Chapter 2 Pulsecommunication

Chapter 2
PULSE COMMUNICATIONS
PULSE COMMUNICATIONS: C312.2 C312.3
2.1 Pulse modulation


➢In pulse modulation, the carrier is in the form of train of periodic rectangular
pulses.
➢Pulse modulation can be either analog or digital.
➢In the analog pulse modulation, the amplitude, width or position of the rectangular
carrier pulses is changed in accordance with the modulating signal.
➢This will result in PAM (pulse amplitude modulation), PWM (pulse width
modulation) and PPM (pulse position modulation). PAM, PWM and PPM the
examples of analog pulse modulation.

➢The pulse modulation can be digital as well. The well known examples of digital
pulse modulation are pulse code modulation (PCM), delta modulation (DM),
adaptive delta modulation (ADM),

Pulse modulation Continuous wave modulation
➢ The modulated signal is in the form of ➢ The modulated signal is in the form of
2.1.1 pulses continuous signals.
Comparison ➢ Power loss is less ➢ Power loss is more
➢ High frequency periodic pulse is used as ➢ High frequency sinewave is used as carrier
carrier
➢ Multiplexing is possible ➢ Multiplexing not possible
➢ Bandwidth requirement is more ➢ Bandwidth requirement is less
➢ Complex and expensive ➢ Simple and less expensive
➢ Pulse modulation has both analog as well as ➢ It has only analog modulation
digital in nature
➢ Examples are PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM, ➢ Examples are AM, FM, PM
DM, ADM.
➢ Applications used in Satellite and Digital ➢ Applications used in radio and TV
Communication system broadcasting system
2.1.2 Advantages of Pulse modulation

➢It is a simple process for both modulation and demodulation.
➢Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to construct.
➢PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message at the
same time.
➢As mentioned PAM is short form of Pulse Amplitude Modulation in which
amplitude of pulse is proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal. It is
similar to amplitude modulation (AM).
➢No complex circuity is required for both transmission and reception.
2.1.2 Disadvantages of Pulse modulation

➢ Added noise cannot be removed easily as it has an impact on amplitude which
carries information.
➢Noise will be great.
➢It is difficult to remove noise, as this amplitude part which carries information.
➢Noise interference is higher.
➢Transmission bandwidth is too large.
2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

Introduction
➢A continuous signal or an analog signal can be represented in the digital version in
the form of samples.
➢Here, these samples are also called as discrete points. In sampling theorem, the
input signal is in an analog form of signal and the second input signal is a
sampling signal, which is a pulse train signal and each pulse is equidistance with a
period of “Ts”.
➢This sampling signal frequency should be more than twice of the input analog
signal frequency.
➢ If this condition satisfies, analog signal perfectly represented in discrete form else
analog signal may be losing its amplitude values for certain time intervals.


Sampling Theorem Definition
➢The sampling theorem can be defined as the conversion of an analog signal into a
discrete form by taking the sampling frequency as twice the input analog signal
frequency.
➢Input signal frequency denoted by Fm and sampling signal frequency denoted by
Fs.
➢The output sample signal is represented by the samples. These samples are
maintained with a gap, these gaps are termed as sample period or sampling
interval (Ts). And the reciprocal of the sampling period is known as “sampling
frequency” or “sampling rate”. The number of samples is represented in the
sampled signal is indicated by the sampling rate.
Sampling frequency Fs = 1 / Ts

Sampling Theorem Statement
➢Sampling theorem states that “continues form of a time-variant signal can be
represented in the discrete form of a signal with help of samples and the sampled
(discrete) signal can be recovered to original form when the sampling signal
frequency Fs having the greater frequency value than or equal to the input signal
frequency Fm.
Fs ≥ 2Fm

➢If the sampling frequency (Fs) equals twice the input signal frequency (Fm), then
such a condition is called the Nyquist Criteria for sampling. When sampling
frequency equals twice the input signal frequency is known as “Nyquist rate”.
Fs = 2Fm
➢If the sampling frequency (Fs) is less than twice the input signal frequency, such
criteria called an Aliasing effect.
Fs < 2Fm
➢So, there are three conditions that are possible from the sampling frequency
criteria. They are sampling, Nyquist and aliasing states. Now we will see the
Nyquist sampling theorem.

