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A Text Book of Modern Organic Farming: Hariom Mishra
A Text Book of Modern Organic Farming: Hariom Mishra
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[i]
Copyright©: Authors
Website: www.bookrivers.com
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Place: Lucknow
Year: 2021
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ISBN: 978-93-5515-008-0
[i]
INDEX
[ii]
(Vikas Singh Sengar)
9. Non chemical approach for
insect, pest,disease and weed
manage ment
10. Post harvest management: quality
aspect,grading, packaging and
handling (Vikas Singh Sengar* and
Deo Kumar**)
11. Visit of organic farms to study
the various components and
their utilization (Sandeep Kumar
Diwakar* Chandra hekhar**and
Avinash Kumar Singh)
12. Principles and concepts of
cropping systems (Vikas singh
sengar* and ankita rao**)
13. Agro climatic zones and Agro
cological zones of
ndia(Shidhant Gupta1, Deo
Kumar2, Saurabh Tiwari3, and
Abhishek Raj Ranjan4)
14. Agro-Meteorological Observatory
(S.R. Mishra1, Sidhant Gupta2,
R.K. Aryan3 and A.K. Singh4)
15. Isolation and characterization of
plant growth promoting
Rhizobacteria (PGPR) of pulse
crops (Niyaj Ahamad1, Adesh
Kumar1 and R.K. Aryan2)
[iii]
16. Moisture stress (Ankit Gupta*,
Hariom Mishra*, Deepraj
Verma*, Asheesh Kumar* and
Nitees Kumar**)
[iv]
PREFACE
[v]
The authors, as a student and as a teacher of concern
discipline, would like to point out to students that organic
farming is an intricate science and should be carefully
studied. The subject has its own technical terminology,
which is not easily understood by the every man. A student
of agriculture has got to acquire a very good command of
this organic farming terminology and this is possible only
by hard work. Once the fundaments of agronomy have been
clearly caught, the subject becomes very easy and
interesting.
[vi]
Organic forming
[1]
its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce
prices while meeting the challenges of climate change and
an increasing world population.
HISTORY
[3]
Concept of organic farming
[4]
system would be requiring only a small inputs of new
resources to ―Top Up‖ soil fertility.
[5]
total area account for more than 80 per cent of the
chemicals used.
[6]
2. To work with natural systems rather than seeking to
dominate them.
[7]
10. To allow agricultural producers for adequate return
and satisfaction from their work including a safe
working environment.
[8]
METHODS OF ORGANIC FARMING
Crop rotation
Green manures
[9]
Vermicomposting
Nutrition
FUTURE PROSPECTS
[11]
useless to do agriculture if this continues the coming
generations will face a serious problem of food production
and they unable to produce quality food. It requires proper
practice of organic farming skills with patience.
LIMITATIONS
Issues of concern
[14]
Organic farming and nutrient supply.
Organic farming and plant protection.
Organic farming and crop productivity.
Organic farming and certification processes.
Organic farming and heterogeneity of inputs.
Organic farming and food quality.
Organic farming products and marketing.
Organic farming and switch over period.
CONCLUSION
***
[15]
ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA
[16]
Religious Documentation of Organic farming
[18]
On the other hand, bringing the areas, where
fertilizer consumption is very low, under organic
farming
The organic agriculture, therefore, could be
advocated only to certain areas and for selected
crops showing promise for organic agriculture.
The rain-fed agro-eco-zones, tribal areas,
northeast and hilly regions of the country and
farms where diversified agriculture is being
practiced on commercial scale are the potential
areas.
Conventional Farming:
[20]
It enhances and sustains biological diversity
within the system.
[21]
Principles of organic farming:
1. Principle of health
[22]
2. Principle of ecology
3. Principle of fairness
4. Principle of care
[23]
management, development and technology
choices in organic agriculture.
[24]
5. Wider social and ecological impact of farming
system
7. Avoid Pollution
[25]
Basic Steps of Organic Farming:
[26]
Convert organic farm
Neighboring farmer well co-operate
Organic material such as animal dung and other
crop waste used for fuel purpose
Organic material are bulky in nature very difficult
store and high price
City garbage contains heavy metal, plastic bags,
stones and needles.
Bio control agent is available only few selected
insect pest.
Complicated organic certification process and
high fees cost.
Higher human population of India.
