IMPACT OF FEMALE EDUCATION ON HOUSEHOLD

FOOD CONSUMPTION: A CASE OF RURAL

GUJRANWALA

BY
MEMOONA AKRAM

Roll NO. BD-763954

REGISTRATION NO. 15-PGA-0397

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANTIES,
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

2020
IMPACT OF FEMALE EDUCATION ON HOUSEHOLD
FOOD CONSUMPTION: A CASE OF RURAL
GUJRANWALA

MEMOONA AKRAM
ROLL NO. BD-763954
REGISTRATION NO. 15-PGA-0397

SUPERVISOR CO-SUPERVISOR

PROF. DR. RASHID A. NAEEM MR RIZWAN AHMAD SATTI,

Ex Chairman / Dean F/O Social Sciences Lecturer Department Of Economics,
and Department of Economics Allama Iqbal Open University,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad Islamabad

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master

Of Philosophy Degree in Economics with Specialization in
Micro Economics at the Department of Economics,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

2020
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
 DEDICATION

Dedicated to the Allah the Almighty who taught me, I knew not. And

then my beloved parents, you have forever been good sports and true

inspiration for happiness to me.

 FORWARDING SHEET

The Thesis entitled “IMPACT OF FEMALE EDUCATION ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD

CONSUMPTION, A CASE OF RURAL GUJRANWALA” submitted by Memoona

Akram in partial fulfillment of M. Phil degree in ECONOMICS with specialization in

(where applicable) M.Phil Economics has been completed under my guidance and

supervision. I am satisfied with the quality of student’s research work.

Signature ________________________ Signature ____________________

Supervisor: Co-Supervisor:

(PROF.DR.RASHID A.NAEEM) (RIZWAN AHMAD SATTI)

DATED ________________
 DECLARATION

I, Memoona Akram D/O Muhammad Akram, Roll No. BD-763954 Registration No. 15-

PGA-03970 a student of M.phil at the Allama Iqbal Open University to hereby solemnly

declare that the thesis entitled “Impact of Female Education on Households Food

Consumption: A case of Rural Gujranwala” is submitted by me in partial fulfillment of

M.Phil degree in Economics is my original work, except where otherwise acknowledged in

the text.

Signature: ____________________
Dated: ___________ 2020 (Memoona Akram)
 (Acceptance by the Viva Voce Committee)

The Thesis title “IMPACT OF FEMALE EDUCATION ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD

CNSUMPTION, A CASE OF RURAL GUJRANWALA” by Memoona Akram is
accepted by the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Allama Iqbal Open

University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of

Philosophy Degree in Economics with specialization in International
Economics.

Viva Voce Committee:

______________________
Dean, Faculty Social Sciences & Humanities

____________________
Chairman Department of Economics

__________________
External Examiner

________________
Supervisor

__________________
Co-Supervisor

_________________
Member

Date ____________
 AKNOWLEDGMENT

I start with humblest thanks to the Almighty ALLAH for granting me a superlative

opportunity to complete this work. I pay thanks to my parents for their prayers which helped

me at every stage. I greatly acknowledge and express sincere gratitude to my family members

especially my father who always supporting me and upbringing my moral. I also pay whole

hearted gratefulness to my co. Supervisor Sir Rizwan Ahmad Satti, lecturer, for his

precious guidance and advices to accomplish this research work. I am very grateful to all

teachers at Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, including Prof. Dr. Rashid A. Naeem

and Dr. Muhammad Jamil, Associate Professor, for inculcating valuable knowledge to me

as a student and outstanding support whenever I needed. I would say thanks to Mr. Tahir

Rahim for sharing Knowledge, cooperation and helping hand. I am likewise appreciative to

my friends particularly for their academic and good support in difficult circumstances all

through my stay in Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU). During my time at AIOU,

Islamabad, I truly delighted in the company of my friends. I have no words to express my

thanks to my friends.

(Memoona Akram)

i
 ABSTRACT

Role and contribution of women in the household chores is a crucial element especially
nutrition, health care and food security. In a Pakistani culture, mother and (or) housewives
are responsible for taking care and managing household aspects. The study analyzes
influence of education attains by female responsible for controlling food consumption pattern
in a household and level of food intake (kilo calories per person per day) by the household,
along with other socioeconomic determinants. The study uses Micro data from Household
Integrated Economic Survey (HIES) for the year 2015-16 and selects 384 randomly sample
households from rural area of District Gujranwala in province Punjab, Pakistan. Results
obtain from Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method analyze that education attains by female
heads (mothers/wives) has positive and highly significant impact on level of food
consumption (kilo calories per person per day), as higher educated females have enough
knowledge to take care of their family members and manage better access for nutrition the
family. Income level of household also plays positive and significant role in determining the
level of food consumption while household size, although not statistically significant but has
positive influence. On sub group analysis, study finds that viz a viz higher level of female
education and higher level of income of household, age also influences ability of female head
to provide more access on food items. Female heads with their experience (elder age) as well
as nutritional knowledge and economic experience are able to feed their family in a better
way thus raise the level of food consumption for their household. On the basis of findings,
this study suggests that government should allocate more resources on post matriculation
education access for females especially living in rural areas to enhance women’s knowledge
on nutritional health and empowerment, efforts be made to modernize agricultural sector to
increase production of food items and promote subsidiary professions.

Keywords: Food consumption, Female education, rural development.

JEL Classification: I00

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF TABLES iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION iv
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rational of the Study 1

1.2 Back ground of the Study 2
1.3 Women Educational Status 3
1.4 Level of Women Education in Pakistan 4
1.5 Food Consumption versus Women Education 5
1.6 Food Consumption and Nutrition 6

1.7 Significance of the Study 7

1.8 Statement Problem 8
1.9 Objective of Study 9
1.10 Research hypothesis of Study 9
1.11 Organization of Study 10

CHAPTER-2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

CHAPTER-3 DATA AND METHODOLOGY 22
3.1 Introduction 22
3.2 Sources of data 23
3.3 Methodology 23
3.4 Multiple Linear Regression 23
3.4.1 Assumptions 24
3.5 Possible Errors 25
3.5.1 Multi-Collinearity 25
3.5.2 Heterooscedasticity 26
 3.5.3 Autocorelation 26
3.6 Model Evaluation 26
3.6.1 Test of significance of Regression 26
3.6.2 Residuals 27
3.6.3 R Square (R2) 27
3.6.4 F-Test 27
3.6.5 Test on Individual Regression Coefficients 28
3.7 Regression Equation 29
3.8 Model Specification and selection of Variables 29
3.9 Variable Description 29
3.10 Variable Construction 32
3.10.1 Dependent Variable 32
3.10.2 Independent Variables 33

CHAPTER-4 RESULTS DISCUSSIONS 36

4.1 Introduction 36
4.2 Akaike Information Criterions 37
4.3 Descriptive Statistics 37
4.3.1 Summary Statistics 38
4.3.2 Cross tabulation analysis 39
4.3.2.1 Age of female head and household food consumption 39
4.3.2.2 Education of female head and food consumption 40
4.3.2.3 Yearly income level and food consumption 41
4.3.2.4 Household size and food consumption level 42
4.3.2.5 Employment status and household food consumption level 43
4.3.2.6 Education, age of female head and household
food consumption 44
4.4 Regression Results 47
4.4.1 Female Education Level 48
4.4.2 Household Head Income Level 49
 4.4.3 Household Size 49
4.4.4 Household Head Employment Status 49
4.4.5 Female Age 50
4.5 Detailed Sub Group Analysis 50
0 4.5.1 Female Education Level 52
4.5.2 Female Age 53
4.5.3 Household Head Income Level 53
4.5.4 Household Size 54
4.5.5 Household Head Employment Status 54

CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 56

5.1 Conclusion 56
5.2 Recommendation 57
5.3 Area of other Research 58

REFERENCES 59
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Male and Female Literacy Rate 6

Table 3.1 Description of Variables 27
Table 4.3.1 Summary Statistics 30
Table 4.3.2.1 Age of female head and food consumption level of household 35
Table 4.3.2.2 Education of female head and food consumption level of household 36
Table 4.3.2.3 Yearly income level of head and food consumption level of household 37
Table 4.3.2.4 Household size and food consumption level of household 39
Table 4.3.2.5 Employment status of head and food consumption level of household 40
Table 4.3.2.6 Education, Age of female head and food consumption level of household 42
Table 4.4 Regression Results 43
Table 4.5 Decomposition Analysis 47

iii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AIC Akaike Information Criterion

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FC Food Consumption
HH Household Head
HIES Household Integrated and Economic Survey
K-Cal Kilo Calories
OLS Ordinary Least Square
PSLM Pakistan Social and Living Measurement
STATA Statistics and Data

iv
 1`

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rational of the study

Women are the backbone of a country. There is nothing important than an educated woman.

The progress of a country depends mainly on education of a woman. An educated woman

brought up her children with better way. She serves her country by produces educated

citizens with ethical views. Educated mothers will give the nation healthy open minded

children. As Napoleon said, “You will give me good mothers i shall give you great nation". A

woman with knowledge is a respectable woman, she has the power to make people listen to

her and the charisma that makes people follow her. Educated women involved in household

affairs and made decisions on household level. Such as, where to live, how much invest, how

to generate income and how to consume. The outcomes of such decisions are linked to

economic performance as well as in well-being of the household as a whole .The educated

woman, a product of social change herself, is better prepared to socialize her children to

survive in new socio economic development.

Pakistan is an agricultural country. In Pakistan, 70percent women are live in rural areas of

Pakistan and work in the fields. In Urban areas, most of the women’s are working in formal

and informal sectors to run their families. About 50 percent population of the Pakistan is

depending upon the females but the spending of that portion has been neglected over the last

six decades. Literacy rate of women in Pakistan was 49percent during 2015.Punjab is one of

the provinces of Pakistan divides into nine divisions and thirty six districts. Gujranwalais one

of the districts selects for this research study. Gujranwala is basically an industrial city and
 2`

literacy rate is 79percent. According to latest Household Integrated Economic Survey literacy

in urban areas is 74percent and in rural areas is 49percent and is more in men (81percent) as

compared to women (66percent) in urban areas (HIES, 2106). The low proportion of female

education results in scarcity of human capital. Growth of the economy does not only depend

on physical capital but also on the human capital. It is necessary for human societies to utilize

its human capital to achieve social, cultural and economic prosperity. It could be seen that by

educating women, a country can reduce poverty, improve productivity, ease population

pressure and generally prepare a better future for its children. The ratio of females acquiring

education is lower than the males due to many reasons where primary reason is the mentality

of people and lack of awareness about the need of education of females (Khan et al. 2011). It

is also true that knowledge is not defined by what one study in books but it is gained from

nature and nurture (King and Winthrop, 2015). Thus, education not only prepares the women

herself to participate in development, it also enables her to prepare offspring for participation.

