Question Comment

STQ 1(a) (i) Describe  trend / relationship No explanation required

[1] + QV [2] Marks allocation

STQ 1(a) (ii) Suggest reason for trend /

relationship
STQ 1(a) Why unique species of plants and Repeat Q
(iii) animals in islands Island speciation – allopatric speciation
(geographical isolation)
(Refer to summary p15-16)
STQ 2(a) How …. Evolved as a separate Repeat Q
species from …. Island speciation – allopatric speciation
(geographical isolation)
STQ 2(b) Suggest why … not regarded as Ref to the
sub-species Biological species concept
(Refer to summary p13-14 and Q3a)
STQ 2(c) Data analysis [2] Insufficient :1 for and 1 against

STQ 2(d) Advantages of DNA sequence (Refer to summary p19-20 + STQ 5b:
data  phylogenies Adv of mtDNA)

STQ 3(a) State what is biological species Biological species concept

STQ 3(b) Explain speciation Repeat Q

STQ 3(c) Advantages of using nucleotides Repeat Q (Refer to Q2d)

sequences  phylogenies
STQ 3(d) Data analysis [3] Use Fig 7.1 phylogenetic tree [1] +
Fig 7.2 map [2]
STQ 4(a) Data analysis + understanding of
question [3]
STQ 4(b) Why different species evolved on Repeat Q
different islands
STQ 4(c) Difference between classification Refer to answer in table
vs phylogeny (note : answering technique)

Summary notes do not have this!

STQ 5(a) How islands favour speciation Repeat Q

STQ 5(b) Advantages of mitochondrial DNA Refer to summary p20

STQ 5(c) Advantages of DNA sequence data Repeat Q (Refer to Q2d)
 phylogenies / classification

STQ 6(a)(i) Explain relationship between Link between classification +

classification and phylogeny phylogeny

STQ 6(a)(ii) Why molecular evidence better
than morphological evidence in
determining phylogeny
Not merely describe the “Adv of
DNA nucleotide sequence” but
make reference to the limitations
of morphological species concept
(Refer to summary p14)

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Evolution II
STQ 7(a) Explain why evolution of birds
on each island support Darwin’s
theory of natural selection [2]
STQ 7(b)(i) Suggest why not possible to
determine phylogeny
STQ 7(b)(ii) Explain advantage of molecular
methods in determining phylogeny
STQ Suggest why no giant flightless
7(b)(iii) birds in Hawaii – Data analysis
ESQ 1 Differences: Classification vs
Phylogeny
ESQ 2(a) Using named e.g. , explain how
anatomical and molecular
homology support theory of NS
[9]
ESQ 2(b) Explain how gel electrophoresis
 evidence of molecular
homology [8]
ESQ 3(a) Describe binomial nomenclature
of a species and basis of
hierarchical classification of
species into taxonomic groups
[7]
ESQ 3(b) Explain BSC [7]
ESQ 3(c) Advantages of molecular data in
classifying organisms [6]
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Evolution II
Reference to Natural Selection [2]
If more marks, reference to
speciation (macro-evolution); idea
of descent with modification
Limitation of morphological data /
morphological species concept
Repeat Q
But go through point 3 (constant
rate of mutation  est. time of
speciation)
Repeat
Refer to STQ 4c but the answer here
has more points (Essay!)
Refer to answer + Summary p9-12
Examples: pentadactyl limb, horse
fossil records, major vertebrate
groups, Archaeopteryx)
Examples: Same genetic languages,
universal genetic code, [new]
cytochrome c gene
 DNA extraction + PCR of a
homologous genen
 The technique – agarose gel
electrophories
 Analysis of results
Refer to ESQ 1
Refer to summary p13 (insufficient to
support 7 marks) + refer to answer
provided
Refer to summary p19-20
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1 Recent DNA studies have examined the skeletal remains of Europeans buried during
the plagues of the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the seventeeth and eighteenth
centuries and in modern times. These plague outbreaks varied in their symptoms and
severity. Despite these differences, the studies suggest that these plagues were all
caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.

Which statement does not describe a feature that could contribute to the evolution of
Y. pestis through natural selection?

Recall: 4 key questions (there must be heritable variations in the population and
presence of selective pressures in the environment for NS to operate)

A Bacteria from various strains of Y. pestis have different genotypes which could
account for the changes in the symptoms and severity of the disease over the
centuries. Explanation: Possible. Different genotypes would give rise to different
phenotypes in the bacteria to serve as raw material for natural selection (NS).