1. Vermicompost
3. Crop Rotation
4. Manures
5. Biological Management
6. Animal Husbandry
7. Bio-fertilizer
[27]
Weed management:
1. Preventive methods
2. Cultural method
Smother crop
Cover crop
Crop rotation
Optimum plant density and line sowing
Drip irrigation
3. Mechanical method
Tillage
Stale seed bed
Hand weeding
Hoeing
Moving
Mulching
Burning
4. Soil solrization
5. Allelopathy
[28]
ex : marigold :congress grass
Biological control:
Mycoherbicides:
[29]
Pest management:
1. Physical method
Mechanical control
Light trap
Pheromone trap
Nylon net
2. Cultural method
Water management
Adjusting time of sowing
[30]
Duck in Rice field (China) Duck in Rice field (China)
Fertilizer management:
FYM
Compost
Biogas slurry
Night soil
Sheep and goat manure
Poultry manure
Green manure
Vermicompost
Oil cakes
Fish meal
Meat meal
Blood meal
Horn and hoof meal
[31]
Bird guano
Row bone meal
Bio-fertilizer:
[33]
It controls pathogens which develop seeds when
they are stored for a long time period.
1. IFOAM:
Established in 1972
Headquarter in Germany
Umbrella organization for organic Agriculture
Association
Developed international basic standards of
organic agriculture
Established IFOAM accreditation programme
(1992) to accredit certifying bodies
Set up International Organic Accreditation
Service (IOAS) in July 2001
2. CODEX:
[34]
3. EU-regulation:
4. Demeter:
5. JAS:
- Bangalore
- Cochin, Kerala
- Bangalore
- Bangalore
Ecocert International
-Aurangabad
Bioinspectra
-Cochin, Kerala
- Gurgaon
- Mumbai
- Pune
[36]
Government support to promote organic farming:
Regional centers:
Conclusions:
[37]
SMART FARMING
Introduction
Automation
Efficient
Climate Independency
Reducing wastage of resources
Maximizing crop yield
Environmental friendly
Components of smart farming
F. Yield Mapping
[39]
( A ) What is smart farming IoT
( B. ) Precision Agriculture
[42]
Technologies of Precision Farming practices
[43]
( C. ) Geographic Information Systems- (GIS)
GIS are computer-based tools designed for both
mapping and analyzing feature events on earth.
GIS analyze soil data combined with historical
farming practices in order to determine what are
the best crops to plant, where they should be
situated, what is the best way to maintain soil
nutrition levels in order to give the greatest level
of benefit to the plants.
By mapping geographic and geologic features of
current (and potential) farmland scientists and
farmers can work together to create more effective
and efficient farming techniques; this could
increase food technology being developed by
experts such as Micro Multi Copter Aero
Technology.
(d) Forecast
( F. ) Yield Mapping
[45]
Header position sensor
Travel speed sensor
[46]
Aquaculture: Aquaculture is the farming of fish, mollusks,
aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms.
Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
populations under controlled conditions, and can be
contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting
of wild fish. It is less commonly spelled aquiculture, and is
also known as aquafarming. Mariculture refers to
aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in
underwater habitats.
[48]
• Equipment purchases: Equipment is a huge expense
for a farmer. The farmer can use the Internet to find the
best tools to meet their needs.
[49]
(f.) Accurate Farm and Field Evaluation – Accurately
tracking production rates by field over time allows for
detailed predicting of future crop yield and value of a
farm.
[50]
Disadvantages of smart farming:
References:
[51]
Composting
[52]
made in scientific studies of the underlying biological and
chemical processes involved in composting.
Decomposition:
[53]
(a) Aerobic decomposition and stabilization and
Aerobic decomposition:
[54]
required to burn up most of the carbon. When some of the
organisms die, their stored nitrogen and carbon become
available to other organisms. The utilization of nitrogen
from the dead cells by other organisms to form new cell
material requires the burning of excess carbon to CO2.
Thus, the amount of carbon is required, and the limited
amount of nitrogen is recycled.
Anaerobic decomposition:
Raw material:
Human urine:
[57]
(K2O), 3.0–4.5%; carbon, 11–17%; calcium oxide, 4.5–6%
Animal manure:
Slaughterhouse wastes:
[59]
nitrogen, 8–11%; phosphate, 3.0–3.5%; potash, 2.0–2.5%;
carbon, 14–17%, and calcium oxide, 3.0–3.5% .
1. Indore method:
[61]
10% of the total plant residues) are crushed before
being piled. Green materials, which are soft and
succulent, are allowed to wilt for 2 to 3 days in
order to remove excess moisture before stacking;
these tend to pack closely when stacked in the
fresh state. The mixture of different kinds of
organic materials/ residues ensures a more
efficient decomposition.