Aliasing effect
➢Aliasing is an unwanted case of sampling, where the minimum condition for
accurate sampling is not met. Thus there is an overlap in the shifted replicas of the
signal. Consequently, x(t) signal can neither be sampled accurately or recovered
from its samples.
➢Alternatively, we can state that aliasing occurs when a signal undergoes sampling
at an insufficient sampling rate Fs < 2Fm.

Aliasing effect
➢Due to aliasing some of the information in the overlapped spectrum portion is lost.
➢Aliasing can be completely eliminated if the signal x(t) is strictly bandlimited by
passing through a bandpass filter before it is sampled.
➢The bandpass filter is also called as Anti-alising filter or pre-aliasing filter. The
sampling frequency Fs should be increased such that Fs is very much greater than
2Fm.
➢Fs >> 2Fm due to this guard band will be created between the adjacent spectrum.

Sampling Conditions
2.2.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

➢It is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude of the pulse carrier
varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
➢The pulse amplitude modulated signal, will follow the amplitude of the original
signal, as the signal traces out the path of the whole wave.
➢These sampled pulses can be transmitted directly using wired media or we can use
a carrier signal for transmitting through wireless. There are two types of sampling
techniques for transmitting messages using pulse amplitude modulation, they are
2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

There are two types of pulse amplitude modulation based on signal polarity
Single Polarity PAM
➢In single polarity pulse amplitude modulation, there is fixed level of DC bias
added to the message signal or modulating signal, so the output of modulating
signal is always positive.
Double Polarity PAM
➢In the double polarity pulse amplitude modulation, the output of modulating signal
will have both positive and negative ends.

There are two types of sampling techniques for transmitting a signal using PAM.
They are as follows:
1. Flat-top PAM
➢ The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to modulating signal
amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence. The amplitude of the signal cannot be
changed with respect to the analog signal to be sampled. The tops of the amplitude
remain flat.

2. Natural PAM
➢The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to modulating signal
amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence. Then follows the amplitude of the pulse
for the rest of the half-cycle.

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

Natural PAM is also called chopper sampled PAM because the waveform of the
sampled signal appears to be chopped OFF (cut-off samples) from the continuous
time signal x(t).
➢Fig.(1) shows the chopper arrangement where the switch is operated by the carrier
pulses.

➢Fig. (2) shows a simple method of generating Natural PAM using MOSFET as
chopper switch.
➢The carrier signal is applied as gating pulses to the MOSFET. Each of the
unmodulated carrier pulse turn ON the MOSFET switch. The output across the
load resistor RL is across the pulse with each amplitude of the modulating signal at
that instant of time.

➢During the OFF time of the carrier pulses the MOSFET turns OFF and the output
is zero till the arrival of the next carrier pulse at which the next sampling
amplitude of the modulating signal will appears as PAM output.

➢Fig.(3) shows the generation of Natural PAM using BJT as common emitter
amplifier.

➢In this circuit the modulating signal is applied to the base of the transistor through
an input capacitor Cin.
➢The carrier pulses are applied for biasing the transistor through the voltage divider
R1 & R2. Therefore during the ON time of every carrier pulse, the transistor
receive the biased voltage Vcc and transistor starts to conduct.
➢The modulating signal at that sampling instant appears at the output.
➢During the OFF time of the carrier pulse the transistor turns OFF the output is
zero.
➢This way double polarity PAM is generated by this circuit. By shifting the DC
level of the modulating signal we can generate single polarity PAM from these
circuit.
2.2.4 Pulse Width modulation (PWM)

➢It is the type of analog pulse modulation technique in which the width of the high
frequency carrier pulse is varied in accordance with the sample values of the
modulating signal keeping the amplitude and position of the carrier pulse constant.
➢It is also called as Pulse Duration modulation (PDM) or Pulse Length modulation
(PLM).
➢The amplitude and position of the pulse remains constant for PWM signals. Thus
PWM is more robust to noise than PAM.
➢The positive values of the message pulse results in the increase in the width of the
PWM signal, and negative values of the message results in the decrease in the
width of the PWM signal.

