Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

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Water Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/watres

Adaptive pressure-driven multi-criteria spatial decision-making for a

targeted placement of green and grey runoff control infrastructures
Haifeng Jia a, c, 1, *, Zijing Liu a, 1, Changqing Xu a, Zhengxia Chen a, Xiang Zhang b, Jun Xia b,
Shaw L Yu d
a
School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
b
The School of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
c
Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Technology and Material of Water Treatment, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords:
multi-criteria decision-making
green and grey infrastructure
spatial planning
pressure-state-response framework
adaptive pressure-driven adjustment
Traditional runoff control measures ignore the spatial imbalance of regional pressures, thereby failing to achieve
a site-specific placement for green and grey infrastructure simultaneously. A multi-criterion decision-making
framework for runoff control infrastructure spatial planning was therefore developed in this study. The pressure-
state-response framework was applied to creatively match the pressure induced adjustment demands with the
infrastructure effectiveness. The pressures were quantified from the perspective of environment, economy, and
ecology on a grid scale. States were considered as the relative priority of regional pressure adjustment demand in
multiple perspectives. Responses were presented as state-targeted green and grey infrastructure placement.
Multi-perspective effectiveness of different green and grey infrastructure was simultaneously evaluated at an
effective scale of controlling 1 m3/s runoff for comparison. Methods such as data mining, hydrological model
simulation, and remote sensing inversion were combined to quantify the regional pressures. The capital in­
vestment and ecological impact of infrastructures were quantified from a life cycle perspective. A case study was
carried out in Wuhan, China. The study area was clustered by gridded pressure into three regions. In region I,
ecological and environmental pressure were of higher weight. In region II, the environmental pressure was
dominant. In region III, the ecological pressure took precedence over the environmental and economic con­
straints. The area ratios of the region I, II, and III were 43%, 36%, and 21% respectively. The result indicated a
synergy and spatial heterogeneity of multi-perspective pressures, and further demonstrating that expert expe­
rience tends to fail to weigh the multi-function of green and grey infrastructures for coping with the pressures.
Results also stated that green infrastructures were more acceptable in areas that aspire to achieve simultaneous
runoff control and ecological improvement. The decision-making framework developed in this study can
maximize the overall performance by providing targeted infrastructure placement solutions.