The compost heap is built in layers. First a layer
of refuse/organic wastes like weeds, crop residue,
grass clippings, or leaves of about 15–20 cm (6–8
inch) thick is spread at the base of the heap. Next
a 5 cm (2 inch) layer of cattle dung slurry and
water is added onto the refuse. A third layer of the
same size of the first is then spread followed by a
layer of slurry of cattle dung and water. This
layering sequence is continued till the heap is
raised to a height of 50–100 cm above the ground
level. The top is then covered with a thin layer of
soil, and the heap is kept moist.
The filling of heap is completed within 6–7 days
to fill the three-fourth length of the trench, leaving
[62]
1/4th length empty to facilitate subsequent
turnings.
Water is sprayed on regular basis so as to keep the
moisture content to about 60–80%.
Turning is done three times, at 15, 30, and 60 days
after compost filling in order to allow air to
penetrate so that the heap will heat up properly.
At each turning the whole mass is mixed
thoroughly. This can be done manually or
mechanically.
The main advantage of this method is that the
finished compost is ready within
4–5 months for application to the soil. The
composed prepared by this method contains, on
an average, 0.8% N, 0.3–0.5% P2O5, and 1.0–
1.5% K2O. Periodic turning of composting mass
helps the process to remain aerobic throughout the
decomposition and facilitate faster decomposition
by bringing the substrates which are un-
decomposed or partially decomposed with the
microorganisms and air. As it requires extra labor,
the cost of preparation of compost is more. Heat is
generated during the decomposition process inside
[63]
the compost pit which helps in destroying most of
the pathogens and weed seeds. When sufficient
nitrogenous material is not available, a green
manure or leguminous crop like sunnhemp
(Crotalaria juncea) may be grown on the
fermenting heap after the first turning. The green
matter is then turned in at the second mixing.
2. Bangalore method:
[64]
because there is no need of turning and regular sprinkling
of water but takes much longer time to finish.
[65]
The materials are allowed to remain in the pit
without turning and watering. During this period
the material settles down due to reduction in the
volume of biomass. Under such conditions,
decomposition is largely anaerobic and high
temperatures do not develop. The C/N ratio of the
finished product drops to a value below 20:1 with
no odor, indicating that the compost is ready to
use.
The material undergoes anaerobic decomposition
at a very slow rate, and it takes about 6–8 months
to obtain the finished product.
The recovery of the finished product is greater
than aerobic composting.
Labor requirements are less than for the Indore
method as turning of material is not done; labor is
needed only for digging and filling the pits.
[66]
well-decomposed compost contains 0.8–1.0% N. A
uniform high temperature is not assured in the biomass.
Problems of odor and fly breeding need to be taken care of.
After 8–9 months, all the material decomposes, and the
compost becomes ready for application.
3 NADEP composting
[67]
This method includes the following steps:
[68]
Prepared slurry of mixing cattle dung (5–10 kg)
with water (100 liters) is then sprinkled
thoroughly on the biodegradable mass in order to
facilitate bacterial culture for faster
decomposition. On it a layer of soil is maintained
in order to compress the volume of the wastes.
Addition of soil also facilities retention of
moisture, provides microorganisms, acts as buffer,
and controls pH of the compost during
decomposition. The nutrients produced in the
manure are absorbed by the soil layers, thus
preventing nutrient loss.
The whole tank is thus filled completely with
about 10–12 layers in the same sequence having
1–3 sub-layers in each layer. After 2–4 weeks, the
volume of the composting mass is reduced to
almost two-third of the original. At this stage,
additional layers of composting mass are formed
over it keeping the same sequential set up, already
said. Finally, the whole biomass is plastered and
sealed with slurry of cattle dung and mud. In this
condition, the tank is allowed to decompose the
biodegradable wastes for further 3 months. Water
[69]
is added on regular basis to maintain the moisture
content between 60 and 75% throughout the
composting period.
It is advisable to sprinkle microbial cultures like
Trichoderma, Azotobacter, and Rhizobium and
phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms in each
layer to enhance the equivalent speed of
composting process at each corner of the compost.
Compost becomes ready for use within 110–120
days after composting. So one tank can be used
three times annually.
The prepared compost can be stored for future
use, preferably in a thatched shed after air-drying
and maintaining it at about 20% moisture level by
sprinkling water whenever needed. Also storage at
gunny bag in shade areas is also preferable. By
following this procedure, the composed could be
preserved for about 6–8 months.