1.2 Background of the study

Food consumption refers to the quantity and quality of food intake by households or

individual family members. Though often measured in terms of food expenditures, it is

conceptually closer to “food intake” as measured by calories or broken down into different

nutrients (Migotto et al., 2006). Individual level consumption of food is an important

indicator to examine the relationship between intra-household resource allocation and

household food security. Food distribution is defined as equitable provision of food to points

of demand at the right time and place (Koch, 2011). Education is very much connected to

women's ability to form social relationship on the basis of equality with others and to achieve

the important social good of self-respect. It is important, as well, to mobility (through access
 3`

to jobs and the political process) and to health and life (through the connection to bodily

integrity). Working women can share the family responsibilities with working men (Levitan

et al., 1981). Consumption patterns are changing throughout the world from basic staple

commodities towards more diversified consumption bundle (Kearney, 2010).

1.3 Availability and Accessibility of Food Products in Pakistan

According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, every person is able to

purchase food products, can access on food products as per requirement and improve

conditions so as to be free of hunger.

As a developing nation, Pakistan is facing typical problems like over population, mass

unemployment, less developed agricultural sector, poor infrastructure, poor educational

system etc. However, it is highlighted in Constitution of Pakistan that “The State shall

provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education and medical relief,

for all citizens, irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race, as are permanently or temporarily

unable to earn livelihood for themselves and for the family on account of infirmity, sickness

or unemployment” (Article 38(d)).

Pakistan is divided into different types of regional, cultural and social characteristics as well

as economically differences due to which there seem unequal distribution, hence availability

and accessibility of food products in all the regions. Moreover, it is also possible that food

items are not equally distributed among all the household members in equal pattern and

remain under or malnourished, besides that particular household has enough availability and

accessibility of food articles and is considered well nourished household. Even though

Pakistan is considered surpluses food producing country for many food products, yet mass

population especially living in rural areas of all the regions are living without accessing
 4`

adequate food products as per recommended level of food consumption in terms of kilo

calories per adult per day. National Nutrition Survey 2018 states that 37percent persons have

inadequate access on food products (NNS, 2018), while World Food Organization estimates

that 25 to 34 percent persons are unable to not meet their minimum requirement of dietary

energy (FAO, 2014).

Pakistan Dietary Guidelines for Better Nutrition finds stable availability of food items

(kg/capita/year) during last thirty years and are enough to meet the demand of continuously

growing Pakistani population. Availability of major food items is improved over the years

and there is no shortage of food products observe from the markets (PDGN, 2018).

1.4 Women Educational Status

In Islam male and female have equal right to get education. Men and women are required to

treat equally and have equal rights. Provision of health facilities and education is the

responsibility of the state to serve the citizen in the state as per Islamic law. Education is one

of the human basic skills. The level of success and progress of a country depends on

education. The women play an important role in building a nation. This role can be bettered

by educating them so they can educate their children and pass right things among them. It is a

common quote that “Behind every successful man there is a woman, behind every successful

woman there are wonderful parents”. A discussion of women’s education status can deal with

it both in terms of absolute levels and in relation to that of men. As Brigham Young (1801-

1877) said “if you educate a girl then you educate a whole generation and if you educate a

male then only one man you educate”.

 5`

Development and nurturing of individuals, family as well as communities is based on women

namely mother, wife, sister and teacher which are half of the society that educate the other

half (males), so it is necessary to take care of them and pay attention to their future. And a

woman is assigned a place where this is reflected in all areas of life. Mother in a family is the

most important person, responsible for upbringing, teaching and training of children. The

mother creates a well establishes generation which is based on ethics and principles and

reconciles the welfare of society. If women are being educated, they will prove to be

successful mothers and wives. Educated women influence the individual household members

through child care and by earning. As they are members of the households in which they buy,

cook, serve, consume, and store. In Pakistan, women are now running business and also the

members of Parliament. But this ratio is very low. In rural areas, women are not giving

respect and treated badly. They are not allowing getting education and required to stay at

home. The tribal system and owners do not want their workers girls to attend the school.

Most of the men don’t want to educate girls so that they cannot speak for their rights. The

traditional attitude towards women education is also considered as a major hurdle in the way

of schooling their girls. The reason behind this is that there are different social and cultural

constraints, lack of adequate schooling distances, facilities and opportunities. Major portion

of Pakistani population consists on young, so, young population with majority of females is a

resource that can be used wisely for the betterment of the country. The low level of women

literacy is a problem and it must be solved, it is the need of time to empower women so they

can contribute in the progress and prosperity of the country.

1.5 Level of Women Education in Pakistan

The population of Pakistan is increasing and interesting fact about the population is that most

of the population is of women. The disappointing factor is that the literacy rate of the women
 6`

is very low. The literacy level of Pakistan is different for urban and rural areas. Enrolment of

males in education institutions is 56percent and the enrolment of females is 44percentonly

(Pakistan Education Statistics, 2015). There is greater percentage of women in country.

However, higher enrolment ratio shows gender discrimination. Females have to grow their

children but still not accepted to get education. In educational institutions women are working

more than men. This is because of educational institutions give better environment to women.

The following table shows the literacy rate of Pakistan in 2011-2012 which shows that only

46percentof women was literate in 2011 and increased to 47percent in 2012.

Table-1.5: Male and Female Literacy Rate

Literacy Rate (10 years and above)
2010-2011 2011-2012
Area
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Pakistan 69 46 58 70 47 58

Rural 63 55 49 64 35 49

Urban 81 67 74 82 68 75

Source: Economic Survey of Pakistan (2015)

1.6 Food Consumption and Nutrition

The people diet depends on many factors such as prices, preferences, culture, environment

and cyclical factors. Most of the diets based on maize, wheat, rice and floor, which deliver

large portion of energy. Staple food is cheaper and measured to the main part of nutrition.

Food is the elementary necessity and need of life that must be fulfilled before any other

gowning matter. Insufficient nutrition is considered as measure of poverty or identical to

poverty in many civilizations (Datt et al., 2000). Food is essential for life and means of

nutrition. Sufficient food consumption in quantity and quality is a main reason for healthy,
 7`

productive and peaceful living. Its deficiency often results to conflicts, even full blown battle,

as the saying “a hungry man is an angry man”. In Nigeria, food accounts for a significant part

of household financial plan (Omonona and Agoi, 2007). The common question is that what to

eat. A balanced diet as means to nutritional health so, its importance at household level is

obvious. The population in developing countries is suffering hidden hunger as people do not

know what to eat, how to eat and importance of balanced nutritional diet. The poor people of

these developing countries are needed to consume animal sours food like meat, eggs, fish and

dairy. Nutrition education can strengthen the people and create allowing environment for

making knowledgeable choices about food goods and thus may improve their nutritional

status. Woman having enough dietary knowledge can produce healthy minds by giving

nutritional food to her children. Mother’s education proves to be the most important predictor

of good caring practices recently in many developing nations of the world. Many nations are

giving training to their female population and these women are working with their

communities to find out the ways for improving of status in terms of Vitamin A, Irion and

Iodine. To sum up, result of investing education of female population are to build human

resources which enables women to practice information better, accept new live out and skills,

use health facilities and relate effectively with health-care specialists and their children are

less likely to have low birth weight and more likely to be fit.

1.7 Food Consumption versus Women Education

Education appears to have a major impact on people food choice. It may open the way about

health information. People with highly education accept variations in anything faster than

people having lowest level of education. People are consuming food on a regular basis. In

this regard, women’s have a special role in healthy food of the people. Women’s cock and
 8`

bought meals for her family members. The previous studies showed that there is an

association between women’s level of education and food intake. Because women education

status has a major impact on the health of their children and health directly linked with food

which is eaten. An educated woman is being aware about the value of healthy eating. So, she

can contribute to family health by carrying healthy food in to the households. It could be seen

that women’s like to eat healthy food and they are most conscious than men about eating.

They choose low fat food than man because they have more knowledge about nutrition. So

they cocked on the basis of their nutrition knowledge and serve proper quantity of food to the

households. Studies from around the world have recognized a relationship between

educational attainment and food intake. Education level was the most important social

variable in explaining changes in vegetables and fat intake in random sample of Danish men

and women (Groth et al., 2001). In a Scottish Health Survey Low-healthy eating scores of

7434 men and women proved that having no education was a significant predictor of their

poor health (Shelton, 2005). Results of Southampton Women Survey on 6125 women show

that women with less level of education or no education eat low balance diet than women

having high level education (Robinson et al., 2004). Women having low level of education

are likely to have lower incomes than those women’s who have higher educational

attainment. The low level of their incomes made it more difficult for them to eat healthy food

in the United Kingdom (Dowler and Calvert, 1995). When there are many other demands

with limited financial resources, food choices becomes less important. Having low level of

income will also limit the amount of choice. So, they choose less stimulating or less pleasant

food. There is evidence to suggest that people of lower level of education believe less in the

relation between eating healthy food than those of having higher educational attainment

(Leganger and Kraft, 2003). Thus, the overall studies showed that Women play a key role in

implementation a healthy nutrition policy, both in the family and in society as a whole.
 9`

1.8 Significance of the study

The importance of female education cannot be ignored. It is proven fact that nation achieved

their development due to their educated females. Educated females bring up healthy and

quality individuals. Mother is the most powerful personality in family for the children, so it is

very much important to educate the mother so that her offspring should receive education

from their mothers and should get a well-educated atmosphere, so by educating one woman

we can educate one whole family and generations ahead.

Education is considered as the responsibility by law in the currently applied structure. It is the

need of today as far as Pakistan is concerned to inculcate education to everybody and the

focus should be on the woman so that Pakistan should also be considered amongst the

leading, developed and successful nations of the World.

Most of the work demonstrated relationships between socio-demographic factors and food

consumption. But too much little work has been done on the impact of female education on

household food consumption. Education appears to have a fundamental influence on

population food choice. This study will focus on the importance of female education and will

highlight its significance in food consumption patterns in rural areas of District Gujranwala.

This study is both empirically and theoretically significant. Theoretically, it will make

contributions through improving knowledge, information and understanding of food

consumption. As research mean an addition in the existing literature, verify the past literature,

the purpose of comparison, verification of existing work and new addition, this study aimed

to examine the association of female education with food consumption by using HIES data
 10`

for the year 2015-2016. It is believed that, this study proved to be a contribution in the

existing literature.

1.9 Statement of the Problem

Role of female is undeniable in the economy of Pakistan due to their contribution in the

income of their families. This study is conducted on the involvement of female education in

household food consumption. Education is a critical input in human resource development

and essential for the country's economic growth. It increases the efficiency and competence

of individuals, and it produces a skilled female force that is expert of leading the economy

towards sustainable growth and prosperity. The progress and wellbeing of a country largely

depends on the education choices made available to its female. It can be one of the most

powerful instruments of change. It can help a country to achieve its national goals via

producing minds imbued with knowledge, skills, and competencies to shape its future

destiny. The widespread recognition of this fact has created awareness on the need to focus

upon literacy and elementary education, not simply as a matter of social justice but more too

foster economic growth, social well-being, and social stability (Mishra, 2005). Women's

education is so inextricably linked with the other facets of human development that to make it

a priority is to also make change on a range of other fronts; from the health and status of

women to early childhood care; from nutrition, water and sanitation to community

empowerment; from the reduction of labor and other forms of exploitation to the peaceful

resolution of conflicts (Goel, 2004). Empirical studies done by using regression analysis

reveal the fact that the overall literacy rate, enrollment ratio, ratio of literate female to male

have positive and significant impact on economic growth (Chaudhry, 2007). Good nutrition is

important for older adults (Bernstein & Munoz, 2012). Women eat differently from men in
 11`

part because women tend to believe that healthy eating is more important (Wardle et al.,

2004). Eating fast food makes it harder to maintain a healthy diet (Moore et al., 2009).