1. Introduction
Habitat security, urban development and natural endowments need
to be balanced when dealing with threats from flooding, resource
depletion and ecological degradation. Effective mitigation of regional
pressures requires targeted infrastructure implementation (Kuller et al.,
2019; Ronchi et al., 2020). The benefits of green and grey runoff control
infrastructures are extended from an environmental point of view to the
economic and ecological perspective (Liu et al., 2021b; Teixeira et al.,
2021), and their multiple benefits are highly localized (Meerow and
Newell, 2017). Specifically, the performance of the infrastructure de­
pends on where and to what extent benefits are gained (Zhang and Chui,
2018). Spatial analysis of the multifunctional suitability of infrastruc­
ture has been extensively carried out (Ronchi et al., 2020; Venter et al.,
2021). However, the research gap exists as follows. On the one hand, the
subjective preference of managers is carried out to identify the priority
areas for infrastructure placement (Jia et al., 2015; Tran et al., 2020),
while ignoring the local multi-perspective pressure. On the other hand,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jhf@tsinghua.edu.cn (H. Jia).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118126
Received 15 September 2021; Received in revised form 21 January 2022; Accepted 25 January 2022
Available online 28 January 2022
0043-1354/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Jia et al.
only green infrastructures are considered (Ronchi et al., 2020; Venter
et al., 2021), while the grey infrastructures, which have been proven to
be cost-friendly and effective in some areas (Dong et al., 2017; Liu et al.,
2021b), are overlooked in spatial planning simultaneously with green
infrastructure. Multifunctional trade-offs are crucial in the spatial
planning of infrastructure(García et al., 2020). To cope with the complex
multi-criteria decision-making problem, a pressure-state-response (PSR)
framework was applied, in which pressure and target placement of in­
frastructures were consistently considered by systematical indices
(Tammy et al., 2011). The framework has been widely used to propose
adaptive decision-making solutions for water resources management
and infrastructure placement (Kaur et al., 2020; Spanò et al., 2017; Zare
et al., 2019). A gap, however, still exists in developing a spatial
decision-making framework for both green and grey infrastructure and
addressing regional pressure from multiple perspectives.
Trade-offs between regional economic development and nature
conservation exist in urban management processes (Di Matteo et al.,
2019; Rasmussen et al., 2021). As for environmental pressure, high and
early runoff peaks trigger flooding and pose a risk to residential safety
and economic development (Badrzadeh et al., 2015). Simultaneously,
non-point source pollutants cause environmental degradation of water
bodies (Gasperi et al., 2010). Runoff quantity and quality control have
been identified as key aspects of urban management(Zhang et al., 2020),
but previous studies have rarely considered the spatial heterogeneity of
pressure adjustment demands and lacked targeted runoff control stra­
tegies. In terms of economic perspective, the challenges of limited eco­
nomic investment, inadequate land use, and ageing infrastructure are
faced during the urban expansion (Rasmussen et al., 2021), inevitably
restricting the construction and effectiveness of infrastructure. Previous
studies have failed to realize a quantitative match between local eco­
nomic status and infrastructure lifecycle stages investment, and also, the
extent of financial support and economic pressure is not included in the
decision-making process for infrastructure cost-benefit trade-offs (Di
Matteo et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2015). From the ecological perspective, the
concept of “ecosystem service value” is applied to evaluate the regional
ecological pressure (Costanza et al., 1998). It refers to the capital value
of the services that humans derive from ecosystems, including the
elimination of waste, the supply of material and energy, and the pro­
vision of sustainability and comfort for inhabitants (de Groot et al.,
2012). These factors are localized by some researchers, taking into ac­
count expert advice and residents’ understanding (García et al., 2020;
Xie et al., 2015). The mismatch between urban development and
ecological endowments simultaneously leads to an uneven spatial dis­
tribution of ecosystem pressures(Kassouri, 2021). The pressures from
the environmental-economic-ecological perspective present synergy and
spatial heterogeneity, making a hierarchical and quantitative descrip­
tion essential to identifying a regional state.
In terms of the effectiveness of runoff control infrastructure, source-
orientated green infrastructure increases underlying surface infiltration
and detention, controlling runoff in a more flexible and resilient manner
(Li and Davis, 2016; Zhang and Chui, 2018). The ecological benefits of
green infrastructure in terms of landscape aesthetics, heat island effect
mitigation and energy savings in buildings have been widely discussed
(Teixeira et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021). Grey infrastructures are tradi­
tional stormwater management strategies that achieve regional targets
through rapid drainage and centralized treatment (Dong et al., 2017;
Liu et al., 2021b). And they have a clearer asset life, depreciation, and
return on investment (Bisinella de Faria et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2021b).
Green-grey infrastructure coupled systems tend to have high resilience
(Dong et al., 2017). Coupling optimization of green and grey in­
frastructures is often designed to achieve system objectives (Alves et al.,
2019; Bakhshipour et al., 2019), but the lack of analysis of the suitability
of specific types of infrastructure weakens the interpretability of the
scheme. Trade-offs between capital investment and runoff control
function have been more frequently discussed in previous studies (Alves
et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2015), but in most studies, the investment analysis
2
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
has been placed on construction stage rather than the life cycle stages
including operation and maintenance stage. In addition, although
ecological impacts have also been evaluated currently (Dai et al., 2021;
Teixeira et al., 2021), these evaluations lack systematicity consider­
ations together with environmental and economic effectiveness.
Trade-offs are necessary between green and grey infrastructure when
aiming to achieve environmental, economic, and ecological goals
simultaneously (Di Matteo et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021b). A quantitative
framework that matches the environmental-economic-ecological effec­
tiveness of infrastructure with the regional pressure adjustment de­
mands contributes to targeted infrastructure spatial planning, thereby
maximizing the overall performance.
Considering the limitations of existing research, a PSR framework
was applied in this study to develop a multi-criteria spatial decision-
making strategy for the targeted placement of green and grey runoff
control infrastructures. Specifically, pressures were quantified from the
perspective of environmental, economic, and ecological on a grid scale
by hydrological model and data mining methods. States were considered
as the relative priority of regional pressure adjustment demand in
multiple perspectives, and were compared and hierarchically calculated
into weight values. Responses were presented as state-targeted green
and grey infrastructure placements. The performance rank of infra­
structure was obtained by summarizing the weighted infrastructure
effectiveness in multiple perspectives, thus achieving spatial planning
and the targeted suggestions for zoning infrastructure placement.
2. Methods and data
2.1. Study area
Wuhan is the capital of Hubei province and is located in the middle of
China. The total area of Wuhan is 8569.2 km2. This study focused on the
developed zone which covers 2357.5 km2 and the area ratio of water
body, green land (include farmland, forest, and grassland), and imper­
vious surface are about 11%, 35%, and 54% respectively, as shown in
Fig. 1. The study area is an urbanized region that is relatively developed
and with a lower increase in urbanization rate (less than 0.3% in 2019).
In addition, the drainage pipe network diversion system retrofit has been
completed in the study area, the combined sewer system had transferred
to a separate sewer system. Wuhan lies in the middle reaches of the
Yangtze River. The annual rainfall in Wuhan was 1,150 mm-1,450 mm
during the recent 10 years, mainly from June to August, accounting for
about 40% of the annual rainfall. According to the latest census in 2019,
the permanent residents of Wuhan were 11.2 million, with 9.0 million
urban residents, accounting for 80% of the total population.
2.2. Methodology
To maximize the benefits of runoff control infrastructures, the PSR
framework was applied and a quantitative multi-criteria spatial
decision-making strategy for targeted infrastructure placement was
developed. Relative data acquisition sources were listed in supplemen­
tary information (SI) Table.A.1 The study was carried out with the
following steps (as shown in Fig. 2), the steps after clustering were
illustrated by cluster1. (I) Pressure attributes of environment-economy-
ecology were quantified by data mining method, hydrological model
simulation, and remote sensing inversion methods on the 1km2 grid
scale. Pressures were then normalized to [0–1] intervals for comparison.
(II) The regional state was identified by clustering grids. The normalized
multi-perspective pressures in each cluster were compared, and the
average value of each index was hierarchically integrated as the weight
value that was summed to 1. (III) Environmental-economic-ecological
effectiveness of different infrastructure was detected by the hydrologi­
cal model and life cycle analysis methods. The effectiveness was also
normalized to [0–1] intervals for comparison. (IV) Overall performance
of infrastructure was obtained by summarizing the weighted normalized
H. Jia et al. Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

Fig. 1. The study area.

Fig. 2. Methodological framework.

3
H. Jia et al. Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

multi-effectiveness, and performance ranks were presented for targeted ( )