Requirement of higher labor and inconvenience
faced in filling during rainy season are the two
difficulties experienced by the farmers in adopting
NADEP method of composting.
[70]
4. Municipal solid waste composting (MSW)
[71]
(iii) Production of compost within a short period.
5. Enriched compost:
[75]
phosphorus content of the enriched compost up to 5%
P2O5.
6. ADCO compost:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Vermi compost:
[79]
shade of 6–8 ft height is also required for cool and
ambient climate for the worms.
iii. Preparation of verminbed: A thick layer of 15–20
cm of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5 cm) of
broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer
is prepared on concreted floor and made to inhabit
the earthworms.
iv. Inoculation of earthworms: About 100
earthworms are introduced as an optimum
inoculating density into a composite pit of about 2
m × 1 m × 1 m, provided with a verminbed.
v. Organic layering: It is done on the vermibed with
fresh cattle dung of 5–10 cm. The compost pit is
then layered to about 5 cm with dry crop residues.
Carbon-rich solid and dead substrates like sawdust,
paper, and straw are mixed with N-rich natural
components such as sewage, sludge, and biogas
slurry to obtain a near optimum C/N ratio. Mixing
variety of substances produces good-quality
compost which is rich in macro, micro, and even
traces nutrients. Decomposition can be accelerated
by chopping raw materials into small pieces.
Moisture content of the pit is maintained at 50–60%
[80]
of water holding capacity. Aeration can be
maintained by mixing with fibrous N-rich materials.
The temperature of the piles should be around 28–
30°C. Wide gap between higher or lower
temperatures reduces the activity of microflora and
earthworms. The normal pH of the raw materials is
preferable.
vi. Wet organic layering: It is done after 1 month with
moist/green organic waste, which can be spread
over it. This practice can be repeated every 3–4
days as per requirement. Mixing of wastes
periodically without disturbing the vermibed
ensures proper vermicomposting. Wet layering with
organic waste can be repeated till the compost pit is
nearly full.
vii. Harvesting of vermicompost: In order to facilitate
the separation of worms from vermicompost, the
moisture content in the compost is brought down by
stopping the addition of water around 7–10 days
before maturation thatensures drying of compost
and migration of worms into the vermibed. This
forces about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the
bed. The remaining worms can be removed by
[81]
hand. The mature compost, a black, fine loose,
granular humus rich material, looks like CTC tea, is
removed out from the pit, dried, and packed. The
pleasant earthen smell is one of the good indications
of mature compost. The vermicompost is then ready
for application. The nutrient content of
vermicompost varies depending on the raw
materials as well as different species of earthworms
used. Thus, the final product is not a single standard
product. The average nutrient content of
vermicompost is 0.6–1.2% N, 0.13–0.22% P2O5,
0.4–0.7% K2O, 0.4% CaO, and 0.15% MgO. On an
average, it contains comparable N, P, and wide C/N
ratio as in FYM but less K and micronutrients than
FYM. On the whole, vermicompost cannot be
described as being nutritionally superior to other
organic manures. Yet the unique way in which it is
produced, even in the field condition, time saving,
and at low cost, makes it very attractive for practical
application. Unique feature of vermicompost is its
rapid process of composting which takes about 60–
90 days depending on the environmental conditions.
The excess worms that have been harvested from
[82]
the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other
farmers for compost inoculation, and may be used
as animal and poultry feed or fish food.
Green manure
[84]
Non-edible oilcakes are used as manures. Oilcakes
contain higher amounts of N than P2O5 and K2O; thus,
these are commonly referred to as the organic nitrogenous
fertilizers. Bone meal consists of calcium phosphate
together with fats and proteins. These are good sources of
lime, phosphate, and N. Bone meal is a slow-acting
organic-P-fertilizer resembled with rock phosphate and
suitable for acid soils. Fish manure is a quick-acting
manure and suitable for all soils and crops. It is available as
either dried fish or fish meal or powdered fish. However, its
use is restricted mainly to coastal areas where it is available
easily. Guano (dried excreta of sea birds) is concentrated
organic manure, containing substantial amount of nutrients,
particularly N and P2O5, but it is not produced in India.
Average nutrient contents in various concentrated organic
manures are placed in Table 5.