1.10 Objective of the Study

The inclusive objective of the reading is to inspect the influence of female education on

household food consumption by using HIES dataset for the year 2015-2016 from rural areas

of Gujranwala. Explicitly, the broad objectives of this research study are:

i. To access the relationship between female education and household

consumption pattern on food products.

ii. To measure the impact of age, education, household size, employed household

head, level of female education and monthly income of on pattern of

household food consumption.

1.11 Research Hypothesis of the Study

The present study is planned to test the following hypothesis.

i. Whether female education affect the level of food consumption of household.

ii. Whether food consumption is affected by age, employed household head, level

of female education, monthly income of household head and household size.

 12`

1.12 Organization of the study

There are five chapters for this research study. Introduction belongs to number one chapter.

This chapter also includes rational, background, women educational status, level of women

education in Pakistan, food consumption versus women education, food consumption and

nutrition, significance of the study, problem of statement and particularly the research

methodology of the reading in a brief manner. The chapter number two has maximum

reviews of the readings it helps in comparing the findings of the research with the previous

studies and is helpful to find the gap in the revision. It also gives the behavior of variables of

interest with the past findings. The chapter number third has methodology, which will

designate the maneuvers to accomplish the preferred objectives by analysis of the

supposition. Methodology of the research, econometric model, regression analysis,

assumptions, possible errors, model evaluation variables and their details, source of data and

data collection are also the part of chapter three.

Analysis of Data/Presentation of results of the interpretation belongs to chapter number four

that also have demonstration and investigation of statistics, conversation and evaluations of

the consequences of the reading through additional revision mentioned in the review of

literature. This chapter also contains the explanation of deductions and consequences. The

chapter number five i.e. the last chapter embraces the reading with summary, findings,

conclusion and recommendations. In this chapter, foremost conclusions of the investigation

are emphasized and to overwhelm the concerns acknowledged by the reading, suitable

endorsements for change of strategy are advocated. At the end of chapter number five, there

is limitation of reading and then there are references which are shadowed by current reading.
 13`

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Pamela et al. (1988) evaluates food consumption pattern of United States of America

selecting data of Nationwide Food Consumption Survey for the years 1977-1978 and 1985-

1986 by applying two step decision processes. The results generate by Tobit model show

strong statistical evidence in questioning of food consumption decision. The study concludes

that reasons of the decision to consume food within a specific food group can vary from

factors of how much to consume, mainly for more highly definite food group.

Popkin et al. (1989) identifies effects of demographic and socio economic factors on food

consumption pattern of women of 19-50 years of ages living in United States of America

during study period from 1977 to 1985.The study examines difference between the changes

in consumption pattern of female and other male users and factors of consumption that

change over time. The results obtain from OLS method show that determinants of food

consumption change with the passage of time with women do more changes in their diet plan.

The study concludes that most important factor that affects pattern of food consumption is

education along with other socio economic and demographic factors.

Han (1997) examines pattern of food consumption focusing on demand of food for different

income groups by employing National Rural Household Survey of China for the year 1993.

Regression analysis is used on demographic characteristics like rural household’s income,

 14`

expenditure, production and consumption. The study finds major effects of education,

employment formation and biological locality on food consumption. The study concludes that

demand for food items is different among different income earners.

Rajika and Frank (2000) examine relationship between male and female education level and

food consumption patterns among 3543 households of eight northern and southern provinces

of China with the help of China Health and Nutrition Survey. The results of Multiple Logistic

Regressions analysis show that consumption of food and nutrition of female depends on the

income and education level of male. The study has important implications on the food

industry in China and also raises the awareness of health and nutrition in people. The study

also educates the people that how much they consume for various foods.

Fraser et al. (2000) analyze the effect of different factors like age, sex and education on food

consumption pattern in East Angila, United Kingdom in the backdrop of spreading cancer in

English middle aged men. The study shows that young educated people ate healthy food like

salads, vegetables and milk whereas old men ate red meat and non-healthy foods which is

found to be main reason of chronic disease in old men. The study concludes that consumption

of different foods depends on age and education of people.

Wardle et al. (2000) investigates consumption pattern of fat, vegetables and fruits using

validated knowledge of nutrition among 1040 randomly selected sample from General

Experts lists in England. The study finds that knowledge of nutrition and food consumption

follows the normal demographic forms. Result of logistic regression shows that people with

more knowledge of nutrition consumes quantity of fruits, vegetables and fats by 25 times

more than less knowledgeable persons.

 15`

Nielsen et al. (2002) study the trends in food locations and sources among adolescents and

young adults in North Carolina, the United States. The study collects data of 16,810 persons

between age group of 12-29 from United States Nationwide Food Consumption Survey and

calculates percentage of total energy intake from meal and snacks for teenagers and young

children. The results show that both groups consume energy more at outdoor places than at

homes. The study finds increase tendency of consumption of pizza, cheese burgers and salty

snacks and less consumption desserts, farm milk and meat products by both age groups. The

study stresses upon availability of healthy food outside the home so as to improve the health

of adolescents and young children.

Anwer (2003) measures nutritional and growth status among 2042 randomly selected male

and female children between 6-12 years of age group in rural and urban areas of Faisalabad,

Pakistan. The results show that rural female children are most affected as they are unhealthy

because of their malnourished mothers. The study concludes that less education level of

female is one of the main reasons to this problem. The study suggests that school feeding

program be arranged to encourage the mothers to send their children to schools which may

lead to increase in literacy rate and healthcare.

Naviaet al. (2003) analyze influence of maternal education on food consumption and other

determinants like energy, nutrient intake and dietary adequacy in 110 pre-school children

living in Madrid, Spain. The study finds that children of high education mothers consume

more of sugar, fruit, fish and pre-cooked food while children of less educated mothers

consume snacking more. However, the study finds no significant difference between groups
 16`

for macronutrient, fiber and energy intakes, expect for energy supplied. The study concludes

that maternal educational level influences the food habits among children.

Hulshof et al. (2003) study differences in food consumption and different socioeconomic

status in Netherlands over a period of 1987–1988 and 1997–1998. The study selects sample

of 750 Dutch individuals between age from 19 to 30 years and conducts food consumption

survey through structured questionnaire and 2 day dietary record. The results of the study

show that people consuming less food have low SES (socio-economic status). Moreover,

obesity and skipping of breakfast is also higher among people with low SES.

Moreira and Padrao (2004) evaluate the importance of educational and economic factors in

determining food pattern in sample of 20977 women and 18663 men of Portuguese adults.

Results of logistic regression find that consumption of some food groups like fruit and fish

increases significantly with education whereas consumption of odds favoring wine and spirits

decreases significantly with education. The study concludes that similar tendency of

consuming food items prevails among both low and high income groups whereas, education

imparts a lot in pattern of food consumption.

Shamarina et al. (2004) investigate consumption pattern of fruits and vegetable between

individual and area based socioeconomic measures. The study selects 22562 men and women

of ages between 39–79 years living in general community in Norfolk, United Kingdom and

adopts food rate questionnaire method. The study uses Townsend deprivation index to obtain

residential area based socio-economic measures. Multivariate regression analysis indicates

that manual occupational social class, less or no education and living in poor area forecast

statistically significant lower consumption of fruit and vegetables.

 17`

Robinson et al. (2004) evaluate influence of socio-demographic and anthropometric factors

on the quality of the diets using sample of 6125 female between ages of 20-34years living in

United Kingdom. Study finds that educational attainment is the most important factor relates

to diet score and concludes that less or uneducated female have poor diet. The study stresses

upon to identify barriers that prevent these poor diet females from improving their diet.

Worsley et al. (2004) analyze relationship between single foods and education level using

Australian National Nutrition Survey of year 1995 from randomly selected sample of 2501

men and 2739 women of 18 years old. The results obtain from chi-square statistics show that

the well educated men and women consume variety of foods individually than less educated

people. The study concludes that the consumption of food items also depends on education

level of the family.

Kylie et al. (2005) analyze the contribution of individual, social and environmental factors to

reconcile socio-economic status of differences in fruit and vegetable consumption among

women in Australia. The study employs random sample of 1347 females living in

neighborhood belongs to different SES in research study area using questionnaire of

Australian National Nutrition Survey. The results of study infer that higher educated, elder

age and married women consume more fruit and vegetables. The study recommends for

promoting nutrition mediations to improve nutrition knowledge among females.

Rezazadeh et al. (2009) determines relationship between dietary patterns and general obesity

among adult women and identifies food patterns and their association with demographic,

socioeconomic and life style factors of female living in Iran. The study chooses 460 women

of ages between 20-50 years living in Tehran by stratified random sampling method and
 18`

dietary pattern is based on 37 food groups. The study finds that women with university

degree, living in bigger house, higher monthly income and a smaller placement in Tehran

consume healthier eating as compare to other females. Findings of the study support relation

between demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle factors and dietary patterns of the women.

Raaj and Ecol (2009) examine the changes between standard and actual level of food

consumption among different groups of women living in Orissa, India. In order to examine

variation in food consumption and status of nutrition among women living in rural and urban

areas, the study employs sample of 4425 female between age groups of 15-49 years basing on

raw data of National Family Health Survey of India. The study takes body Mass Index as

dependent variable and examines the effect of Age, Education, Caste, Religion, Residence,

Working Status, Standard of Living, Husband’s education, Husband’s occupation and Life

style on dependent variable. The results obtain from logistic regression show that urban

women enjoy all the food items than females living in rural areas.

Khan and Khalid (2012) analyze pattern of consumption of food items and level of education

as well as gender of head of the family and finds that household although having same type

of resources normally choose different consumption pattern which is due to difference of

gender of household head and their level of education. The study finds that female head

allocates increase share of resources on increasing their education level or enhance their

skills.

Selina (2012) examines relationship of mother’s education with children school attendance

and nutritional status in Bangladesh. The results obtain from multiple regression model show

that child health improves by education of mother. In her studies, she proves that human
 19`

capital is most important for the development of a society. Women as an educated mother can

improve their children health by using her knowledge and thus play their role for the building

of a good healthy society.