spatial decision-making of infrastructures. YTSS = − 14.801 + 6.152∗ln(Bblue ) + 0.074∗ln Bgreen + 0.262∗ln(Bred )R2
The key concepts in the framework were defined as follows: = 0.904
(2)
Pressure: regional scarcity degree in environment, economy, and ⃒))
( (⃒
ecology. ⃒ Bnir ⃒
YTP = exp − 1.658 − 0.23 ∗ ln ⃒⃒ ⃒ R2 = 0.737 (3)
State: the relative priority of regional pressure adjustment demand Bswir2 ⃒
in environment, economy, and ecology.
Where YTSS , YTP are the concentration of TSS, TP that inversed by
Response: multi-criteria decision making for runoff control infra­
remote sensing data. Bblue , Bgreen , Bred , Bnir and Bswir2 represent the reflec­
structure placement considering both suitability for a given state and
tion data of the blue band, green band, red band, near-infrared band and
effectiveness of infrastructure.
the second short wave infrared bands in Landsat8, respectively.
Adjustment demand: the urgency to alleviate the scarcity of the
resource.
2.3.2. Regional economic pressure
Effectiveness: inherent characteristics of infrastructure such as
In terms of regional economic pressure, the land value represents the
runoff control function, cost, and ecological impact.
opportunity cost of land occupied by infrastructure; regional gross do­
Weight: the weighting factor showing the relative importance of a
mestic product (GDP) is related to the financial support that the gov­
normalized pressure which summed to 1.
ernment can provide for infrastructure equipment and material assets;
Performance: sum of weighted effectiveness relating to environ­
and economic point of interest (POI) data on public activities, business
ment, economic, and ecology.
activities and transportation activities can attribute the intensity of
Multi-perspective: in environmental, economic, and ecological
economic activity. The public activities factor was described by the
terms.
density of park, school, pharmacy, hospital, and bank. The business
activities factor was described by the density of hotels, restaurants, su­
2.3. Quantification of pressures and identification of state
permarkets, shopping malls. The transportation activities factor was
described by the density of highway entrances, bus stops, toll gates, and
2.3.1. Regional environmental pressure
parking lots. Usually, high value for land and economic activities limits
For the quantification of regional flooding pressure, the soil and
the application of high-investment infrastructure during the stages of
water assessment tool (SWAT) was applied to calculate the required
onsite construction and transportation, operation and maintenance.
runoff volume reduction rate in each grid. Parameters for SWAT were
However, high GDP values normally guarantee for high-investment
gathered from previous studies in the same region of Wuhan (Mu, 2019;
infrastructure in the equipment and material assets stage. The source
Yang, 2018). The 10-year return period design storm was calculated
of land value, GDP data, and POI data were listed in SI Table A.1.
following the local design storm intensity formula and then used as input
data to simulate runoff (WMWB., 2013). The warning water level and
2.3.3. Regional ecological pressure
the average water level in flood season of different water bodies are set
Regional ecological pressure was represented by the ecological ser­
based on historical monitoring data (as shown in SI Fig. B.1). The rise of
vice values from a monetized perspective (calculate as SI B.2). The
receiving water level was simply calculated by dividing the runoff vol­
quantification of ecological service value was calculated by multiplying
ume by the water surface area. In conjunction with the flow path, the
the different land-use areas and the value per unit area equivalent factor
runoff control pressures of the receiving water bodies were traced up­
of each land use as shown in SI Table B.1 (Peng et al., 2021; Xie et al.,
wards to each gird. The required runoff volume reduction rate was
2015). The ecological service values of each 1km2 grid were calculated.
calculated by Eq. (1).
The values in the aspects of water resources supply, climate regulation,
( )
Vrunoff atmospheric pollution regulation, water purification, species conserva­
+ Lfs − Lw ∗ Swater ∗ ωigrid
Swater
tion, and landscape aesthetic were considered as factors to detect
Rirvr = (1)
Vrunoff regional ecological pressures.

where Rirvr is the required runoff volume reduction rate of the i th grid,
Vrunoff is the runoff volume which is simulated by SWAT model, Swater is
the surface area of receiving water body, Lfs is the average water level in
flood season, Lw is the warning water level of the corresponding
receiving water, ωigrid is the ratio of the runoff yield of the i th grid to the
total runoff yield amount of the basin.
Water pollution pressure was represented by key water quality in­
dicators in corresponding receiving water bodies of each grid which
were updated inversed from 30m-resolution Landsat8 satellite imagery
in this study. The remotely sensed imagery gained from Landsat8 was
firstly corrected using FLAASH atmospheric correction module in ENVI
software to remove the atmospheric noises. Then two key water quality
indicators, total suspend solid (TSS) and total phosphorus (TP), were
selected for their both local importance and good correlation with
remotely sensed imagery Gao et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2021). The optical
relationships between the water quality indicators and remote sensing
data were extracted from field experiments in previous studies as Eq.
(2)–((3), and these formulas had been calibrated and validated by actual
monitoring data in the research site (Qiao Xiaojing, 2013; Ting, 2018).
2.3.4. Identification of state cluster
Grids characterized by multi-perspective pressure were clustered to
identify the state. Firstly, pressures were normalized for comparison.
Secondly, the K-means method was applied for grid clustering(Ferraro,
2021). Finally, the average values of normalized criteria were hierar­
chically integrated as weight which was summed to 1. Thus, the regional
state was identified.
High values for flooding pressure, water pollution pressure, land
value, and economic activity sub-criteria means high pressure and were
normalized by Eq.(4). Conversely, high values for regional GDP, water
resources supply, climate regulation, atmospheric purification, water
purification, species conservation, and landscape aesthetic indicated
abundant resources and low pressure and were normalized by Eq.(5).
(Xi − Xmin )
Xa = (4)
(Xmax − Xmin )
(Xmax − Xi )
Xb = (5)
(Xmax − Xmin )
Where Xa and Xb is the normalized value, Xi is the value of criteria factor,
Xmax and Xmin are the maximum and the minimum value of these factors
respectively.