[86]
However, because of its high organic load, it may results
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) in water. For that reason, they are unsafe
for direct application on to agricultural lands. Spent wash
can, however, be safely applied to different crops after
suitable dilution and has been reported to increase yield of
several crops. Treatment of this effluent through
biomethanation digesters reduces the organic matter load
but still carries considerable organic and salt load, making
its disposal a problem.
[87]
help establishing sustainable agriculture for the betterment
of future. In consideration of time and quality,
vermicomposting seems to be the best technique for
composting and much more economically viable for the
sustainable growth and development of modern agriculture.
Vermicomposting technique is also worm and site specific.
After long-term scientific experiments, Eisenia fetida is
considered as the world‘s most efficient species having the
capacity to acquaint with wide environmental condition.
The compost production capacity of this worm is higher
than other species, and so this species is widely accepted
for vermicomposting.
References:
***
[89]
Compost Preparation
Compost:
[90]
Raw Materials:
Green leaves
Weeds
Banana leaves
Banana trunk
Salvenia
Sow dust
Vegetable peelings
Crop waste
Animal waste ( Cow-dung, Poultry manure)
Incubator ( Old Compost)
1. Heap method
2. Cage method
3. Pit method
4. Barrel method
Increase yield
Improves overall soil fertility
Provides humus or organic matter
[91]
Provides vitamins, hormones and plant enzymes
which are not supplied by chemical fertilizers
Acts as buffer to changes in soil pH
Compost is free from pathogenic organisms,
weeds and other unwanted seeds
Nutrients are readily available
Easy to apply when compared to other organic
manures
[93]
Sorghum 0.40 0.23 2.17
***
[94]
BIO FERTILIZERS/BIO INOCULANTS FOR
ORGANIC FARMING
Use of bio-fertilizers
[96]
They also stimulate plant growth due to excretion
of various growth hormones.
They reduce the incidence of certain disease,
pathogen and increase disease resistance.
The economic benefits to cost ratio of bio-
fertilizers is always higher.
They improve the productivity of waste land and
low land by enriching the soil.
Types of Bio-fertilizers
[97]
living fixers Azotobacter spp. and Azospirillum spp. which
live in association with root system of crop plants. There
are two types of Rhizobia; (i) the slow growing
Bradyrhizobium and (ii) the fast growing Rhizobium.
Azospirillum fix N from 10 to 40 kg/ha and saves N
fertilizer inputs by 25 to 30%. Azotobacter inoculation
saves N fertilizer by 10 to 20%
Azola
[98]
Azotobacter
Azospirillum
Beijerinckia:
[99]
Several soil bacteria particularly Pseudomonas straita
and Bacillus polymixa and fungi Aspergillus awamori and
Penicilium spp. poses the ability to bring insoluble
phosphates into soluble forms by secreting organic acids.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are also responsible
for converting fixed Phosphorus into available phosphorus
through inoculation of efficient strains of AMF, 25 to 50 %
of P fertilizer can be saved.
[100]
this non-usable form to usable form. The use of 625 g/ha of
A. pasteurianus influenced the levels of sulphur in crops
like vegetables, cabbage, turnip, onion etc.
METHOD OF APPLICATION
Seed treatment
For paddy make a bed in the field and fill it with water.
Mix bio-fertilizers in water and dip the roots of seedlings
for 8-10 hrs.
Soil treatment
PRECAUTIONS
***
[103]
COST OF ORGANIC PRODUCTION
SYSTEM
1. Indicator plants
INDICATOR PLANTS
Activities to be undertaken:
Full moon
[106]
Activities to be undertaken:
New moon
Activities to be undertaken:
2. Cutting timber.
Ascending periods
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Sowing of seeds.
2. Spray BD 501.
[107]
3. Spray liquid manures and CPP.
Descending periods
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Transplanting of seedlings.
4. Pruning trees.
Nodes
These are the days when the moon passes the sun‘s
path. It creates negative influences on the growth of plants.
Apogee
[108]
Activities to be undertaken:
1. Planting potatoes.
Perigee
Root days
Flower day
[109]
Leaf days
***
[110]
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS,
MARKETING AND EXPORT
POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC FARMING
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
[114]
improvements. Most probably the farmers are technically
more familiar with cotton farming practice than the
extension staff and after some time they will also be more
experienced in the practical implication of organic farming
methods. The role of extension staff should, therefore,
change to being facilities or coaches who farmers in
developing suitable solutions to problems and in sharing
their experience and expertise with other members of the
group. The focus might shift to creating platforms for and
moderating processes of farmer-to farmer exchange.