Nguyen et al. (2013) examine nutrient consumptions among women belong to 20 rural

communities living in Thai Nguyen province of Vietnam. The results of multivariate linear

regression analysis show that fat consumption is lower in female as per recommended levels

however find higher consumption of carbohydrate which is the outcome of low education

level, lower socioeconomic status and uncertainty of food accessibility which ultimately

reduce total level of energy consumptions. The study infers from logistic regression analysis

that the poor, food insecure and less educated female are suffering from insufficient intake of

macronutrient. The study concludes that suitable nutrient consumptions among women of

reproductive age are essential determinants of motherly, newborn and child health outcomes.

Kausar and Ijaz (2014) analyze food consumption pattern among households living in

Pakistan by employing PSLM data for the year 2004-2005. The study calculates average

monthly consumption per adult equivalent (AE) for 13 food items and average monthly

relative share of each food items through the adult equivalent (AE) approach. This study

compares behavior of food consumption of all four provinces in Pakistan and estimates the

results keeping in view average relative share and per adult equivalent approach.

Anne et al. (2014) examine the extent to which gender division of labor persist within

households in the United States in regard to meal planning and food shopping activities

during study period of year 2007-2008. The study analyzes the influence of age, gender,

education level and household size, meal preparation and food shopping responsibilities. The
 20`

study takes sample of 3195 households of age more than 20 years. The results of study

illustrate that men and women both share in both meals.

Ahmed et al. (2015) analyze consumption pattern on food items among households rural and

urban of Pakistan. The study finds Consumption patterns between urban and rural households

are found to be different and households with higher income tend to spend more on milk,

fish, meat and rice as compare to their counterparts which tend to spend more on pulses,

vegetables and wheat.

Vardanjani et al. (2015) determine the effect of nutrition education on the knowledge,

attitude and performance of female students at primary school about junk food intake and

evaluate the importance of proper nutrition in protecting the individual from many diseases.

The study investigates involvement about the reduction of consuming junk food in 2011in

Shahr-e-Kord city during study period of year 2011 by selecting two groups of seventy two

girl students studying in primary classes. The results show that intervention has positive

impact on nutrition and concludes that intervention is effective on increasing the knowledge,

attitude and performance of the students.

Amugsi et al. (2016) examines the association between women decision autonomy and

women achievement of higher dietary diversity (DD) and determine the socio-demographic

factors that can independently predict women’s attainment of higher DD. The study usesdata

obtain from Demographic and Health Survey of Ghana for the year 2008.The results from

logistic regression model show statistically significant association of women participation in

decision-making regarding household purchases with higher DD. The study conceives that

improving woman decision-making autonomy has positive impact on women dietary intake.
 21`

Marinal et al. (2017) investigate nutritional status and food consumption of Basotho women

belonging to rural and urban areas in world’s poorest country Lesotho located in South

Africa. The country is characterized with prolonged poverty, high unemployment rates, food

insecurity and wide spread chronic hunger which is alarming factor for its development. The

study collects data from 452 females living in 10 districts in Lesotho, Maseru and Berea,

through structured questionnaire method. The results illustrate that women of urban areas

consume healthy food as well as high fat than women living in rural areas. The study finds

that poverty and low education level in both areas contributes to access of unsecure food and

poor nutritional status which leads to increase in risk of poor health conditions.

Haider and Zaidi (2017) analyze the changes in household consumption patterns in Pakistan

HIES data set from 2000-2001 to 2013-2014. The study also estimates variations in the

response of household to change in prices of goods and their level of income. Empirical

analysis finds difference of consumption pattern on food items among all provinces as well as

across regions. The study further infer that mass Pakistani population is consuming less than

recommended 2350 kcal food intake although food items are available and per capital income

of households increases. The results of study estimates that, 30percent less than 5 years of

children are underweight, 45percent are stunted, 11percent children are wasted.
 22`

CHAPTER 3

DATA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The econometric model, description of variables in the model, estimation techniques, data

collection and sample size will be central theme of concerns. Selection of variables with

description is also presented.

3.2 Sources of data

Collection of data is the most important stage in research work. In the present study micro

data of Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES) is being employed to measure level

of consumption of food products by household members. HIES for the year 2015-2016 is the

seventh report that is being conducted through PSLM/HIES surveys under PSLM project

contains information related to 24,238 households that is based on 1605 urban as well as rural

PSUs (Primary sampling units).

3.2.1 Data Sampling

This study makes use of micro data of HIES operated by government of Pakistan, therefore

the study is built on theory and literature to resolve the research related queries.

HIES is a nationwide survey that provides comprehensive information on various dimensions

of the country's socio-economic conditions. This survey is administered nationwide, gathers

 23`

data at the individual and household level using a multipurpose household questionnaire. The

survey covers households living in rural and urban areas from all the provinces of Pakistan

and is based on the 1998 population census. This study uses households as the unit of

analysis, information regarding food quantities and expenditures contains in HIES 2015-2016

in which both quantity and expenditures are being used for food items consumed at home

while only food expenditure are reported for food items consumed away from home. This

study measures food consumption status as tkcal/day/adult equivalent at household level.

Comprehensive information related to explanatory variables (including demographic

characteristics, socio-economic activities and regional differences) is also available in

relevant data files. This study gathers these data files and merging them into one master file

and obtains require data by excluding irrelevant information. Then again inspects the data file

and deletes data which is no more require like household living in urban areas of District

Gujranwala, so at the end total of 384 households remain for analysis purposes.

3.3 Theoretical Framework

In conditions where food consumption is a burning issue of concern, this research work is

built on theoretical framework describes in following paragraphs.

3.3.1 Measurement of Food Consumption Pattern

From food consumption data file, the study obtains calorie intake by household (household

members) and generates a variable namely “fckcal” by adding “quantity paid and consumed

and quantity own produced and consumed” and converts into grams unit from kg/liter unit.

Then this study obtains calories from quantity of consume food articles by using food

composition table for human consumption (GoP, 2001) as illustrates in Appendix-A to this
 24`

study and computes calories per gram. The study obtains calories per grams by multiplies

with 1000 for unit of quantity of food item is expressed in kilograms and multiplies with 1 for

unit given in grams, while converts these into milliliters and applies equivalent density

(g/ml)values for units given in liters. In HIES 2015-16, consumption of food items is based

on 14 or 30 days recall that is acquiring of food items and consume them accordingly, so this

study again converts them into a single unit of kilo calories per month, dividing it by 30 to

obtain availability of daily kilo calories. The study expresses amount of kcal/day into per

adult equivalent unit by dividing daily calorie and adult equivalent units. The calculation is

based on method proposed by Moltedo et al. (2014) to calculate tkcal/day/adult equivalent.

If daily calorie availability of ith household per adult equivalent is less than national

recommended 2350 kcal per adult per day, the household is said to be malnourished and

declares it well food nourished if value of daily calorie per adult equivalent is the household

is greater than 2350 kcal. Government of Pakistan has recommended average 2350 kcal per

adult per day at national scale with equivalent factor of 1 (PRSP-I, 2003). This recommended

value is obtained from equivalence scale proposed by Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

Pakistan (PRSP-I, 2003) and is illustrated in Appendix-B of this study.

3.3.2 Household Expenditure Surveys Method for Measuring Food Consumption

Current research work uses Household Expenditure Survey method to measure level of food

consumption by households in Pakistan because it fulfills the objectives of study and micro

data is available. This method gives consumption of calories per capita per household and

converts food expenditures and consumption into energy intake. Although this method is

relatively expensive than other methods of measuring food consumption or food security

level in the country, however following are some of the advantages of this method:-

i. This analysis is based on face to face interview of household members.

 25`

ii. It estimates consequence and factors of food being consumed.

iii. It analyzes national food / nutrition and programs related to anti-poverty.

3.4 Methodological Framework

To elaborate the relationship between female education and food consumption, the general

function is as follow.

Y= f (x1……………….xn) (3.1)

Where ‘Y’ denotes food consumption. While x1,…,xn represent various socio-economic and

demographic factors that affects the food consumption. The model contains both dependent

and independent variables. Multiple regression analysis is used to estimation of the variables.

To study the factors influencing the food consumption, dependent variable is food

consumption while the explanatory variables representing three scenarios; first is

characteristics of female head (mother / wife) who is either head of the family or (and)

controlling the pattern of food consumption among members of the household, these are age

of women, education level of women; second is household characteristics like household size

and income level of household (head or family member); third is related to head of family

like employment status of household head. First this study presents the necessary data for

analysis purposes and then applies regression equation. The study calculates coefficient of

determination R2, which aims of indicating the percent of how much of the total variance is

explained by the independent variables and then F-test and p-values are obtained.

The main purpose of this analysis is to know to what extent the level / pattern of food

consumptionis influenced by five explanatory variables and what are those measures that

should be taken based on the results obtained with using STATA.

 26`

3.4.1 Ordinary Least Square Regression Analysis

Ordinary Least Square Regression is a statistical tool that allows predicting someone’s score

on one variable on the basis of their scores on several other variables. It is carried out to find

the relationship of independent or predictor variables and a continuous dependent variable.

The general form of econometric equation is as under:

Y = a + b1 X1 + b2 X2 + ... + bnXn + ε (3.2)

Where Y is the predicted score (dependent/criterion variable), X1 is the score on the first

predictor variable, X2 is the score on the second and Xn is the score of the nth predictor

variable, as a is the intercept of Y and the regression coefficients are b1, b2, ….bn which will

be estimated with ordinary least-squares and they are analogous to the slope of the equation

in a simple regression (Kutner et al., 2005). It can be expressed in matrix form with n

number of observations as:

y =Xβ + ε (3.3)

Assumptions of OLS model, possible errors and evaluation measures are appended in

Appendix-C of this study.

3.4.2 Regression Equation with Present Variables

Following regression equation is being generated with the help of variables under study:-

Fckcal = f[femedn, femage, hhemp, hhincome, hhsize] (3.4)

3.4.3 Model Specification and Selection of Variables

To investigate the effect of different independent variables on dependent variable, following

econometric model is being constructed. All the variables are explained in table 3.1.

fckcali= αo+ α1femedni + α2femagei + α3hhempi+ α4hhincomei+α5hhsizei+Ɛi (3.5)

 27`

3.5 Variables Descriptions

Table 3.5 given below offers concise explanation of variables and brief description of

dependent variable contacting explanatory variables being employed in present analysis.

Table-3.5: Description of Variables

Variable Variable Description of the variables

Code Name

Dependent Variable

fckcal Food Continuous variable, different levels of food consume by

consumption in households.
kilo-calories

Explanatory Variables

Factor variable. 0 if education of female head is less than

matric, 1 if education of female head is matric, 2 if education
Education level
femedn of female head is intermediate, 3 if education of female head
of female head
in graduation, 4 if female head attains higher education and 5
if female head has polytechnic education.