4
H. Jia et al.
Grids were clustered by the K-means method. It has the advantages of
fast convergence, reliable clustering effect, and high interpretability
(Ferraro, 2021). Sub-criteria values were used as distance features be­
tween vectors. The number of categories is determined when the mini­
mum sum of squared errors (SSE) (Eq. (6)) is achieved.
( ) ∑n ∑
k
( )2
SSE Xi , Zj (I) = Xi − Zj (I) (6)
i=1 j=1
Where Xi is a normalized pressure criterion in each grid, Zj (I) was the
cluster centre point data, n was the number of data, k was the number of
clusters.
Weights (ωi ) were hierarchically calculated by the average values of
normalized pressure criteria (NPi ) with Eq. (7).
NPi
ωi = ∑11 (7)
i=1 NPi
2.4. Multifunctional effectiveness quantification and adaptive ranking of
the runoff control infrastructure
2.4.1. Quantification of infrastructure environmental effectiveness
The green infrastructure considered in this study includes bio­
retention (BR), green roof (GR), vegetative swale (VS), and permeable
pavement (PP). Typical grey infrastructures covered include rainwater
pump station (RP), storage tank (ST), rainwater interception treatment
facility (RI), and reuse facility (RF). RI represents the facility that
intercepted the runoff and transported it to a wastewater treatment
plant. RF represented the onsite rainwater reuse facility.
For the determination of infrastructure runoff control effectiveness,
the stormwater management model (SWMM) was applied. The simula­
tion parameters for SWMM were calibrated and verified to ensure reli­
ability (SI C.1-C.2). The 10-year return period intensity storm was
designed (WMWB., 2013) and used as input precipitation data to
simulate runoff. To compare the runoff volume control function,
different types of green infrastructures were each simulated individually
in SWMM. The infrastructure’s “effective scale” was defined as the scale
required to fully capture 1m3/s runoff (runoff control curves of different
infrastructures were shown in SI C, Figure C.3), where a larger scale
implied a weaker control function per unit scale. The runoff control
function of grey infrastructure was derived from the measured values of
the local engineering projects (Hanhua, 2009; Li et al., 2016; Sun, 2019;
Zeng and Xie, 2021) as shown in SI C.2.1(2). Runoff water quality
control function of infrastructures was reviewed from previous studies
(Eckart et al., 2017; Gong et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2019; Mai and Huang,
2021; Yang et al., 2021).
2.4.2. Quantification of infrastructure economic and ecological
effectiveness
Capital investment indices were quantified by the life cycle cost
evaluation method for the stages of onsite construction and trans­
portation, equipment and material assets, operation and maintenance.
Costs and ecological impact were normalized to the functional unit in
their life span (as shown in SI C, Table C.2). For quantitative compari­
son, infrastructure investments were normalized at a uniform capacity
(1 m3/s) by diving by the effective scale, as Eq. (8). The related struc­
tural substances and prices were gathered from the local engineering
project and procurement website(Li et al., 2016; Sun, 2019; WURCB.,
2019), and were listed in Table 1.
CS ∗ LP + ES ∗ LGP + MOS ∗ LEP
CIunitary = (8)
ES
where CIunitary is the capital investment of infrastructure that controls
1m3/s runoff and was monetized in United States dollar; CS, ES, and
MOS are the amount of substance consumption of onsite construction
and transportation stage, equipment and material assets stage, operation
5
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
and maintenance stage respectively; LP, LGP, and LEP are the land and
transport costs, local goods price, and the local labour and energy price
respectively, ES denotes the effective scale.
Ecological indices were considered from the life cycle perspective
and were quantified and nondimensionalized by per capita global
impact by the Simapro software (Sleeswijk et al., 2008), which is com­
mercial software with a well-established and reliable database(Pre-­
sustainability, 2012). The ecological impact of infrastructures was
normalized to the capacity of controlling 1m3/s runoff and was divided
by the effective scale (as Eq. (9)). The quantified factors covered habitat
alteration (HA), species extinction (SE), fine particulate matter (FPM),
global warming (GW), water eutrophication (WE), and water resource
consumption (WRC). The substance inputs inventory in each stage was
also listed in Table 1.
EIC + EIE + EIM&O
EIunitary = (9)
ES
where EIunitary is the ecological impact of infrastructure that controls
1m3/s runoff, EIC , EIE , EIM&O are the ecological impact of the onsite
construction and transportation stage, equipment and material assets
stage, operation and maintenance stage respectively, ES denotes the
effective scale.
Green and grey infrastructure substances inventory were innova­
tively and simultaneously listed to estimate their life cycle ecological
impact and the cost (as shown in Table 1), and the major proportion of
ecological impact and cost were explored.
2.5. Pressure-driven infrastructure adaptive rank
Multi-perspective effectiveness of unitary infrastructure was
normalized to [0–1] intervals for comparison. The high value of runoff
control indices implied better effectiveness (normalized by Eq. (10)),
while the low value of the capital investment and ecological impact
indices performed better effectiveness (normalized by Eq. (11)). Overall
performance of infrastructure was obtained by summarizing the
weighted normalized multi-effectiveness as Eq. (12), and performance
ranks were applied for targeted spatial decision-making of
infrastructures.
(Ei − Emin )
Eia = (10)
(Emax − Emin )
Eib =
(Emax − Ei )
(11)
(Emax − Emin )
∑
11
Pi = ωi ∗ Eia&b (12)
i=1
where Eai is the normalized value for infrastructure runoff control
effectiveness, Ebi is the normalized value for infrastructure cost and
ecological impact, Ei is the effective value of a type of infrastructure,
Emax andEmin are the maximum and minimum effectiveness value
respectively, Pi is the overall infrastructure performance that applied for
ranking, wi is the weight detected by normalized regional pressure.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Identification of multi-perspectives regional pressure
3.1.1. Regional environmental pressure
The storage capacity and service area of receiving water bodies show
spatial heterogeneity, which contributes to the spatial variation of the
regional runoff control urgency. As shown in Fig. 3-(a), a runoff
reduction pressure of up to approximately 30% was identified along the
eastern and southwestern banks of the Yangtze River. This is in accor­
dance with the waterlogging points distribution described in existing
 H. Jia et al.
Table 1 Life
cycle inventory of unitary green and grey infrastructures.
BR (m2) PP (m2) GR (m2) VS (m2)

Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost
Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion
proportion proportion proportion proportion
Fertilizer (kg) 10.3 69.0% 21.9% Graded gravel 51.0 45.6% 63.2% Concrete (kg) 40.7 38.5% 4.8% Fertilizer (kg) 5.0 65.2% 31.1%
(kg)
Planting soil (kg) 161.5 18.8% 30.7% Non-woven 1.3 25.6% 1.9% Fertilizer (kg) 9.4 36.9% 39.0% Non-woven fabrics 1.3 18.5% 0.6%
fabrics (kg) (kg)
Non-woven fabrics 1.3 5.0% 0.6% Permeable 16.8 13.1% 14.0% Cobblestone (kg) 10.2 15.5% 15.6% Graded gravel (kg) 8.5 12.6% 15.3%
(kg) concrete (kg)
Irrigation water 121.7 1.2% 7.1% PVC pipes (kg) 0.2 10.6% 6.5% Non-woven 1.3 3.0% 7.3% Irrigation water 121.7 1.8% 10.8%
(kg) fabrics (kg) (kg)
Cobblestone (kg) 4.5 2.2% 3.6% Sand (kg) 7.8 3.3% 1.7% PVC pipes (kg) 0.1 2.8% 4.1% Diesel (kg) 0.1 0.9% 3.5%
Bark (kg) 1.2 1.9% 6.7% Diesel (kg) 0.1 1.7% 2.6% Irrigation water 365.0 1.9% 14.5% Planting soil (kg) 77.2 0.9% 38.8%
(kg)
Diesel (kg) 0.2 1.2% 3.3% Irrigation water 1.0 0.1% 10.2% Planting soil (kg) 39.3 1.3% 12.0%
(kg)
Graded gravel (kg) 34.0 0.2% 20.5% Diesel (kg) 0.1 0.2% 2.0%
PVC pipes (kg) 0.1 0.2% 2.2%
Geomembranes 0.1 0.2% 3.3%
(kg)
RP(m3/s) ST (m3/s) RI (m3/s) RF(m3/s)
Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost Substance Ecological Cost
Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion Quantity impact proportion
proportion proportion proportion proportion
Electricity (kWh) 3,045,626.6 39.5% 82.0% Reinforcing 2,985,962.3 74.1% 16.1% Electricity (kWh) 2,852,791.7 43.8% 25.6% Glass fibre 29,013.0 42.8% 1.5%
steel (kg) reinforced plastics
6

(kg)
CoNi Alloy (kg) 12.7 26.6% 0.6% Concrete (kg) 10,788,452.8 24.8% 66.9% Concrete (kg) 6,360,602.1 20.5% 2.3% CoNi Alloy (kg) 7500.0 31.1% 2.7%
Stainless steel (kg) 11,729.6 18.8% 0.6% CoNi Alloy (kg) 6181.1 0.8% 4.3% Polypropylene 12,403.2 17.8% 0.9% Stainless steel (kg) 4500.0 11.6% 3.0%
(kg)
Concrete (kg) 41,514.6 8.6% 0.4% Diesel (kg) 4754.7 0.2% 1.0% Stainless steel 61,214.4 12.4% 9.9% Electricity (kWh) 5,333,237.8 8.5% 74.9%
(kg)
Cast iron (kg) 496.7 4.3% 0.6% Electricity 23,773.6 0.1% 10.8% Methanol (kg) 14,618,828.2 3.0% 39.9% Cast iron (kg) 2400.0 3.4% 2.6%
(kWh)
Polystyrene (kg) 7595.4 0.5% 0.1% Organic steel (kg) 6480.0 1.0% 0.4% Cleaning water 18,978.8 2.4% 10.7%
(kg)
Aluminium core 36.1 0.5% 0.0% PVC pipes (kg) 15,217.7 0.6% 0.8% Diesel (kg) 322.8 0.1% 0.2%
(kg)
Sand (kg) 14,449.6 0.5% 12.1% Organic steel(kg) 271,624.9 0.4% 0.5% Sand (kg) 18,978.8 0.1% 4.5%
Organic steel (kg) 96.9 0.4% 0.0% Diesel(kg) 10,232.1 0.2% 0.6%
Diesel (kg) 148.6 0.2% 0.1% Sand(kg) 164,116.8 0.1% 4.9%
Cleaning water 14,449.6 0.1% 2.4% Cleaning water 164,116.8 0.1% 14.1%
(kg) (kg)
Polypropylene 2.7 0.1% 1.1% Graded gravel(kg) 86,400.0 0.1% 0.1%
(kg)

Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

H. Jia et al.
Fig. 3. Runoff quantity and water quality pressure distribution.
studies(Liu et al., 2021a). Rising water levels in receiving water bodies
during the flood season (as shown in SI Fig. B.1) topping off the outflow
from the drainage system, accompanied by the restriction of the warning
water level, both lead to regional drainage pressure. A residual runoff
storage capacity of up to approximately 50% was identified in the
northwestern bank of the Yangtze River, and was mapped in Fig. 3-(a). A
residual runoff storage capacity indicated that in situ storage of runoff
was implementable on these grids. And an effective strategy to release
pressure in the eastern and southwestern banks of the Yangtze River is to
vacate the lake in advance of the flood season, and reserve sufficient
space for storage. Accordingly, a spatially diverted runoff regulation
scheme was detected, whereby runoff in the high-pressure grid was
suggested to be channelled to the urban periphery or the northwestern
bank of the Yangtze River with light pressure for adjustment.
The uneven spatial distribution of land use and water self-
purification capacity induced the spatial heterogeneity of water
polluted status. As illustrated in Fig. 3-(b), the TSS concentration in
related waters ranged from 18.9 mg / L to 33.3 mg / L. From a spatial
perspective, the TSS concentration of the river is above 27.0 mg / L,
which is higher than that of the lakes in Wuhan. This is mainly attributed
to the higher fluidity, which prevented TSS to deposit, in rivers than
lakes. The concentration of TP in related waters is under 0.2 mg / L. In
the mainstream of rivers, the TP concentration is approximately 15%
lower than that of lakes. This also can be attributed to the higher fluidity
and self-purification ability of rivers compared to lakes.
Previous studies ignored the natural runoff regulation endowments
while implementing an indiscriminate runoff adjustment strategy
throughout the region (Di Matteo et al., 2019). The identification of
spatial heterogeneity of runoff quantity and quality pressure further
proved that a targeted runoff control infrastructure contributes to
maximizing the systematical effectiveness.
3.1.2. Regional economic condition
The uneven spatial distribution of the opportunity cost of land
occupation, local financial support, and the economic activity dynamics
constrained investment in the life cycle stages of infrastructures. As
shown in Fig. 4(a)-(b), the areas with higher land value were closely
distributed around the Yangtze River. Similarly, the higher grid GDP
was also closely concentrated in the high urbanized areas (represented
by a high ratio of impervious underlying). High land value areas were
more dispersed than high GDP areas, which was due to the expansion of
7
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
population and urbanization. GDP high-value areas also showed a
greater density around water bodies, which indicated that socio-
economic development activities were largely dependant on the water
system. As shown in Fig. 4(c), POI data were analysed to characterize the
heat of human-related socioeconomic activities. The trend envelope
areas (which were obtained by directional distribution tool in ArcGIS
software and covered 90% of POI) ratio of public activities, business
activities, and transportation activities were about 1:1.7:2.9. This indi­
cated the public activities in Wuhan are more concentrated, while the
transportation activities showed the extensive property. The ratio of the
long and short axes of the trend envelope for public, business, and
transportation activities were 1.1:1, 1.4:1, and 1.5:1 respectively. The
results indicated that the Yangtze River is certainly the main carrier for
Wuhan’s business and transportation.
In previous infrastructure optimization programs, economic factors
were considered only in terms of cost (Di Matteo et al., 2019; Wang
et al., 2016), ignoring the impact of regional land values, financial
surplus, and activity dynamics on the various stages of infrastructure
development. The multi-perspective description of economic pressures
helped to propose constraints for different stages in the infrastructure
life cycle investment, and thus to develop targeted runoff control
strategies.
3.1.3. Ecological resource distribution
Ecological service values showed spatial unevenness, which differs
greatly from the pressure distribution of the economy and environment.
Water resources supply, climate regulation, and landscape aesthetic
benefits were presented here as typical ecological value evaluation
factors, while atmospheric purification, water purification, and species
conservation, which followed a similar trend, were placed in the SI Fig.
B.5. As shown in Fig. 5 and SI Fig.B.5, water resources supply capacity
was abundant in the vicinity of water bodies. Value for local climate
regulation, atmospheric purification, water purification, species con­
servation, and landscape aesthetic was higher in the urban periphery,
where higher vegetation cover contributed to a strong ecological resil­
ience and adjustment capacity. The ecological pressure in the urban
periphery was also reduced due to the lower density of human activities
and the less release of pollutants. Green infrastructure has been proven
by many studies to have a compensatory value on ecosystems(Liu et al.,
2016; Teixeira et al., 2021). However, previous infrastructure optimi­
zation schemes failed to simultaneously trade-off the effectiveness of
H. Jia et al.
Fig. 4. Economic factor distribution.
ecosystem pressure alleviation with runoff control and cost savings
(Teixeira et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2016), which may lead to the con­
struction of some infrastructure increasing the pressure on the
ecosystem. The unevenness of regional ecological pressure put forward
targeted requirements for infrastructure placement.
3.2. Quantitative assessment of green and grey infrastructure multi-
perspective effectiveness
A quantitative comparison of green and grey infrastructure runoff
control functions was achieved by identifying the effective scale of
infrastructure. Under this constraint, a larger effective scale meant a
8
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
weaker unitary runoff control function and vice versa. As shown in
Table 2, ST, RI, BR had the top three runoff volume control functions.
The ability of RF was lower because it was constrained by the regional
reuse water usage. BR and RI had the strongest pollutant remove func­
tion in both green and grey infrastructures respectively.
Higher cost implied greater economic pressure at the specific life
cycle stage and suggested the infrastructure should be built in an area
with correspondingly lower economic sensitivity. As shown in Table 3,
the major contributors to different infrastructures cost were at distinct
stages due to their structural and functional diversity. RI was the highest
investment infrastructure, with a total cost 13.8 times higher than the
lowest pumping station. For BR, GR, VS, PP, and ST, equipment assets
H. Jia et al. Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

Fig. 5. Regional ecological resource abundance distribution.

Table 2
Unitary runoff control function of green and grey infrastructures.
BR(m2) GR(m2) VS(m2) PP(m2) RP (m3/s) ST(m3/s) RI(m3/s) RF(m3/s)

Effective scale 0.43 0.55 0.75 0.93 0.67 0.08 0.32 12.58
TSS average remove efficiency 91.8% 55.6% 13.0% 56.2% / 48.0% 85.7% 63.0%
TP average remove efficiency 73.7% 23.4% 52.0% 56.0% / 28.6% 83.3% 29.0%

Table 3
Capital investment of unitary green and grey infrastructures.
Cost inventory (103 USD/ m3/s) BR GR VS PP RP ST RI RF

Construction and transportation 21.3 8.5 13.7 18.0 1.6 154.2 165.0 11.2
Equipment and material assets 683.2 302.7 395.8 848.0 65.3 740.8 1813.9 167.7
Maintenance& Operation 72.1 79.6 60.2 11.1 305.8 11.0 3176.8 535.6

Table 4
Social impact of unitary green and grey infrastructures.
Impact category BR(m3/s) GR (m3/s) VS (m3/s) PP (m3/s) RP (m3/s) ST(m3/s) RI(m3/s) RF(m3/s)