The Fig.4. below shows the generation of PWM signal from the message and carrier
pulse with the help of waveform which is plotted in the time domain.
Fig.4. Generation of PWM


➢There are three variations of PWM. They are −
a. The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according
to the message signal.
b. The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according
to the message signal.
c. The symmetrical pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge
varies according to the message signal.
Fig.5. Fig.5.
2.2.6 Generation of PWM

Fig.6. shows the block diagram of PWM transmitter.
➢The 1st OP-AMP is an astable multivibrator which generates the carrier pulse of
desired frequency.
➢The 2nd OP-AMP is the integrator circuit which converts the pulse into triangular
wave.
➢The 3rd OP-AMP is the comparator with 2 inputs as shown in the fig.6. below
Fig.6. Generation of PWM signal


➢The triangular wave input to the non-inverting terminal of the OP-AMP 3.
➢Sinewave modulating signal to the inverting input terminal of the OP-AMP 3.
➢The sample values of the modulating signal of DC voltage source can also be
applied to the negative input terminal of the OP-AMP instead of the sinewave.
Whenever the triangular wave voltage at the positive input exceeds the sinewave
voltage at the negative of the third OP-AMP.
➢Due to comparator action the OP-AMP goes to the negative saturation.
➢In this way symmetrical PWM signal can be generated (refer Fig.5.c). Here it is
necessary that frequency of triangular wave should be much higher than the
frequency of modulating signal.

➢As shown in fig.5.c. the PWM is symmetrical the positive pulse of the triangular
wave. Hence it is called as symmetric PWM.
➢Similarly we can generate leading edge and trailing edge PWM by replacing the
triangular wave input with sawtooth or ramp signal as shown in fig.5.b & fig.5.c.
2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

➢In PPM amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant but the position of
each pulse is varied in accordance to the amplitudes of the sampled values of the
modulating signal.
➢The PPM pulses can be derived from the PWM pulses as shown in the fig.1. Note
that with increase in the modulating voltage the PPM pulses shift further with
respect to reference.
➢The vertical dotted lines drawn in fig.1. are treated as reference lines to measure
the shift in the position of PPM pulses. The PPM pulses marked 1,2 and 3 in fig.1.
go away from their respective reference lines. This corresponds to increase in the
modulating signal voltage.

➢Then as the modulating voltage decreases the PPM pulses 4,5,6,7 come
progressively closer to their respective reference lines.
Fig.1.Generation of
PPM pulses with
the help of PWM pulses
Fig.1.Generation of
PPM pulses with
the help of PWM pulses

2.2.8 Generation of PPM from PWM

PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal.
➢PWM pulses obtained at the comparator output are applied to a negative edge
triggered monostable multivibrator.
➢Therefore corresponding to each trailing edge of PWM, the monostable output
goes high. It remains high for a fixed time decided by its own RC component.
➢Thus as the trailing edge of the PWM signal keep shifting in proportion with the
modulating signal x(t), the PPM pulses also keep shifting.

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM, PWM & PPM

Systems
Benefits or advantages of PAM
➢In PAM, amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to
corresponding sample values of continuous message signal.
➢System is lowest in complexity to implement.
➢Generation and detection is easy.
2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

Systems
Drawbacks or disadvantages of PAM
➢Noise interference is higher.
➢It is difficult to remove noise, as this will affect amplitude part which carries
information.
➢It has lowest power efficiency among all three types.
➢Instantaneous power of transmitter varies.
➢Transmission bandwidth is too large.