B Bacteria within each strain of Y. pestis have the same DNA sequence but,
depending on their interaction with the human host, can cause different symptoms
with a variety of consequences.
Explanation: Since the bacteria of the same strain have the same DNA sequence,
there will not be any heritable variation/phenotypes to serve as raw material for
natural selection (NS) to occur.

Note that the severity of symptoms vary amongst individuals depending on their
state of health (e.g. state of immune system, etc).

C Changes in the genome of Y. pestis over the centuries may be associated with
changes in its environment, including the changing genetic characteristics of
human hosts. Explanation: The changes in environment may present different
selective pressures/agents affecting the evolution of the bacteria via NS. The
different selective pressures would select for certain strains of bacteria in different
human hosts.

D Two DNA sequences that significantly increase the severity of the disease have
been found in plasmids that replicate independently of the rest of the bacterial
DNA. N17P1Q26

Explanation: Some bacteria with the plasmids will have different phenotypes than
other bacteria without the plasmids.

2 The DNA for cytochrome c molecules in organisms X was compared with that in
five other organisms.

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Evolution II
 The bases in the DNA coding for some cytochrome c amino acids in the
organism X are:
TTT – CCA – CGC – GAC

These are the corresponding DNA sequences for the other five organisms.

1 ATT – CGA – GGC – GAC (3 differences)

2 TTA – CGA – AGC – GTC (4 differences)
3 TTT – GCA – AGC – GAC (2 differences)

4 TTT – CGA – AGG – GAC (3 differences)

5 TAT – CCA – CGG – GAC (2 differences)

Which organisms are likely to be most closely related to organism X?

A 1, 2 and 4
B 1 and 3
C 2, 3 and 5
D 3 and 5 only N16P1Q33
Comment: Useful to work out the answer by highlighting and annotating the no. of
differences beside each organism (like what I did).

3 The classification of the domestic horse, Equus ferus caballus and the Przewalski’s
horse, Equus ferus przewalskii, is not fully established.

They are considered to be members of the same species, but some evidence
suggests that they should be classified as separate species.

Extinct in the wild, Przewalski’s horse survived in zoos and has now been successfully
re-introduced into the steppe area of Mongolia.

Which statements would suggest that these two types of horse are members of the
same species?

1 Domestic horses in Mongolian steppe area are capable of interbreeding with

the re-introduced Przewalski’s horse to produce fertile offspring. (Biological
Species concept)

2 DNA testing suggests that the two types of horse divulged from wild horse
ancestors at a similar time. (Explanation: In this case, they should be different
species)

3 DNA testing has found few differences between the two types of horse.
(Explanation: Members of the same species have very few differences in
their DNA)
4 The diploid number of the domestic horse is 64 and that of Przewalski’s
horse is 66. (Explanation: According to the genetic species concept, the
different no. of chromosomes support different species)

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Evolution II
 A 1 and 2
B 1 and 3
C 2 and 4
D 3 and 4 N14P1Q31

4 The diagram shows part of a phylogenetic classification of four species into taxonomic
groups. N12P1Q31

Which row correctly describes order M in comparison with genera I and J?

Relative size Number of similarities between Time since members of

of taxonomic members of the taxonomic taxonomic groups shared
groups groups a common ancestor

A M is larger Fewer similarities Members of M shared a

than I or J between members of M common ancestor a
than between members of I longer time ago than
or J those in I or J

B M is larger More similarities between Members of M shared a

than I or J members of M than common ancestor a
between members of I or J shorter time ago than
those in I or J
C M is smaller Fewer similarities between Members of M shared a
than I or J members of M than common ancestor a
(incorrect) between members of I or J shorter time ago than
those in I or J
D M is smaller More similarities between Members of M shared a
than I or J members of M than common ancestor a
(incorrect) between members of I or J longer time ago than
those in I or J
Explanation: As you go up the hierarchy of Linnaean classification system,
the size of each taxonomic group becomes bigger in membership but fewer
in similarities.

5 Organisms are classified using taxons. The scientific names of three species are
below.
 leopard – Panthera pardus
 lion – Panthera leo
 tiger – Panthera tigris

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Evolution II
 What is the highest taxon that these organisms have in common?

A class
B family
C genus (this would be the lowest taxon the 3 organisms have in common!)
order N11P1Q31
D
6 Approximately 1 in 20 Europeans are heterozygous for a recessive allele responsible
for the genetic condition, cystic fibrosis (CF). People who have homozygous for CF
have a reduced life expectancy. Heterozygotes are more resistant to some bacterial
infections of the gut, such as typhoid fever, than homozygotes for normal, dominant
allele.

What could explain the high incidence of the recessive CF allele in the European
population?