Factor variable. 0 if age of female head is up to 20 years

(base), 1 if age is between 21-30 years, 2 if age is between 31-
femage Age Groups
40 years, 3 if age is between 41-50 years, 4 if age is between
51-60 years and 5 if age is more than 65 years.

hhemp Employment Factor variable. 0 if employment status is not known / not

status of working (base), 1 if self-employed, 2 if paid employed, 3 if
household head contributing family worker and 4 if engaged in agriculture.

hhincom Income level of Factor variable. 0 if household earns less than Rupees 1 Lac
e household head per year, 1 if income level is up to 3 Lac rupees per year, 2 if
income level remains up to Rupees 5 Lac per annum, 3 if
household earns up to Rupees 7 Lac per annum, 4 if
maximum annual income reaches up to 9 Lac rupees in a year
and 5 if income of household is more than Rupees 9 Lac
during year.

hhsize Household size Factor variable. 0 if members of household are up to 3 (base),

1 if household having up to 8 members, 2 if there are up to 12
members and 3 if household size is 13 or more members
 28`

3.6 Variables Construction and Definition

The dependent and independent variables are distinct in following sections.

3.6.1 Food Consumption (FC)

The dependent variable of this study is food consumption / food intake level by households.

FC refers to the quantity and quality of food intake by households or individual family

members. When family members living in a household are taking enough food items as per

their natural requirement and do not fear of hunger situation, such household is said to be

secure in terms of consuming food products. Food consumption of households living in

Pakistan has attained great importance by the researchers. Since the households consumes

many food items .however, We come to know that the sequence of the use of 13 food items in

Pakistan is very close to the natural phenomenon of prevailing condition in Pakistan. As

Milk, Meat, Cereals, are used as major food items by the majority of the households in

Pakistan.

On the other hand, the use of jams and biscuits is very small in four provinces of Pakistan.

Disaggregated data shows that nearly half of the population is currently unable to meet its

minimum calorie requirements for healthy and productive living (Malik et al., 2014). As per

Finance Division report published in 2015, Pakistan has made significant progress in

increasing the per capita availability of all major food items, such as cereals, meat, milk,

sugar and eggs over time. As a result, the average per capita calorie intake increased from

2078 in 1949-50 to 2450 in 2012-2013. Similar trends have been reported for protein and fats

(Government of Pakistan, 2015).

 29`

3.6.2 Female Education

The education level of female and male heads of household had a differential impact on food

consumption. Female education had an effect on the consumption of nutritious and preferred

foods that was that was independent of the effect of income and male education. Education

provides an avenue for exposure to more egalitarian and debunks many gender stereotypes.

One study has shown that spouse’s egalitarianism and spouse’s education are positively

associated with one’s own parity. Furthermore, who are highly educated may tend to have

higher status jobs and work more hours, leading to an increase in the likelihood of sharing

responsibility for household tasks. Education is unlikely to have a direct effect on diet. It is

not simply that those women who remained in school longer were taught more food. It is

more likely that educational attainment is indicator for other differences between women of

high and low educational attainment, amongst which may be lifestyle and the priority given

to diet. One difference could be in their level of food involvement. Food involvement as the

level of importance of food in a person’s life (Bell and Marshall, 2003). Therefore, Food

involvement affects purchase, preparation and choices of food.

3.6.3 Age of Female Head

One would also expect that age is associated with household tasks between partners. It would

be expected that older women compared with younger women would be more likely to be

primarily responsible for household task, including feeding the family. Even though gender

role attitudes tend to be stable over time for individuals, one longitudinal study found both

men and women became more egalitarian in their attitudes over time. These gender role

attitudes changes were influenced by experiences of continuing education, movement in and

out of the workforce, marriage and parenthood. Another study also found that women’s

employment may be behind the change in attitudes over the life course. In our study different
 30`

age groups of female were taken. Women of child-bearing age are most likely to have

insufficient levels of iron intake and that teens are the most likely to be ill nourished, overall

and the intra household distribution of food, in terms of calories, firstly appears to favor

adults (Senauer and Gracia, 1991). Old age is linked to diminishing physical strength, poor

health, debility and improved need for family care (HAI, 1999).

3.6.4 Household Income Level

Household consumption and expenditure patterns are influenced largely by household

composition, the household’s needs and financial means. The level of household income is

often a major determinant of expenditure patterns of households, and hence differences

between patterns of expenditure are largely a reflection of differences in income between

household groups or individual households (Punt et al., 2003). One of the problems is that

little is known about how food consumption and expenditure patterns differ across different

households, across different income groups and across different geographic regions (Bopape

and Myers, 2007). Without a thorough understanding of these differences in behavioral

patterns in food consumption and food expenditures, and how these patterns are changing

over time, it will continue to be difficult to design policies that improve food security

effectively over a broad range of heterogeneous low-income household. Results of studies in

South Asia also shows the trend of declining difference as incomes increase, while inequality

increase among the poor during the lean period(Behrman,1988). In India, upper-middle caste

groups favor sons more in food distribution than lower status groups and tribal groups

(Warrier, 1992). Lower income households seek care more often for boys than for girls.

Differences disappear as income increases. Although the differences in health in health care

are not dramatic. They pertain to an environment in which the price of health care is low

(Alderman and Gertler, 1989).

 31`

3.6.5 Household Size

Working wives spend more time maintaining the home than working husband, even in the

absence of children. But when the family does have children, women spend even more time

doing household tasks. In general, working women use their earnings to outsource domestic

tasks and reduce their burden. The competing demands of employed parents, time may be

leading to fewer meals eaten at home and lower nutritional value of meals as well children of

larger families are at greatest nutritional task. Preferences are however affected by the

household structure, education and knowledge of household members, habits and traditional

norms, personal knowledge and the natural factor that affects starvation (Ruel et al., 2004).

Food given to one member of a household, whatever the internal structure of that household,

affects the distribution of the remaining household food (FAO, 1999).

3.6.6 Employment Status

Others factor being equal, budget share for food at home was lower in household with an

employed householder than in household in which the householder was unemployed or

retired while the share for food away tended to be higher (Magrabi and Chung, 1990). In

many societies, even fathers who are unemployed, under-employed or engaged in home-

based income-earning activities devote very little time to childcare. Moreover, female headed

households spent less on food compared to male headed households relatively because many

of them are not employed with less access to income to spend compared to the males.

Working women can share the family responsibilities with working men.
 32`

CHAPTER-4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

First section of this chapter covers cross tabulation examination of different characteristics,

while second section present descriptive analysis/summary statistics and third section deals

with estimation results of multiple regression. Along with enumeration of estimation results,

detail of econometric and economic interpretation of estimates results is also illustrated in

third part of this chapter.

Data use to estimate the model is taken from Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES)

for the year 2015-2016 conducted by Pakistan Statistical Bureau (PBS), Statistical Division

Government of Pakistan. There are different files in HIES dataset which contains specific

information in each file, however most relevant information has been gathered by merging

different files and data relating to food consumption has been selected for final estimation.

Different types of data sets containing number of questionnaires covering information related

household members and expenditures including household membership and housing

characteristics. The second covers household income contains information on various sources

of income, household assets and debt, and remittances. Another data set contains information

related to expenditures on goods and services, and expenditure on food and non-food items.
 33`

These surveys collected information on sample households in all four provinces of Pakistan,

all the districts of provinces and segregated information for rural and urban population.

This study explores impact of different factors such as women’s own characteristics (age,

education), household’s characteristics (employment status of household head, household

size, income of household head). To meet the objectives this study adopts linear regression

for estimating impact of explanatory variables on dependent variables in the model.

4.2 Descriptive Statistics

First part of this section contains information regarding to summary statistics while second

part describes cross tabulation analysis

4.2.1 Summary Statistics

This study uses random sample of 384 households from rural area of District Gujranwala

Province Punjab. Table 4.2.1 below shows summary statistics of both dependent and

explanatory variables of the study.

Table-4.2.1: Summary Statistics

Variable Observation Mean Std.Dev. Min Max

Fc 384 2.594 1.404 1 5

Femedn 384 2.008 1.232 1 6

Femage 384 3.815 1.272 1 6

Emphh 384 3.242 1.467 1 7

Hhincome 384 3.544 1.679 1 6

 34`

Hhsize 384 2.315 0.822 1 4

Source: Author’s own calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.1 describes mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of both

dependent and independent variables. Dependent variable (food consumption by household)

contains five different sub groups according to consumption of food items. Minimum value 1

represents (less than 500k-cal) and maximum value 5 represents (more than 3000k-cal). The

explanatory variables are also divided into sub categories, for example minimum value 1 of

variable named femedn represents less than matric level education and value of 6 shows

technical education. Minimum value of femage is 1 which shows that age of female head is

upto 20 years and taken as reference category, while value of 6 represents for more than 65

years of female heads. Variable named emphh is also categorized into 7 sub groups, where

value 1 shows that household head is employer and value 7 represents unpaid family workers

category and is taken as reference for this variable. Value 1 of variable namely hhincome

means that income level of household is less than 1 Lac rupees and is taken as reference

while value 6 represents that income level of household is more than 9 Lac rupees per annum.

Variable named hhsize gives information about number of family members of a household

where value 1 shows that there are upto 3 members in a household and value 4 represents that

household has 13 or more than 13 family members.

There are 131 households (34percent) which consumes less than 500 kilo calories per day and

about 75 percent households which consumes less than standard 2350 kilo calories, whereas,

about 25 percent (120 households out of 384) consumes more than 2350 kilo calories. There

are 185 (48 percent) household females (wives/mothers who manage to household chores)

having less than matric education level and 92 females head having matric education, so in

total there are 71 percent female having upto matric level education, while 29 percent female

having intermediate or above level of education. About 4 percent females are upto 20 years of
 35`

age while 84percent female are between 20 to 60 years of age and rest 12 percent are more

than 60 years of age. There are 176 (46 percent) household heads are engaged on farming

(agricultural and its subsidiary occupations) and 10 percent are engaged in livestock

profession, while 21 percent are paid employees and about 17 percent are working as self-

employed / shop keepers and about 3 percent are unpaid family workers. About 42percent

household heads earn upto Rupees 3 Lac per year income and about 33percent earn between

3 Lac to 9 Lac rupees and only 23percent earn more than 9 lac rupees per year (about 75

thousands rupees per months on average). There are 13 percent households having upto 3

family members, about 52percent households having upto 8 family members, 25 percent

having upto 12 members and about 9 percent having more than 13 or more family members.

4.2.2 Cross Tabulation Analysis

This section illustrates tabulated analysis of determinants being employed in this study.

4.2.2.1 Age of Female Head and Food Consumption Level of Household

Table 4.2.2.1 shows summary statistic of age of female head and level of food items

consumed by a household.

Table-4.2.2.1: Age of female head and food consumption level of household

food consumption level age of head female by group

of household in k-cal
upto 20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60
years years years years years years

less than 500kcal 6 18 30 35 23 19

upto 1000k-cal 0 6 14 14 8 7

upto 2000k-cal 8 7 22 28 17 12

upto 3000k-cal 0 8 12 31 8 6
 36`

> 3000k-cal 1 2 16 21 4 1

Source: Author’s own calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.2.1 describes that 6 female head up to 20 years consumed less than 500k-cal at

household level and 8 females head consumed up to 2000k-cal per day. 18 females of age

group between 21-30 years consumed less than 500k-cal, 8 females head consumed up to

3000k-cal and 7 females consumed up to 2000k-cal at household level. Female head aged

between 31 to 40 years consumed more calories at household level. As table shows 30

women consumed less than 500 k-cal per day,22 up to 2000k-cal and 16 consumed less than

3000k-cal at household level. Food consumption level of household less than 500 k-cal of 35

females of aged group 41-50 years, whereas, 28 females head are those whose level of food

consumption is upto 2000k-cal. 19 females head up to 60 years of age consumed less than

500k-cal in household.