Habitat alteration (HA) 1.4E-06 3.5E-06 1.4E-06 1.5E-06 3.1E-07 5.1E-06 6.7E-06 8.0E-06
Species extinction (SE) 5.1E-11 2.2E-10 4.6E-11 8.8E-11 1.1E-11 2.9E-10 8.3E-10 9.6E-11
Fine particulate matter (FPM) 2.3E+01 5.8E+01 2.0E+01 1.9E+01 2.4E+00 5.4E+01 1.4E+02 2.3E+01
Global warming (GW) 2.9E+01 1.1E+02 2.5E+01 4.6E+01 6.2E+00 1.5E+02 4.7E+02 5.4E+01
Water eutrophication (WE) 1.6E+02 4.4E+02 1.5E+02 1.1E+02 1.0E+01 4.0E+02 8.1E+02 1.0E+02
Water resource consumption 1.4E+02 4.6E+02 2.6E+02 3.0E+02 4.9E+02 1.2E+03 2.6E+03 2.1E+02
(WRC)

occupied the dominant part of the capital investment. For RP, RI, and
RF, maintenance and operation stages cost most in the life cycle.
Runoff control strategies with high ecological impact were suggested
to be implemented in areas with lower ecological pressure. As shown in
Table 4, the total ecological impact of RI was the highest, 11.4 times
higher than the lowest impact of BR. Habitat alteration impact was
mostly from RF (which took 28.8% proportion), and it should be miti­
gated in areas of low aesthetic landscape value. RI impact most in the
aspects of SE, FPM, GW, WE, WRC, and it took 51.1%, 41.9%, 52.6%,
37.0%, and 46.1% ecological impacts respectively, which meant it was
more tolerated in a region with higher species conservation value,
greater atmospheric purification ability, higher climate adjustment
function, and with higher water purification and water resource supply
capacity. RF was the most ecological-friendly infrastructure in the as­
pects of HA, SE, FPM, GW, WE.
Green and grey infrastructures coupled systems have been proved to
have high resilience (Dong et al., 2017), and can realize system objec­
tives(Alves et al., 2019; Bakhshipour et al., 2019). However, only the
systemic results were focused on by previous studies, which were poorly
interpretable and failed to evaluate the regional suitability of specific
types of infrastructure. Quantitative evaluation of the green and grey
infrastructure in a uniform system made it possible for multi-perspective

9
H. Jia et al.
effectiveness comparison. It is also a prerequisite for simultaneous
spatial decision-making for green and grey infrastructures.
3.3. State identification and adaptive decision-making of infrastructures
3.3.1. State identification driven by pressures
The distribution of clustered state regions indicated the spatial het­
erogeneity of the multi-perspective pressures. Best cluster performance
(minimum sum of squared errors, SSE) was obtained when the grids
were clustered into three categories. As shown in Fig. 6, the region I took
43% of the research area and was mainly located in a part of the high
urbanized areas and the urban periphery. A large proportion of water
bodies were classified in region I. The region II which took 36% of the
research area was located in the transitional area between the high ur­
banized region and urban periphery and suffered intensive runoff
quantity or quality control pressure. Moreover, the ecological resources
were more abundant. The region III was partly located in the high ur­
banized areas and partly located in the southeastern banks of the
Yangtze River where ecological resources were scarce. The synergistic
effect of multiple pressures resulted in a distributed region location.
The pressures in each cluster were integrated as weights to represent
the priority of the adjustment demands, and the characteristic of each
cluster was shown in Fig. 7. In region I, ecological and environmental
criteria were of high weight and urgently demanded to be adjusted (the
weight values were both 0.4), while the economic pressure was rela­
tively less. In terms of sub-criteria, the pressure of different ecological
factors occupied similar importance, the demand for runoff water
quantity control was the most critical aspect for environmental criteria
(took 64% pressure), and more investment was suggested to cope with
the pressure of equipment acquisition (took 67% pressure). In region II,
the environmental criterion was the dominant urgent pressure factor
(the weight value was 0.5) and needed to be given primary consider­
ation in infrastructure placements. Followed by the constraints of
regional economic pressure and then ecological pressure. As for sub-
Fig. 6. Geographical distribution of different adjustment demand regions.
10
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
criteria, the runoff quantity control should be considered with higher
priority (took about 65% importance). Financial expenditure pressure
was given the highest weight in economic pressure attributes, and water
resources shortage was the most essential factor to be considered in
maintaining the ecological conditions. In region III, the ecological cri­
terion (the weight value was 0.5) took precedence over the environ­
mental and economic constraints, which indicated the urgency of
relieving ecological pressure. The six sub-criteria of ecological services
were under roughly equal pressure. The constraints of financial expen­
diture pressures were emphasized in the economic components (took
66% importance), and the control of runoff quality occupied a more
important position than quantity.
Notably, in region I, part of the high urbanized areas presented the
same adjustment state as the urban periphery, that is, economic con­
straints were less important than environmental and ecological criteria.
This finding was driven by two mechanisms. The first was that the
markedly high environmental and ecological pressures in high urban­
ized areas trivialize economic pressures. The second was that low eco­
nomic dynamism in the urban periphery eliminated the corresponding
criteria importance. In region II, a state was presented where the
adjustment urgency for runoff control took precedence over economic
savings, followed by ecological conservation. The region III was partly
located in the areas with abundant financial support but scarce
ecological resources, and partly located in the area with low economic
sensitivity and relatively poor ecological resources. Either way, regional
ecological pressure was identified to be a key indicator restricting
infrastructure construction in region III. The result indicated a synergy
of environmental-economic-social criteria, that is, the same adjustment
urgency state may be driven by different combinations of pressures. This
situation inevitably exceeds the managers’ perception, further demon­
strating the need for the quantitative multi-criteria spatial decision-
making framework of infrastructure.
Expert experience and stakeholder preference are often used to
weigh the different criteria in previous studies (Jia et al., 2015; Tran
et al., 2020). Experience tends to fail in quantifying the weights when
dealing with systems that incorporate multi-perspective pressures. The
quantified pressure provides the possibility of criteria comparison, to
analyse the priority of adjustment urgency, namely, the weight. As
shown in this study, the contest of multi-perspective pressures showed
strong regional characteristics and spatial heterogeneity, which move
beyond empirical judgement. This finding indicated the considerable
requirement of the quantitative multi-criteria spatial decision-making
framework for infrastructure.
3.3.2. Adaptive decision-making of green and grey infrastructures
Performance rank of infrastructure was obtained by summarizing the
weighted multi-effectiveness, thus achieving spatial planning and the
targeted suggestions for zoning infrastructure placement. As shown in
Fig. 8, BR was the most preferred infrastructure in region I, and its su­
periority lied in the high runoff control capacity and low ecological
impact. ST was the first choice in region II caused by its superior runoff
control efficiency and its low cost at life cycle stages. RP was the most
superior infrastructure in region III because it achieved efficient runoff
control in an ecologically low impact and economically friendly manner.
In summary, green infrastructure ranked top in region I, where ecolog­
ical and environmental pressure alleviation were of high priority
simultaneously. Grey infrastructure ranked top in region II and region
III, where ecological or environmental pressure alleviation was of high
priority. Grey infrastructures ranked up from urban periphery to the
high urbanized areas, while green infrastructures were more preferred
in urban periphery and urban core areas. This suggested that green in­
frastructures were more acceptable in areas that aspire to achieve
simultaneous runoff control and ecological improvement. Grey infra­
structure performed either high runoff control functions or minor
ecological impact but lacked the advantage of balancing environmental-
economic-ecological effectiveness.
H. Jia et al. Water Research 212 (2022) 118126