Systems
Benefits or advantages of PWM
➢Noise interference is less or minimum.
➢System is moderate in complexity to implement.
➢It has moderate power efficiency among all three types.
➢It supports higher power handling capability.

Systems
Drawbacks or disadvantages of PWM
➢Instantaneous power of transmitter varies.
➢The system requires semiconductor devices with low turn-ON and turn-OFF
times. Hence they are very expensive.
➢High switching losses due to higher PWM frequency.

Systems
Benefits or advantages of PPM
➢Noise interference is less or minimum due to constant amplitude.
➢It is easy to separate out signal from noisy signal.
➢It has highest power efficiency among all three types.
➢Instantaneous power of PPM modulated signal remains constant due to constant
pulse widths and pulse amplitudes.
➢It requires less power compare to PAM due to short duration pulses.

Systems
Drawbacks or disadvantages of PPM
➢System is highest in complexity to implement.
➢It requires very large bandwidth (BW) compare to PAM.
2.2.9 Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM

2.2.9 Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM

2.3.1 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

➢Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a
digital signal so that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the
digital communication network.
➢PCM is in binary form, so there will be only two possible states high and low (1 &
0 respectively.)
➢We can also get back our analog signal by demodulation.
➢The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding.
2.3.2 Principles of PCM

Sampling
➢Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at
discrete instants, converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal.
➢For example, conversion of a sound wave to a sequence of samples. The Sample is
a value or set of values at a particular point in time.
➢Sampler extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler
produces samples that are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous
signal at the specified various points. The Sampling process generates a flat-top
Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.


Quantization of signal for PCM and Quantization error
➢In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital
sample with an amplitude that takes one of a specifically defined set of
quantization values.
➢Quantization is done by dividing the range of possible values of the analog
samples into some different levels and assigning the center value of each level to
any sample in the quantization interval.
➢Quantization approximates the analog sample values with the nearest quantization
values.
➢So almost all the quantized samples will differ from the original samples by a
small amount. That amount is called quantization error.

➢To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at the
transmitter end (source) of a communications circuit, the amplitude of the analog
signal samples at regular time intervals.
➢The sampling rate or the number of samples per second is several times the
maximum frequency. The message signal converted into the binary form will be
usually in the number of levels which is always to a power of 2. This process is
called quantization.





Fig. Components of PCM Encoder
Fig. The basic elements of a PCM system


Low Pass Filter
➢This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog
signal which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid
aliasing of the message signal.
Sampler
➢The output of the LPF is then fed to a sampler where the analog input signal is
sampled at regular intervals. The sampling of the signal is done at the rate of fs.
This sampling frequency is so selected that it must follow the sampling theorem
that is expressed as:
fs ≥ 2fm
➢The output of the sampler is a signal that is discrete time continuous amplitude
signal denoted as nTs which is nothing but a PAM signal.

Quantizer:
➢A quantizer is a unit that rounds off each sample to the
nearest discrete level. The sampler provides a continuous
range signal and hence still an analog one.
➢The quantizer performs the approximation of each
sample thus assigning it a particular discrete level.
➢As it basically rounds off the value to a certain level
this shows some variation by the actual amount.
Thus we can say, quantizing a signal introduces some
distortion or noise into it. This is known as quantization error.

Quantizer:
➢A quantizer can be of two types, uniform and non-uniform quantizer. In
uniform quantizer, there exists a uniform spacing in between the level. As against,
in non-uniform quantizer, the spacing in between the levels is not uniform. Here,
we have employed a uniform quantizer.
➢The figure above shows the sampling of analog signal and further quantization of
the samples.

Encoder
➢The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each
quantized level by a binary code. The sampling done here is by the sample-and-
hold process. These three sections (LPF, Sampler, and Quantizer) will act as an
analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.
Regenerative Repeater
➢This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the
signal, and also to increase its strength.

Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original
signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.
Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the
decoder, a low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back
the original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it
and samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is
repeated in a reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.