4.2.2.2 Education of Female Head and Food Consumption Level of Household

Table 4.2.2.2 shows summary statistic of age of female head and level of food items

consumed by a household.

Table-4.2.2.2: Education of female head and food consumption level of household

food consumption female head levelof education

level of household in
k-cal less than matric Intermediate graduate higher polytech
matric

less than 500kcal 93 33 5 0 0 0

upto 1000k-cal 37 9 3 0 0 0
 37`

upto 2000k-cal 39 26 17 8 2 2

upto 3000k-cal 15 17 6 19 6 2

more than 3000k-cal 1 7 14 20 3 0

Source: Author’s calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.2.2 describes that 93 females having less than matric education consumed less than

500k-cal per day at household level, 37 consumed up to 1000k-cal,39 up to 2000k-cal and 15

consumed up to 3000k-cal.wheras 33 matric level females heads have level of consumption is

less than 500k-cal,26 have up to 2000k-cal and 17 females heads consumed up to 2000k-cal

per day. There are 5 female head whose household food consumption level is less than 500 k-

cal, 3 females’ food intake level of household is up to 1000k-cal and 17 female consumption

level is up to 2000k-cal. There are 19 female head of graduate level whose household

consumption level is up to 3000k-cal per day and 20 heads have level of more than 3000-cal.

There’s 8 women of graduate level whose food consumption level is up to 2000k-cal and 19

females head have food consumption level is up to 3000k-cal.

4.2.2.3 Yearly Income Level of Head and Food Consumption Level of Household

Table 4.2.2.3 shows summary statistic of yearly income level of household head and level of

food items consumed by a household.

Table-4.2.2.3: Income Level of female head and food consumption level of household

food consumption yearly income level of household head

level of household in
k-cal Less than upto3 upto5 upto7 Upto9 more than
1Lac Lac Lac Lac Lac 9 Lac

less than 500kcal 4 113 12 1 1 0

upto 1000k-cal 1 36 12 0 0 0
 38`

upto 2000k-cal 5 4 28 10 13 34

upto 3000k-cal 0 0 5 14 16 30

more than 3000k-cal 0 0 2 6 12 25

Source: Author’s own calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.2.3 describes that for those households, where family head earns less than Rupees 1

lac yearly income,4 households consume less than 500k-cal per day at household level, 1

household have level up to 100k-cal,5 household have upto 2000k-cal and no household

consumes more than 2000k-cal. For households whose family head earns upto Rupees 3 lac

income yearly, level of food consumption of 113 household is less than 500k-cal, 36

household consumes up to 1000k-cal, 4 household level of food consumption is up to 2000k-

cal and no household consumes more than 3000k-cal of food. For households where income

level of head of family is up to Rupees 5 lac per annum, food consumption level of 12

households is less than 500k-cal, 28 households having up to 2000k-cal, 5 households having

up to 3000k-cal and only 2 households consume more than 3000k-cal per day.

For category of households where head of the family earn up to Rupees 7 lac yearly, level of

food consumption for only 1 household is less than 500k-cal, whereas, 10 households

consumes up to 2000k-cal, 14 consumes up to 3000k-cal and 6 households consume more

than 3000k-cal per day. For those households, where income level of their head is up to

Rupees 9 Lac per year, there is also only 1 household which consumes less than 500k-cal per

day, whereas, 13 households consumes up to 2000k-cal, consumption level of 16 households

is up to 3000k-cal and 12households consume more than 3000k-cal per day.

 39`

It is evident from the table-4.2.2.3 that for households having income level of more than

Rupees 9 Lac per annum, there is no household whose level of food consumption is upto

1000k-cal per day, whereas, level of food consumption for34 household is up to 2000k-cal,

30 households consumes up to 3000k-cal and consumption level of 25households is more

than 3000k-cal per day.

4.2.2.4 Household Size and Food Consumption Level of Household

Table 4.2.2.4 shows summary statistic of number of family members of household and level

of food items consumed by a household.

Table-4.2.2.4: Household size and food consumption level of household

food consumption number of family members in a household

level of household in
k-cal upto3 upto8 upto12 13 and more
members members members members

less than 500kcal 19 63 32 17

upto 1000k-cal 5 20 17 7

upto 2000k-cal 14 54 21 5

upto 3000k-cal 5 38 15 7

more than 3000k-cal 7 26 10 2

Source: Author’s calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.2.4 describes cross tabulation analysis of number of family members in a

household and their level of food consumption in household. For households having up to 3

family members, there are 19 households whose consumption level is less than 500k-cal, 5

households having consumption level up to 1000k-cal and 14 having up to 2000k-cal per day,

whereas, 12 households consumes 300 k-cal or above per day. For households having up to 8
 40`

members, there are 63 households whose food intake level is less than 500k-cal,20

households having up to 1000k-cal, 54 consumes up to 2000k-cal,38 households consume up

to 3000k-cal and 26 households consumes more than 3000 k-cal per day. For the category of

households having up to 12 members, food consumption level of 32 households is less than

500k-cal, 17 consumes up to 1000k-cal, 21 having level up to 2000k-cal per day and 25

households consumes 3000 k-cal and above per day. Per day food consumption level for

households having 13 and more family members, 17 household consumes less than 500k-

cal,7 households consume up to 1000k-cal, 5 households consume up to 2000k-cal, while 9

households consumption level is 3000 k-cal and more per day.

4.2.2.5 Employment Status of Head and Food Consumption Level of Household

Table 4.2.2.5 shows summary statistic of employment status of household head and level of

food items consumed by a household.

Table-4.2.2.5: Employment status head and food consumption level of household

level of food employment of household head

consumption
household in k- Employer Farming live paid self shop Unpaid
cal stock employee employed keeper family
worker

less than 500kcal 1 65 15 16 17 8 9

upto 1000k-cal 0 29 3 3 6 4 4

upto 2000k-cal 2 48 9 21 11 1 2

upto 3000k-cal 2 20 8 25 10 0 0

> 3000k-cal 2 14 5 17 7 0 0

Source: Author’s own calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

Table-4.2.2.5 describes about employment status and food consumption level of household.
 41`

There are 7 households whose family head are employer, out of which only 1 household

consumes less than 500 k-cal food consumption per day, 2 households consumes upto 2000

k-cal, while 4 households consume 3000-k-cal or more per day. For households whose heads

are engaged in farming, food consumption level of 65 households is less than 500k-cal per

day,29 having up to 1000k-cal and 48 households heads level is up to 2000k-cal, whereas, 34

households consumes 3000 k-cal or more per day. For paid employee households, food intake

level of 16 households is less than 500k-cal, 21households have upto 2000k-cal and 42

consumes upto or above 3000k-cal per day. As far as concern of food intake level of those

household whose head are self-employed, 17 household consumes 500k-cal per day, 17

households consumes between 500 k-cal upto 2000 k-cal and 17 households consumes 3000

k-cal or above. For shopkeeper household head category, 8 households food intake level is

less than 500k-cal and 4 consumes upto 1000k-cal whereas, only 1 household consume upto

2000 k-cal per day. For unpaid family worker households head, food consumption level of 9

households is less than 500k-cal, 4 households having upto 1000k-cal and only 2 households

consumes upto 2000k-cal per day.

4.3.2.6 Education, Age of female head and food consumption level of household

Table 4.3.2.6 shows summary statistic of education and age of female head and level of food

items consumed by a household.

For age group upto20 years, majority of females controlling food consumption pattern having

less than graduation level education and all food consumption level of these households is

less than recommended level (2350 k-cal) except one household where education of female is

graduation. For female age group between 21-30 years category, there are 30 female having

less than intermediate level education and food consumption level of these households is less
 42`

than 2350k-cal per day, whereas, 10 households consume 3000k-cal or more. For female age

group between 31-40 year, education level of 66 females is less than graduation and food

consumption level is also less than 2350 k-cal per day while food consumption level of 28

households is more than recommended 2350 k-cal level.

Table-4.3.2.6: Education, Age of female head and food consumption level of household
age of head female and head female level of education
food consumption level Less than Matric intermediate graduate higher polytech
of household in k-cal matric
Upto 20 years
Less than 500kcal 2 3 1 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 0 0 0 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 4 3 1 0 0 0
Upto 3000k-cal 0 0 0 0 0 0
More than 3000k-cal 0 0 0 1 0 0
between 21-30 years
Less than 500kcal 14 4 0 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 4 2 0 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 4 0 2 0 0 0
Upto 3000k-cal 3 2 2 0 0 1
More than 3000k-cal 0 0 2 0 0 0
between 31-40 years
Less than 500kcal 21 6 3 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 11 1 2 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 11 6 2 3 0 0
Upto 3000k-cal 3 4 0 5 0 0
More than 3000k-cal 0 2 6 6 2 0
between 41-50 years
Less than 500kcal 24 10 1 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 10 4 0 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 11 8 4 3 2 0
Upto 3000k-cal 7 7 3 11 3 0
More than 3000k-cal 0 2 5 13 1 0
between 51-60 years
Less than 500kcal 16 7 0 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 6 1 1 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 5 3 7 1 0 1
Upto 3000k-cal 1 1 0 3 2 1
 43`

More than 3000k-cal 0 3 1 0 0 0

More than 60 years
Less than 500kcal 16 3 0 0 0 0
Upto 1000k-cal 6 1 0 0 0 0
Upto 2000k-cal 4 6 1 1 0 0
Upto 3000k-cal 1 3 1 0 0 1
More than 3000k-cal 1 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Author’s own calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

There are 43 women between 41-50 years of age group having less than matric education and

their households consumes less than 2000k-cal per day and only 7 households consume upto

3000k-cal level, education level of 22 females is upto matric and food consumption level of

their households is less than required level while 9 households consumes more than

recommended level of 2350 k-cal. However, 36 households where education level of female

is more than matric, intake food items as per recommended level of 2350 k-cal or more. For

age group 51-60 year, 46 households with females having upto intermediate level of

education consumes upto 2000 k-cal per day and consumption level of 12 households is 3000

k-cal or more. For age group of more than 60 years of female and education level of is upto

intermediate, food consumption level of 38 households is less than 2000 k-cal per day, while

7 households consume 3000 k-cal or more.

4.4 Regression Results

Results obtain from ordinary least square (OLS) regression are presented in Table 4.4 below.