[115]
yield levels, projects could further facilitate the supply of
manures and natural mineral fertilizers from off-farm
sources (de-oiled castor, sugarcane press mud, rock
phosphate). Increased input of manure, however, is not the
only way to increase soil organic matter and nutrient
supply. Appropriate crop rotation patterns that involve
legumes, the cultivation of green manures and intercrop
and the recycling of crop residues can be equally effective.
[116]
has positive impacts on soil fertility environment and
human health. Lower dependency of organic farms on
external inputs not only decreases production costs, thus
contributing to improved incomes, but also reduces the risk
of farming in context of insecure climatic and market
conditions. While this could to some extent -also be
achieved with integrated farming approaches, organic
farming offers in additional the opportunity to link
production with a growing market demand for
environmentally and socially improved products.
[117]
therefore, lies in enabling poor farms to overcome the
obstacles of conversion period so that they can benefit in
the long term, appropriate extension approaches that
facilitate conversion and mechanisms for bridging the
initial income gap are thus needed. The experience of
successful organic cotton initiatives in several developing
countries provides ample material to study how project
support could be further improved.
[118]
Although our research has shed some light on crucial
regarding the potential of organic farming in developing
countries, it also opened up a range of new questions. In
some aspects- such as water management, gender aspects
and the interface between farmers and project organizers -
we could only touch the surface, leaving a more in-depth
investigation to other researches. It will also be necessary
to put the finding on a broader base of investigated case
studies in different countries. Therefore, a lot remains to be
done to fully utilize the potential of organic farming in
development work.
[119]
Marketing of Organic Products
Type of Products
Product
Commodity Tea, coffee, rice, wheat
[120]
Oilseeds Mustard, sesame, castor,
sunflower
Others Cotton, sugarcane, herbal
extracts
[121]
certification and marketing networks are some of the
constraints in marketing organic products internationally.
On the other hand, in home market, there are no separate
markets for organic products in many commodities like
wheat in Rajasthan. Thus, the market does not offer any
incentive for the production of organic produce. But more
recently, some agencies have tried to create separate market
outlets for organic produce like the Maharashtra Cotton
Marketing Federation purchased organic cotton from
growers separately for export.
[122]
Crop rotation: Rotating the crop belonging to one
family with one of a different family helps to reduce pest
incidence to a large extent. Rotating groundnut with maize
will reduce the attack of white grubs. Rotating pigeon pea
or chickpea with other non- leguminous crop helps to
control fusarium wilt and nematode problems.
Intercropping:
plants or botanicals
[124]
microbial pesticides
bio-control by insects
biorationals
Precautions
[127]
The solution has to be sieved through a cloth or
gunny bag before spraying to avoid blockage of
nozzles.
The solution has to be used within one month as
its efficacy diminishes after that period.
[128]
Biorationals:
to control pests:
to trap insects;
to disrupt mating;
for survey and monitoring.
a) Seed treatment:
[129]
Nursery bed
Soil drenching
Seedling dip
[130]
Egg parasites
Larval parasites
Pupal parasites
Predators
[131]
white flies, cotton bollworms, leaf insects, etc. The eggs of
these parasitoids are commercially available on egg cards.
Each egg card (e.g., Trichogramma) contains 20,000 live
parasitized eggs which have 90–96% hatching rate within
7– 10 days of parasitisation. These are applied @ 3–5
cards/ha. Each egg card costs Rs.20 to Rs. 50. Chrysopa sp.
is available in vials containing 1,000–5,000 live
eggs/larvae. The standard recommendation for crops like
cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, mustard and
vegetables is 5,000–10,000 eggs/larvae per ha. Each vial
costs Rs.150 to Rs.200.
Method
[132]
Bury the horn in the soil (similar to BD 500)
during spring and summer (April/May).
Remove the horn from the soil during the
ascending moon phase in September/October.
Usage
[133]
Because of the stimulation of the light, it is advised not
to use 501 in drought conditions and it should be used only
once in the spring on pasture as overuse can accentuate
drought conditions. Due to the enhancement of
photosynthesis of the plant, the starches, sugars and
cellulose in the plant improve thereby improving the
overall quality of the produce as well.
***
[134]
POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT: QUALITY
ASPECT, GRADING, PACKAGING AND
HANDLING
Processing
[135]
syrup that contains an antioxidant like ascorbic acid.
Coating retards browning, avoids the cooked tests after
defrosting and increases product quality. The products may
be packaged before or after freezing.