2.3.5 Companding in PCM

Definition: Companding is a technique of achieving non-uniform quantization. It is
a word formed by the combination of words compression and expanding.
Companding is done in order to improve SNR of weak signals.
➢We know if the characteristics of the quantizer is non-linear then it causes the step
size to be variable despite being constant then it is known as non-uniform
quantization.
➢As we know in non-uniform quantization, the step size varies according to the
signal level. If the signal level is low then step size will be small. So, the step size
will be low for weak signal. Thus the quantization noise will also be low.

➢So, in order to maintain proper signal to quantization noise ratio, the step size
must be variable according to the signal level.
➢Thus in order to achieve non-uniform quantization the process of companding is
used.

Model of Companding
➢The figure below represents the companding model in order to achieve non-
uniform companding:

➢As we can see that the companding model consists of a compressor, a uniform
quantizer and an expander.
➢Initially at the transmitting end, the signal is first provided to the compressor. The
compressor unit amplifies the low value or weak signal in order to increase the
signal level of the applied input signal.
➢While if the input signal is a high level signal or strong signal then compressor
attenuates that signal before providing it to the uniform quantizer present in the
model.

➢This is done in order to have an appropriate signal level as the input to the uniform
quantizer.
➢We know a high amplitude signal needs more bandwidth and also is more likely to
distort. Similarly, some drawbacks are associated with low amplitude signal and
thus there exist need for such a unit.
➢The operation performed by this block is known as compression thus the unit is
called compressor.
➢The output of the compressor is provided to uniform quantizer where the
quantization of the applied signal is performed.

➢At the receiver end, the output of the uniform quantizer is fed to the expander.
➢It performs the reverse of the process executed by the compressor. This unit when
receives a low value signal then it attenuates it. While if a strong signal is achieved
then the expander amplifies it.
➢This is done in order to achieve the originally transmitted signal at the output.

Characteristic of Compander
➢The figure below shows the graphical representation of characteristic of the
compressor:
➢This graph clearly represents that the compressor provides
high gain to weak signal and low gain to high input signal.

Expander characteristic:
The figure below shows the graphical representation of characteristic of the
expander:
➢The expander performs reverse operation of the compander.
➢So, it is clear from the above figure that artificially boosted
signals is attenuated to have the originally transmitted signal.

➢The figure below represents the companding curve for PCM system:
➢The compressor and expander performs inverse
operations thus in the above figure the dotted line
represents the linear characteristic of the compander
indicating that the originally transmitted signal is
recovered at the receiver.
2.3.7 Demodulation of PCM

➢Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse.
Demodulation starts with the decoding process, during transmission the PCM
signal will be affected by noise interference.
➢So, before the PCM signal sends to the PCM demodulator. The PCM signal is a
series pulse wave signal, but for demodulation, we need a wave to be parallel.
➢By using a serial to parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be
converted into a parallel digital signal.
➢After that the signal will pass through the n-bits decoder, it should be a Digital to
Analog converter.
➢Decoder recovers the original quantization values of the digital signal. This
quantization value also includes a lot of high-frequency harmonics with original
audio signals. For avoiding unnecessary signals we utilize a low-pass filter at the
final part.
2.3.8 Delta Modulation (DM)

➢Definition: A modulation technique that converts or encodes message signal into
a binary bit stream is known as Delta Modulation.
➢Here only 1 bit is used to encode 1 voltage level thus, the technique allows
transmission of only 1 bit per sample.
➢As PCM has the property of converting message signal directly into a sequence of
a binary coded pulse, this resultantly increases the bandwidth requirement of the
system. So, in order to remove the drawbacks of PCM, delta modulation is used.

Operating principle of Delta Modulation (DM)
➢The operating principle of DM is such that, a comparison between present and
previously sampled value is performed, the difference of which decides the
increment or decrement in the transmitted values.
➢When the two sample values are compared, either we get difference having a
positive polarity or negative polarity.
➢If the difference polarity is positive, then the step of the signal denoted by Δ is
increased by 1.
➢As against in case when difference polarity is negative then step of the signal is
decreased i.e., reduction in Δ.