Table-4.4: Regression Results

Fckcal Coef. (t-value) St.Err p-value
Femedn 0.222*** (4.94) 0.045 0.000
Femage -0.037 (-1.06) 0.035 0.288
Emphh -0.043 (-1.44) 0.030 0.150
Hhincome 0.558*** (16.96) 0.033 0.000
Hhsize 0.049 (0.89) 0.055 0.374
 44`

_cons 0.342 (1.55) 0.221 0.122

Mean dependent variable 2.594 SD dependent variable 1.404
R-squared 0.636 Number of observations 384
F-test 131.858 Prob> F 0.000
Akaike criterion (AIC) 973.530 Bayesian criterion (BIC) 997.233
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Source: Authors calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

The results of table-4.4 show that two independent variables named female education and

household income level are highly statistically significant at 1percent level which shows that

these socioeconomic characteristics play an important role in determining food consumption

level of a household while household size is statistically insignificant which shows that it has

no important role dependent variable. The positive sign of coefficient values of these

variables depicts that level of food consumption of a household increases with these

characteristics. On the other hand female age and employment of household head impart

negative impact on dependent variable, however, these characteristics do not play statistically

significant role on food consumption level of household.

The regression analysis is being carried out on 384 observations and R-squared value obtains

is 0.636 with probability greater than F is 0.000 which shows that model under consideration

is fit and correctly specified. Value of F-statistic is 131.858 with (Prob>F = 0.000) which

depict significant impact while value of AIC is 973.530 which interpreted the quality / total

worth of under consider model.

Interpretation of the coefficient values of these characteristics on determining level of food

consumption of a household is appended in succeeding paragraphs.

4.4.1 Female Education Level

 45`

Table-4.2 shows that female education level has positive relationship and has highly

statistically significant relationship with food consumption level of household. While

considering all other explanatory variables at their mean, with each unit increase of education

level of female (head that controls all household chores) raises the food consumption level of

the household by 22percent. If female head acquire higher level of education, possibility of

consuming food items as per international standard of 2350 k-cal per day increases 4.94 units.

4.4.2 Household Head Income Level

Positive and highly statistically significant relationship of income earned by household head

during the year on level of food consumption describes that when income level of household

increases by one unit, level of food consumption increases by 55.8 percent. Higher level of

income levels of head of household consumes 16.96 units more food items than lower level

income households.

4.4.3 Household Size

Although household size shows positive relationship with food consumption level of

household but its impact is not statistically significant which refers that this characteristics

play no important role on determining food consumption level.

4.4.4 Household Head Employment Status

Employment status of head of household gives negative coefficient sign and also statistically

insignificant value. It describes that level of food consumption of a household decreases

when household engages on a profession which ultimately returns him lower income. While
 46`

other independent variables are kept constant, a unit increase of any profession from which

head of household earns less income decreases food consumption level by 4.9 percent. There

is a chance that family of a person who engages a profession like unpaid family worker,

farming (share cropper, farm laborer), a small shop, low paid employee decreases by 1.44

units in contrast to those persons who are earns their living on higher levels by adopting

better professions like high paid employees, employers, landlords etc.

4.4.5 Female Age

Controlling other explanatory variables, age of female interestingly gives negative however,

statistically insignificant value for determining food consumption level of a household. The

reason could be that other important factors like education, income and number of family

members have stronger impact on dependent variables, so aged / matured women cannot

influence the food consumption level.

4.5 Detailed Sub Group Analysis

Aspect of food consumption and nutrient intake by family members of a household needs to

be analyzed in more depth. Table-4.5 illustrates decomposition analysis of the model which

helps to scrutinize and exploration of socioeconomic determinants that are playing their role

in determining level of food consumption of a household in rural area of District Gujranwala.

The regression analysis on sub group level is also carried out on 384 observations and R-

squared value obtains is 0.740 with probability greater than F is 0.000 which also illustrates

that model is fit and correctly specified. Value of F-statistic is 42.593 (with Porb>F=0.000)

shows significant impact and value of AIC is 881.760 which interpreted the quality / total

worth of under consider model. Higher level education of female is statistically significant at
 47`

10 percent level of significant, age group between 31 to 50 years of female age is statistically

significant at 5 percent level while more than 60 years is significant at 10 percent, higher

levels of income are highly statistically significant at 1 percent level. However, employment

status and number of family members in a household are statistically not significant with

dependent variable that is food consumption level of household.

Table-4.5: Decomposition Analysis

Fckcal Coef. (t-value) St.Err p-value
Femedn
Less than matric -0.057 (-0.14) 0.404 0.888
Matric 0.017 (0.04) 0.400 0.965
Intermediate 0.245 (0.61) 0.402 0.543
Graduate 0.654* (1.60) 0.410 0.012
Higher 0.443* (0.99) 0.447 0.032
Polytech (base) 0.000 (0.00) 0.000 0.000
Femage
Upto 20 years (base) 0.000 (0.00) 0.000 0.000
20-30 years 0.355 (1.43) 0.249 0.154
30-40 years 0.604** (2.58) 0.234 0.010
40-50 years 0.488** (2.11) 0.231 0.035
50-60 years 0.321 (1.33) 0.241 0.184
More than 60 year 0.426* (1.69) 0.252 0.092
Emphh
Employer 0.225 (0.60) 0.375 0.548
Farming 0.004 (0.02) 0.205 0.982
live stock -0.233 (-0.99) 0.234 0.321
paid employee -0.248 (-1.09) 0.227 0.276
self employed -0.273 (-1.19) 0.230 0.236
shop keeper 0.001 (0.00) 0.285 0.997
unpaid family worker (base) 0.000 (0.00) 0.000 0.000
Hhincome
less than 1 lac (base) 0.000 (0.00) 0.000 0.000
upto 3 lac -0.849*** (-3.48) 0.244 0.001
upto 5 lac 0.397 (1.55) 0.256 0.122
upto 7 lac 1.487*** (5.30) 0.280 0.000
upto 9 lac 1.558*** (5.63) 0.277 0.000
More than 9 lac 1.606*** (6.19) 0.259 0.000
Hhsize
upto 3 0.063 (0.35) 0.179 0.723
 48`

upto 8 -0.204 (-1.49) 0.136 0.137

upto 12 0.028 (0.19) 0.147 0.851
13 and more (base) 0.000 (0.00) 0.000 0.000
_cons 1.859*** (3.36) 0.554 0.001
Mean dependent variable 2.594 SD dependent variable 1.404
R-squared 0.740 Number of observation 384.000
F-test 42.593 Prob> F 0.000
Akaike crit. (AIC) 881.761 Bayesian crit. (BIC) 980.527
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Source: Authors calculation using HIES Data Set (2016)

The analysis of results achieved in table-4.5 is appended in following paragraphs.

4.5.1 Female Education Level

This study takes polytech education as reference category and results of Table-4.5 show

comparison of different educational groups to reference group. Results of Table-4.5 are in

accordance with aggregate analysis portraits in Table-4.4. Negative sign of coefficient of less

than matric level shows that in case of one unit level increase of less than matric education of

female head of a household, level of household food consumption falls by 0.14 unit points

from base category. However, as illustrates in Table-45, other levels of education show

positive signs of coefficient values while graduate and higher level education show

statistically significant impact at 10percent level. This statistically significant determinant of

food consumption states that with each percentage point increase of graduate and higher

education of female, possibility of households attaining food consumption increases by 0.654

and 0.443 units respectively while increase of 1.60 and 0.99 unit points respectively from

reference category that is female attaining polytech education.

4.5.2 Female Age

 49`

In contrast to aggregate analysis described in Table-4.4above where age of female shows

negative coefficient value and statistically insignificant impact on dependent variable, Table-

4.5 gives more realistic description of this variable. Sign of coefficient value of all age groups

are positive which depicts that age of female head does matter on consumption of food items

by members of household. This study takes less than 20 years of female age as base category

and compares different age groups to reference age group.

Households where female head is between 20-30 years consume 1.43 unit points more than

base category although its impact is insignificant. Households with female heads age lies

between 30-40 and 40-50 years consume 2.58 and 2.11 respectively more unit points and

statistically significant impact at 5 percent level. Although no statistically significant

difference arises between households with female head having age between 50-60 years and

the reference group, however, again statistically significant impact shown for female age

groups more than 60 years as household belonging this category are 1.69 unit points more

food consumers than reference category.

4.5.3 Household Head Income Level

Income level of household head is another statistically positive and significant predictor of

food consumption. This study takes less than Rupees One Lac as reference category and

observes the impact of other levels of yearly income on dependent variable. The study finds

that low income level group that is upto 3 Lac rupees income has negative and highly

significant impact on food consumption. While income group of upto 5 Lac rupee show

positive but insignificant impact on dependent variable. As income level increases, there are

more chances that food consumption level increases, for instance, level of food consumption
 50`

increases 1.66 units when income level is 9 Lac rupees or more and 6.19 percentage unit

increase than reference category.

4.5.4 Household Size

Decomposition analysis shows that household having upto three family members influence

the dependent variable positively but insignificant which depicts that food consumption level

is better for less number of family members household and statistically insignificant effects

refers that other factors like female education, female age and income level play much

stronger impact than household size as six to seven members on average belongs a household

living in rural areas of Pakistan. Sign of coefficient value of upto 8 members appears as

negative which shows that as number of family members increases, level of food

consumption decreases. This supports the theory that as household size increases, household

head had to take care of more dependents and major proportion of income has to spend on

food items. Interestingly positive sign appears for household size group of upto to 12

members, the reason could be that less number of households and relatively high income

household heads belong to this category.

4.5.5 Household Head Employment Status

Employment status of head of household gives negative coefficient sign and also statistically

insignificant value. It describes that level of food consumption of a household decreases

when household engages on a profession which ultimately returns him lower income. While

other independent variables are kept constant, a unit increase of any profession from which

head of household earns less income decreases food consumption level by 4.9 unit points.

There is a chance that family of heads who are engaged in a profession like unpaid family
 51`

worker, farming (share cropper, farm laborer), a small shop keeper and low paid employee

decreases by 1.44 units in contrast to those persons who earn their living on higher levels by

adopting better professions like employers, landlords and high paid employees etc.
 52`

CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The objective of this study to examine influence of key determinants especially role of

women education on food consumption level among household living in rural area of District

Gujranwala, province Punjab in Pakistan. This study uses food consumption level among

household as dependent variable and finds how female household head (organizing

household chores) manages food consumption level among family members. These factors

including education level of head female (mother / wife), age of head female, household size,

employment status and income level of household head. The study employees Household

Integrated and Economic Survey (HIES) data for the year 2015-16 which is being conducted

by Government of Pakistan in alternative year. The study applies Ordinary Least Square

(OLS) regression analysis on 384 randomly selected households from rural constituency of

District Gujranwala.

Women especially head female as a mother or housewife in rural areas of Pakistan use their

abilities and available resources in order to feed their families as best as possible and play

their crucial role in providing as well as improving household food security level. The major

finding of this research study is that particular household socioeconomic characteristics play

major role in determining the level of food consumption in rural area of District Gujranwala.
 53`

Among these determinants, female education level and income are found to influence the

level of food consumption positively and statistically significant at household level on

aggregate basis, whereas, effect of household size is found positive but insignificant. On the

other hand female age and employment status of household head negatively influence the

dependent variable however their effect is not statistically significant.