Fig. 7. Indices attributes in each adjustment demand cluster.

Fig. 8. Adaptive ranking of infrastructures.

Previous studies failed to provide the targeted requirement for multi-
function of infrastructure according to regional pressure(Dai et al.,
2021; Di Matteo et al., 2019).This study demonstrated that green
infrastructure tended to exhibit comprehensive effectiveness of the
environmental-economic-ecological perspective, while grey infrastruc­
ture presented outstanding benefits in a single perspective. Thereby, the
identification of spatial pressures will guide the targeted emphasis on
specific functions of green and grey infrastructures to maximize
performance.
3.4. Limitations and further work
A quantitative multi-criteria spatial decision-making framework for
infrastructure planning was established in this study. Deficiencies in

11
H. Jia et al.
previous studies, such as the lack of quantitively identifying pressure in
multi-perspective(García et al., 2020; Rasmussen et al., 2021), the
inability to hierarchically evaluate green and grey infrastructure in a
uniformed system(Dai et al., 2021; Teixeira et al., 2021), and the diffi­
culty of matching regional status with infrastructure effectiveness(Di
Matteo et al., 2019; Ronchi et al., 2020), were remedied to some extent.
However, some limitations remain. For example, supplementary
field monitoring data are essential to support the development of
localized inversion models for studies carried out in other regions.
Monetization of ecological services is an intuitive approach rather than a
necessity. The assessment of regional ecological pressure can also be
carried out in combination with data on aspects such as localized water
and atmospheric environmental capacity. To improve the resilience of
urban management, it is necessary to integrate elements such as ur­
banization and climate change into the framework, thus making dy­
namic decision-making possible. The pressure exerted by combined
system overflows (CSOs) on urban drainage systems and receiving water
bodies cannot be ignored. This study only analysed the compensatory
demands of runoff control infrastructure on regional integrated water
pollution pressure. Runoff control pressure mitigation is emphasized by
infrastructure. The spatial heterogeneity of CSOs distribution may affect
the spatial distribution of runoff pressure and thus affect the decision-
making and placement of runoff control infrastructures. For more ac­
curate identification of runoff control pressure, the CSOs should be
quantified and considered as a pressure element in further studies. In
addition, the multi-criteria decision-making process was carried out in
this study, meaning that the suitable rank was obtained and the in­
frastructures were compared independently. Studies on infrastructure
coupled effectiveness and the scale configuration corresponding to the
regional state were not available yet. These factors are recommended for
subsequent studies.
4. Conclusion
A pressure-driven multi-criteria decision-making framework for
infrastructure spatial planning was developed in this study. Specifically,
we obtained the following important progress through a case study for a
metropolis, Wuhan City in Central China.
(1) A runoff reduction pressure of up to approximately 30% was
identified along the certain areas. TSS concentration of rivers was
higher than that of lakes. The TP concentration in revers is
approximately 15% lower than that of lakes. The economically
sensitive areas were distributed in the high urbanized areas. The
ecological compensation capacity was high in the urban periph­
ery. Regional pressures from multiple perspectives showed
spatial heterogeneity.
(2) Bioretention facilities (BR) and rainwater interception treatment
facilities (RI) both performed well in runoff control. RI has the
highest capital investment and the largest ecological impact,
costing approximately 13.8 times more than the rainwater
pumping station, which was the least expensive option. RI has an
approximately 11.4 times larger ecological impact than the BR,
which had the least impact.
(3) Green infrastructures were more acceptable in areas that aspire to
achieve simultaneous runoff control and ecological improve­
ment. Grey infrastructure performed either high runoff control
functions or minor ecological impact but lacked the advantage of
balancing effectiveness. Thus, the infrastructure performance can
be maximized by targeted placement suggestions.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated
with this publication.
We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for
12
Water Research 212 (2022) 118126
the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct commu­
nications with the office). He is responsible for communicating with the
other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final
approval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct
email address which is accessible by the Corresponding Author and
which has been configured to accept email from (jhf@tsinghua.edu.cn)
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 41890823, 52070112, 7181101209). This work was
also supported by Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region Key R&D Project
"Research and Demonstration of Key Technologies of Full Digital Water
Control Based on Water Network” (2020BCF01002) and the GEF Hai
Basin Integrated Water and Environment Management Project (GEF ID
5561 / WB ID P145897).
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.watres.2022.118126.
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