Operating principle of Delta Modulation
➢When +Δ is noticed i.e., increase in step size, then 1 is transmitted. However, in
the case of –Δ i.e., decrease in step size, 0 is transmitted.
➢Hence, allowing only a single binary bit to get transmitted for each sample.

Block diagram for Delta Modulation
➢The block diagram for the generation delta modulated signal is shown below:

➢As we can see the above figure consists of an LPF, a comparator, a product
modulator along with pulse generator and quantizer. Here, a feedback path is also
provided to the circuit, where the output of modulator acts as input to the
comparator.
➢The message signal that is to be transmitted is fed to a low pass filter that passes
the low-frequency component and eliminates the high-frequency component.
➢The output of LPF is then given to a comparator unit, which compares the
message signal m(t) with an arbitrary signal m'(t) for the first time. The
comparator after comparing 2 signals generates the difference between the two.

➢The difference can be of either positive polarity or negative polarity. This depends
on message and arbitrary signals that are getting subtracted.
➢This difference signal now acts as input to the product modulator. Another input to
the modulator is a pulse signal generated by the pulse generator. These two signals
are multiplied in the modulator.
➢The output of the modulator is a pulsed signal whose pulses will be of equal
magnitude having polarity either positive and negative.
➢The polarity totally depends on the output of the comparator. The output of the
modulator is given to quantizer. The quantizer generates the output in the form of
steps.

➢If positive magnitude pulse is provided to the quantizer as its input then quantizer
performs increment by 1 step size, Δ. It is very easy to understand that positive
pulse at the output of the modulator shows that message signal is greater than the
arbitrary signal. Thus quantizer increases Δ by 1.
➢Similarly, in the case of negative magnitude pulse, the step size gets decreased by
1. This is so because m'(t) exceeds m(t), thereby generating a pulse of negative
polarity. Thus, quantizer decreases Δ by 1.
➢The output of the modulator at the same time, through a feedback path, is
provided to the accumulator.

➢An accumulator is nothing but a device that stores the signal for further operation.
➢The output of the accumulator now behaves like the second input of the
comparator. Thus, we say that the present sample value is compared with the
previous one for further operation.
➢Hence the process repeats in such a manner.
➢In the end, depending on the staircase signal if the step size is +Δ then binary 1 is
transmitted and if it is –Δ then binary 0 is transmitted.

Waveform Representation of Delta Modulation
➢Here, the analog input signal is m(t)
and the quantized signal is denoted
by u(t). The binary sequence
according to the step size that is
actually transmitted is shown in the
Figure.
The End

Chapter 2 Pulsecommunication

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Chapter 2 Pulsecommunication

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Chapter 2

2.1 Pulse modulation

2.1 Pulse modulation

2.1 Pulse modulation

2.1 Pulse modulation

➢ Bandwidth requirement is more ➢ Bandwidth requirement is less

➢ Complex and expensive ➢ Simple and less expensive

2.1.2 Advantages of Pulse modulation

2.1.2 Disadvantages of Pulse modulation

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.1.4 Sampling Theorem

2.2.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.2 Types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

2.2.3 Generation of PAM

2.2.4 Pulse Width modulation (PWM)

2.2.4 Pulse Width modulation (PWM)

Fig.4. Generation of PWM

2.2.5 Pulse Width modulation (PWM)

2.2.5 Pulse Width modulation (PWM)

2.2.6 Generation of PWM

2.2.6 Generation of PWM

Fig.6. Generation of PWM signal

2.2.6 Generation of PWM

2.2.6 Generation of PWM

2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.2.8 Generation of PPM from PWM

2.2.7 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM, PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Relative advantages and disadvantages of PAM,PWM & PPM

2.2.9 Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM

2.2.9 Comparison of PAM, PWM, PPM

2.3.1 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM

2.3.2 Principles of PCM