Sub group analysis of this study shows that female head education and age as well as

household head income level positively and significantly affect a female head’s ability to

provide more access on food items. The results of study show that education is an important

determinant of consuming food items. Female heads having higher level of education have

enough knowledge to take care of their family members and thus manage to better access of

nutrition the family. In the same way, female heads with their experience (elder age) as well

as nutritional knowledge and economic experience are able to feed their family in a better

way thus raise the level of food consumption for their household. Higher income levels of

household head (more than seven lac rupees annual income) also have positive coefficient

sign and significant effect on household food consumption level which is consistent with the

theory that higher income levels increase the purchasing power of a household and thus

promotes better access to food items.

While level of food consumption of a household increases with raising level of income,

employment status also matters. A profession like employer, landlords and high paid

employees raise the income level as well as household is able to improve the nutrition and

health status unlike engage on profession which in return gives small amount of income and

thus unable to fulfill the nutritional requirements of the family. Moreover, members of the

larger family have more dependents to take care of and reduces the resources to fully

nutrition the household members.

 54`

5.2 Recommendations

Role and contribution of women in the household chores is a crucial element especially

nutrition, health care and food security. In a Pakistani culture, mother and (or) housewives

are responsible for taking care and managing household aspects. Analysis of this study

recommends following:-

i. There is need to create awareness on the importance of female education especially

post matriculation levels. In this regards, both federal and provincial government

may encourage and support rural education programmes specifically prepare for

women to enhance their knowledge on nutritional health, benefits of a diverse diet

and managing food requirements of their family members. Also there is need to

include subject of nutritional health or chapters that contains guidance / instruction

in the syllabus.

ii. As results of the study illustrates that if more resources are allocated and given more

empowerment, female play vital role in enhancing the level of food consumption by

members of the household. It is therefore, needs to promote and encourage gender

based resource allocation and women empowerment policies to increase wellbeing

of households and reduce gender inequity at all levels.

iii. Efforts be made to modernize agricultural sector which helps to increase production

of food items and also helps to promote ancillary / subsidiary professions. This will

ultimately increase the income level, enhance skill abilities and better choice of

professions / employment status.

 55`

iv. It is dire need of time to more emphasis on family planning programmes in order to

have small household size as evidence from inverse impact of household size and

food consumption level.

v. It is desirable to prepare a common dataset which includes socioeconomic

characteristics, nutrition and health status at both household and individual levels as

well as at provincial and district level to attain a more useful data at one hand.

5.3 Area of further Research

The objective of this study is to examine how education level of female and other socio

economic factors influences level of food consumption of household located in rural area of

District Gujranwala. However, the study proposes that further research work on the role of

women on household food consumption level be carried out at provincial as well as national

level be carried out with well documented and necessary policies put in places.
 56`

REFERENCES

Ahmad, N., M. R. Sheikh, and K. Saeed (2015). Rural Urban Food Consumption Analysis
in Pakistan: Expenditure Elasticities Approach. Pakistan journal of Commerce and
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APPENDIX-A

ENERGY CONTENT PER 100 GRAMS OF EDIBLE

PORTIONS
Food item Kilocalorie Food item Kilocalori Food item Kilocalorie
e
Milk(fresh and 105 Cabbage 23 Glucose 365
boiled)
Milk (Powdered) 446 Cauliflower 27 Energile 370
Milk (packed by 632 Karaila 24 Carbonated 39
plants) Beverages
Curd/Yoghurt 133 Lady Finger 35 Wheat Flour 357
Butter 372 Bingil 26 Rice 163
Beef 244 Cucumber 16 Maize, Barley, 325
Jawar& Millet
Mutton 164 Tinda 23 Suji, Maida, 360
Besan
Chicken Meat 256 Pumpkin 44 Other cereals 264
products15
Eggs 155 Bottle Gourd 15 Dal chana 187
Fish 101 Radish 23 Mash 158
Banana 96 Turnip 26 Moong 120
Citrus Fruits 43 Carrot 373 Masoor 178
Apple 57 Moongra 25 Other16 216
Dates 131 Other17 22 Desi Ghee 900
Grapes 74 Ginger 53 Vegetable 874
Ghee
Mango 64 Garlic 121 Cooking Oil 900
Other fresh fruits 53 Cinnamon, 297 Coffee 334
Caraway
Dry fruits18 470 Tea 296 Biscuits 440
Potato 83 Sugar 390 Bread 263
Onion 44 Gur 310
Tomato 21 Honey 310
Other sweet 420
meats19
Source: Government of Pakistan (2001)
15
Vermicelli, Corn flakes, Noodles, Marconi, Spageite.
16
Arhar, chick / Pigeon /Garden Peas, Sunflower, Soybean.
17
Green Chilies, Tural, Lettuce, Kulfa.
18
Raisin, Dates, Apricot (dried), Almond, Walnut, Chilgoza, Pistachio, Peanuts, Aniseed.
19
Barfi, Jaleebi, Halwa.
64`
 65`

APPENDIX-B

ADULT EQUIVALENCE SCALE

Limit of Age Daily Requirement-Energy per Equivalent

Person Factor

For Children
Less than 1 year 1010 0.4298
Between 01 to 04 year 1304 0.5549
Between 05 to 09 year 1768 0.7524

For Males Members

Between 10 to 14 year 2816 1.1983

Between 15 to 19 year 3087 1.3137
Between 20 to 39 year 2760 1.1745
Between 40 to 49 year 2640 1.1235
Between 50 to 59 year 2460 1.0469
60+ year 2146 0.9132

For Females

Between 10 to 14 year 2464 1.0486

Between 15 to 19 year 2322 0.9881
Between 20 to 39 year 2080 0.8852
Between 40 to 49 year 1976 0.8409
Between 50 to 59 year 1872 0.7966
60+ year 1632 0.6945

National Average 2350 1

Source: Government of Pakistan (PRSP-I, 2003).

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APPENDIX-C

Ordinary Least Square Method

1. Assumptions

In order to accurately estimate the regression coefficients with the use of ordinary least-

square (OLS), five different assumptions must be fulfilled. Violation of these assumptions

may yield a β that will differ significantly if applied to different sets.

i. E (Ɛ) = 0 ( Error term has mean of zero)

ii. E (Ɛ Ɛ) = σ2 In (Error term has constant variance)

iii. Rank(X) = K

iv. X is non-stochastic matrix

v. Ɛ ~N (0, σ2In ). (errors are normally distributed )

These assumptions are used to study the statistical properties of the estimator of regression

coefficients. The following assumption is required to study, particularly the large sample

properties of the estimators.

( ) =∆
❑
X' X
lim exists and is a non-stochastic and nonsingular matrix
n→x n
(with finite elements).

The explanatory variables can also be stochastic in some cases.

 67`

2. Possible Errors

Some errors might be happened with multiple linear regression.

2.1 Multi Co-linearity

Multi co-linearity occurs when there is high correlation among the co-variates, I e when two

or more regressor variables have near linear dependencies between them. The effects of

severe Multi co-linearity are many and significant. There is multiple ways to manage the

presence of Multi co-linearity, with the easiest method is to remove one or more of the

affected regressor variables. Variance inflation factor are often used to detect the Multi co-

linearity. If the value of VIF greater than 5, it indicates that Multi co-linearity needs to be

managed.

2.2 Heteroscedasticity

The third assumption of ordinary least-square is that the residuals should have approximately

a constant variance. The problem of heteroscedasticity is said to exist if the constant variance

assumption is not met. If heteroscedasticity is present, it may cause the standard deviation to

be inconsistent and significance of the coefficients to be invalid. The OLS is no longer the

best linear unbiased estimator.

2.3 Autocorrelation
 68`

Autocorrelation happens when errors are correlated with themselves at different time periods

which violate assumption four. It often occurs when the model is missing repressor variables.

3 Model Evaluation

This section presents different evaluation measures for the OLS model.

3.1 Test of Significance of Regression

Once estimation of βs values has been completed, it is important to know how significant the

results are and whether a linear relationship between the response and the repressors can be

statistically determined. The F-statistics and its corresponding p-values will be used to see if

the null-hypothesis can be rejected and a linear relationship can be confirmed.

3.2 Residuals

Difference between observed and fitted values of the variable is called as residual. It is denoted as:

e=y ~ŷ

An important property of residual is that they have a mean of zero.

3.3 R-Squire (R2)

R2 is the value that indicates how good the fit is to the data points in the regression model. A

R2value is a number between 0 and 1. This may lead to the belief that the model with more

variables is the better one, which may lead to over fitting. It is also known as the coefficient
 69`

of determination or the coefficient of multiple determinations for multiple regressions. It is

the percentage of the response variable variation that is explained by the linear model.

3.4 F-test

An F-test is a statistical test in which the test statistic is based on the F-distribution under the

null-hypothesis. It is most often used when comparing statistical models that have been fitted

to data set, in order to identify the model that best fits the population from which the data

were sampled. In this research, the F-test is used to test the significance of the model.The test

MSR
statistics F0 can be computed by follows the Fk,n-k-1 distribution. Reject H0, if F0
MSRES

>Fk,n-k-1. The test statistic F0 can usually be obtained from the ANOVA table (Experiment

Design and Analysis Reference, n.d.).

3.5 Test on Individual Regression Coefficients

The t- test is used to check the significance of individual regression coefficient in the multiple

linear regression models. Adding a significant variable to a regression model makes the

model more effective, while adding an unimportant variable may make the model worse. The

hypothesis statement to test the significance of a particular regression coefficient, βj are:

H0: βj = 0
H1: βj ≠ 0

The test statistic for this test has the t-distribution:

T0 = β cap j
Se (βj)

where the standard error, 𝑠𝑒(β  j), is obtained. One would fail to reject the null hypothesis if

the test statistic lies in the acceptance region:

 70`

-tα/2, n-2< T0< tα/2, n-2

This test measures the contribution of a variable while some other variables are included in

the model (Experiment Design and Analysis Reference, n.d.).

4. Akaike Information criterion (AIC)

First established by Akaike (1973), AIC, is a way to associate diverse models on an assumed

conclusion. For a specified agreed set of statistics, it is an estimator of the comparative

quality for statistical models. AIC guesses the quality of every model, relative to each of the

other models, assumed a collection of models for the statistics. AIC, therefore, offers a

resource for assortment of model.AIC, however, does not deliver, in the logic of challenging

a null guess, the test of the model (Akaike, 1973). It expresses not anything, merely the

quality comparative to other models, about the total worth of a model. Thus, AIC will not

offer any cautioning, even all the entrant models fit poorly.

Supposing we take a numerical model of certain statistics, let the numeral of projected

parameters in the model are k. Let L be the extreme worth of the likelihood utility for the

model. Then the value, for AIC, of the model is: AIC = 2k – 2 ln (L). Hence, the preferred

model is the one with the lowest AIC, assumed a set of candidate models for the value of

figures (Burnham and Anderson, 2002).