Freezing:
Products Practical
storage life
(Month)
-18oC -25oC -30oC
Fruits in 12 18 24
sugar
Cauli 15 24 <24
flower
Carrots 18 24 <24
Potatoes 24 <24 <24
[136]
major risks with dried products are microbiological attack
and physiological deterioration which leads to browing,
loss of vitamins and the development of off- flavors.
2. Water content :
4. Blanching:
[137]
Fruits /Vegetables Process
Banana Boiling water for 5 min
Mango, Papaya Hot water (56oC) for 1 min
Cabbage Boiling water 3 min
Carrot Boiling water 4-6 min
6. Rapid Drying:
[138]
Labeling:-
[139]
Packing:
***
[140]
VISIT OF ORGANIC FARMS TO STUDY
THE VARIOUSCOMPONENTS AND
THEIR UTILIZATION
[141]
1. Crop rotation:
2. Crop Residue
3. Organic manure
5. Bio-fertilizers
[143]
through biological process. These are less expensive, eco-
friendly and sustainable. The Biofertilizers containing
biological nitrogen fixing organism are of utmost important
in agriculture in view of the following advantages:
[144]
b. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter,
Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and Mycorrhizae, which also
fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium.
6. Bio-pesticide
7. Vermicompost
***
[146]
PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF
CROPPING SYSTEMS
Seasonal rainfall
Probable period of assured rainfall distribution
Long range forecast
Medium-range forecast
[147]
IMD forecasting of seasonal rainfall accuracy of
more than 90%
a) Mono cropping
b) Multiple cropping
1) Farm resources
[149]
3) Farm technology
Intercropping:
Sequential cropping:
Interaction is non-competitive.
Some preceding crops have an allelopathic effect
on the succeeding crop.
[150]
Soil fertility is reduced by the preceding crop.
Residual effect of Farmyard manure (FYM) or
phosphorus (P) fertilizer can be seen on the
succeeding crop.
Inter cropping:
Sequential cropping:
[151]
If FYM or P fertilizers are applied to the
preceding crop, reduce the input of N and p to the
succeeding crop.
***
[153]
Agro climatic zones and Agro ecological
zones of India
[154]
Agro-Climatic Zones/regions of India
[155]
2. Eastern Himalayan Region
[156]
6. Trans-Ganga Plains Region
[157]
Major Crops: Wheat, gram, millets, pulses, oilseeds,
groundnut, cotton, rice, wheat, oranges, grapes and
bananas.
[158]
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills
[159]
Agro ecological zones of India:
[160]
[161]
(Source: www.fao.org)
[162]
Agro-Meteorological Observatory
or
Types of observatories
[164]
Class VI (Less or Non instrument station): Less or
no instrument, wind direction, cloud, speed
visibility etc. are recorded daily.
[165]
1. Principal agro-met observatories,
3. Auxiliary and
[166]
measuring water temperature in the evaporimeter, Wind
vane and Anemometer
[167]
Site selection should meet the following basic
requirements:
a. Rainfall.
[169]
b. Air and soil temperature.
c. Humidity.
d. Soil moisture.
e. Wind.
f. Pan evaporation.
g. Sunshine.
Essential instruments:
i. Dry-bulb thermometer
viii.Wind vane
ix. Anemometer
Optional Instruments:
i. Sunshine recorder
iv. Thermograph
v. Hair hygrograph
[171]
The D-type or Pilot Balloon cum Micro Meteo Stations
was started under the desert locust meteorology scheme.
They offer low-stage winds to help in the problem of
expected wind for antilocust observations.
Units of parameters:
[172]
Thermometer, Temperature Degree
Thermograph Celsius (°C)
Anemometer, Wind speed kmph, mps
Anemograph
Anemometer,
[174]
Stevenson screen: Low humidity occurs when the
difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet
bulb temperature are far apart.
[176]
ETc by use of a pan factor (Kp) and thus determining the
amount of water required to replace crop water use.
***
[179]
References
[180]
World Meteorological Organization, 2000: Education
and Training in Agrometeorology (J. Lomas, J.
Collins, S. Gachara and S. Mukhopadhyay).
Commission for Agricultural Meteorology Report No.
78 (WMO/TD-No. 990), Geneva.
www.agricultureinindia.net/agronomy/crop-
production/agro-meteorological-observatory-meaning-
and-classification-agronomy
***
[181]
ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF
PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA
(PGPR) OF PULSE CROPS
Introduction
[182]
colonization space and nutrients and decreasing the
activities of plant pathogenic microbes. PGPR stimulates
plant growth and biocontrol by variety of direct and
indirect mechanisms. Direct mechanism of PGPR includes
facilitating availability of resources i.e. solubilisation of
phosphate, nitrogen fixation, iron acquisition by
siderophore and modulating proper level of plant hormones
like auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins and lowering the
level of ethylene by production of ACC deaminase enzyme.
