammonia conduct electricity?
mobile ions form when they are passed into water

Giant covalent structure

-atoms are joined by (strong covalent bond) to form a (giant network)
-(covalent bonds extend) through the whole structure
-no (discrete molecules exist)
explanation of extreme hardness and very high melting point of diamond:
atoms are held by strong covalent bond, hard to break & requires a lot of energy to break

Diamond (doesn’t) conduct electricity as it (doesn’t have delocalized electrons/mobile ions)

Y graphite can conduct electricity

Graphite is another form of carbon. It has a giant covalent structure. C atoms are arranged in
flat parallel layers, forming many six-membered carbon rings.

Each C atom in the layers are covalently bonded to 3 other atoms only, and 1 outer electron
of them are delocalized. They are able to move from 1 ring to another within layers.

Graphite is (soft), easy to (cleave) and has (lubricating) property as (only weak Van der
Waals’ force exists between layers) Layers are able to (slide over each other)
High melting point of it is because (atoms are held by strong covalent bond which requires a
lot of energy to break)

property diamond graphite

appearance colorless solid black solid

 hardness extremely hard soft & brittle

melting point(degree 3550 3730

Celsius)

electrical conductivity non-conductor conductor

Structure and properties of quartz

-(crystalline)form of (silicon dioxide ) , which is compound with a (giant covalent structure)

Description for structure:

Silicon and oxygen atoms are held by covalent bonds throughout the structure. Each silicon
atoms are bonded to 4 oxygen atoms while each oxygen atoms are bonded to 2 silicon
atoms only

It has a (very high) melting point and (doesn’t) conduct electricity no matter it’s in
(solid/molten) state.

Properties of substances with giant covalent structure

1.all are solids w/ high m.p.& b.p. as melting them requires a lot of energy in breaking strong
covalent bonds between atoms
2. all except graphite are hard as atoms are held by strong covalent which’s hard to break
3. all are insoluble in all solvents as covalent bonds within atoms are strong enough to
overcome attraction forces between solvents
4.all except graphite are non-conductors of electricity as they don’t contain delocalized
electrons/mobile ions, atoms are held firmly by strong covalent bonds

Giant ionic structures

Describe structure of sodium chloride.
Sodium & chloride ions are held together by ionic bonds. They’re packed closely together so
that each ion is surrounded by 6 ions of the same charge. They form a cubic structure and
no. of each type of ions are equal.

Structure of caesium chloride.

Each ions are surrounded by 8 ions of the opposite charge

Properties of ionic compounds

1.they’re crystalline in solid state, have flat sides and regular shapes
2.they have high m.p.&b.p. as melting them requires breaking of strong ionic bonds between
ions
3.they’re hard but brittle
hard: due to strong ionic bonds between ions
brittle: under stress, movement of ions brings ions of same charge close to each other,
resulting in repulsion
4.they’re soluble in water but insoluble in aqueous solvents. Attraction force exists between
water & ions when they dissolve in water->ions to leave the crystal and surround by water
molecules->hydrated
5.they’re conductors in aqueous solution/molten state. They can’t conduct electricity in solid
state as ions present aren’t mobile. Mobile ions form when they dissolve in water so they’re
electrolytes.

Giant metallic structures

Structures of metals
Metal ions are packed closely in a regular pattern, surrounded by a sea of delocalized
electrons

Properties of metals
1. metals are good conductors of electricity
2. metals are good conductors of heat. When we heat 1 end of the metal, the delocalized
electrons gain energy, move faster and collide with the neighboring electrons. Heat is
transferred by collision and the whole piece of metal becomes hot.
3. metals have high density, as metal ions are packed closely together
4. metals have high m.p. & b.p. as a lot of heat is needed to break strong metallic bonds
between metal ions & delocalized electrons
5. metals are malleable and ductile. When we apply force on a piece of metal, layers of
metal ions can slide over 1 another. As a result, ions settle into new positions and metal
takes up a new shape. It doesn’t break easily as strong metallic bonds continue to hold the
metal ions together.