Indirect mechanisms of PGPR include suppression of
fungal, bacterial and likewise chitinase, protease, cellulose,
antibiotics, HCN, ammonia and volatile organic compound
etc. Several other mechanism of indirect growth promotion
by PGPR include antagonistic activities, signal
interference, quorum sensing, inhibition of biofilm
formation, systemic acquired resistance and induced
systemic resistance, inhibition of biofilm formation,
increasing mineral nutrient solubilisation. PGPR isolates
have been isolated and screened from rhizospheric soil of
diverse pulse and other crops to enhance growth, seed
emergence, crop yield and production. PGPR have been
commercially used as microbial bioinoculants of
biofertilizers to enhance crop production. PGPR offers and
[183]
attractive strategy for replacement and reduction of high
amount of chemical pesticides and fertilizers (Tiwari et. al.,
2016).
Mechanisms of PGPR
[185]
Figure 1- rhizosphere/bacteria interactions. A) Different
types of association occurs between plant roots and
beneficial soil bacteria. B) after colonization or symbiotic
association with roots and rhizosphere, bacteria can benefit
the plant by (i) tolerance of abiotic stress through action of
ACC deaminase. (ii) dfense against plant pathogens by the
presence of competitive traits such as siderophore
production. (iii) increase of fertility and plant growth
through biological N2 fixatiom (BNF), IAA (Indole 3-
acetic acid) production, and phosphate solubilizaiton
around roots.
[186]
(Fig. 1B). Here we discuss some important mechanisms of
plant growth promoting bacteria.
[187]
bacteria and plant interactions, varying from pathogenesis
to phytostimulation (Spaenpen et. al., 2007). Other studies
have shown that the rhizospheric bacteria produce more
indolic compound than bulk of soil bacteria (Khalid et. al.,
2004), and in a recent study of Costa et. al., (2014) has
showed that these effects was observed also in the
Enterobacteriaceae family (Escherichia, Enterobacter,
Grimontella, Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Rahnella). Soil
microorganisms are able to synthsize and catabolize IAA.
The Bacillus japonicum has been well characterized for
catabolizing the IAA. (Jensen et. al., 1995) and
Pseudomonas putida 1290 also (Leveau and Lindow,
2005). IAA is used as the sole source of carbon, nitrogen
and energy by the Pseudomonas putida 1290. In this
context, IAA catabolizing microorganisms make positive
effects on plant growth and prevent the attacks of pathogen.
(Leveau and Lindow, 2005).
Siderophore Production
[189]
ACC Deaminase Activity
[190]
deaminse activity could have a better growth than other
free living microorganisms; these organisms utilizes ACC
as the source of nitrogen (Glick, 2005).
Phosphate solubilisation
***
[192]
Conclusions
***
[193]
References
***
[194]
MOISTURE STRESS
MOISTURE STRESS
[195]
• After irrigation or rain, water deficits develop
gradually. Through there is sufficient amount of soil
moisture, water deficits develop due to higher
transpiration than absorption especially on hot mid-
days. This temporary wilting is known as incipient
wilting or middy depression.
[196]
A.) EFFECTS OF MOISTURE STRESS
b.) Photosynthesis
c.) Respiration
[198]
• Abscisic acid content is inversely related to leaf
water potential. Abscisic acid acts as water deficit
sensor
g.) Nutrition
[199]
h.) Growth
i.) Development
[200]
• However, vegetative and grain filling stages are less
sensitive to moisture stress.
k.) Yield
B. Drought resistance.
[202]
Ability of a cultivar to mature before the soil dries
(Ephemerals) is the main adaptation to growth in
dry regions.
Certain varieties of pearl millet mature within 60
days after sowing.
Short duration pulses like cowpea, green gram,
black gram can be included in this category.
[203]
stomata more rapidly in the early morning when
moisture stress is at its minimum.
[205]
from deeper layers of soil. This mechanism is desirable
only if there is sufficient soil moisture in deeper layers
for extraction.
[206]
E.) Drought tolerance
[207]
parts such as rhizomes, bulbs, tubers etc., remain alive
but dormant.
***
[208]
Reference
***
[209]