A Natural selection favouring heterozygotes (i.e. heterozygote advantage)

B Natural selection favouring homozygotes for the recessive CF allele
C Lack of genetic drift in the European population
D Mutation N06P1Q36

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Evolution II
STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Question 1 (N17/P2/Q9)
Fig. 9.1 shows the islands between mainland Asia and Australia.

Fig. 9.2 shows the sizes of the different islands and the total number of plant species
on each island.

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Evolution II
(a) (i) Describe how the total number of plant species varies with island size, as shown
in Fig. 9.2. [3]

 Answer the question. There is no need to explain! Explanation will be for (ii).
 It is 3 marks so the breakdown of marks could be 1 mark for description of general
trend + 2 marks for quoting values (QV)
 What makes a meaningful QV?

General trend:
1. Increasing island size supports larger number of plant species

QV:
2. With the exception of one island, an island area of approximately 200,000
km2 or less support 1000 plant species or less

3. Island area of 900,000 km2 support more than 2.5 times more / 2,500 plant
species

(ii) Suggest an explanation for the relationship that you have described in (a)(i). [2]
2 marks. There should 2 points.

1. Larger islands have greater number and varieties of habitats for plants
or
2. Larger islands have more ecological niches for the establishment and
survival of more plant species

(iii) Islands often have many unique species of plants and animals that are not found
anywhere else. (fyi: These uniques species are known as endemic species)

Explain why this is so. [5]

 This question is referring to speciation which is favored in islands!

Idea of disruption of gene flow (initial prerequisite for speciation to take place)
1. Islands are geographically isolated as they are surrounded by water that
acts as a physical barrier preventing interbreeding. This results in the
disruption of gene flow;

Idea of many ecological niches in islands

2. The islands, due to their differing habitats / environments, present many
ecological niches for the species to fill and so promote adaptive radiation
among the founder/ancestral organisms

Idea of natural selection taking place (reference to the 4 key questions)

Different selective pressures in the environment
3. e.g. of differences. Soil type – sandy or clayey, availability of water,
availability of shade, availability of food, plant types;

4. Thus the (common) ancestral species on different islands were exposed to

different selection pressures and natural selection acts on them;

Heritable variation present + individuals selected for + outcome

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Evolution II
 5. There is existing variation in the population and those with favourable traits
have a selective advantage to the local conditions and will be selected for,
increasing the frequency of favourable alleles / and will survive, reproduce
and pass on their alleles to the next generation;

Idea of independent evolution

6. As the different sub populations evolved independently of each other, their
allele frequencies changed as they accumulated different genetic
mutations, and were subjected to genetic drift and natural selection;

Idea of completion of speciation process over time + determination by BSC

7. Over hundreds and thousands of generations, each population on the
different islands became reproductively isolated;

8. Hence they can no longer interbreed to produce viable, fertile offspring and
hence new species are formed through allopatric speciation (i.e.
macroevolution occurs);

Question 2 (N16/P2/Q7)
Fig. 7.1 shows the distributions of the clouded leopard, Neofelis nebulosa. and the
Sundaland clouded leopard, N. diardi, in part of south-east Asia. N. nebulosa only
occurs in mainland Asia while N. diardi is found only on the islands of Borneo and
Sumatra.

Until 2006, all clouded leopards were thought to be members of the same species.

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(a) Suggest how N. diardi, of Borneo and Sumatra, evolved as a separate species from N.
nebulosa, found in the rest of Asia. [3]

1. Populations of N. nebulosa on Borneo and Sumatra were separated from the

main populations on the Asian mainland due to rising sea levels 
geographically isolated due to a physical barrier (the sea). Interbreeding is
prevented and gene flow is disrupted;

2. The sub-populations will evolve independently over time, accumulating

different mutations which will lead to changes to allele frequencies due to
natural selection and genetic drift;

(Different niches on Borneo and Sumatra will present different selection

pressures and individuals best adapted to that environment will have a
selective advantage will be selected for (survive to reproduce) and favourable
alleles will be passed on to the next generation and so the frequency of
favourable alleles will increase)

3. Over hundreds and thousands of generations, across long periods of time,

accumulation of genetic differences led to each sub-population becoming
reproductively isolated;

4. Such that they can no longer interbreed to produce viable, fertile offsprings
and hence a new species, N. diardi, was formed through allopatric speciation;

(b) There are a number of differences between populations of N. diardi on Borneo and
Sumatra. These are regarded as different sub-species.

Suggest why they are not regarded as separate species.[2]

1. The two sub-species of N. diardi may still be able to mate and produce fertile
and viable offsprings; (biological species concept)

2. in spite of having no opportunity to mate due to geographical isolation on

their respective islands;

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Evolution II
 Fig. 7.2 shows the phylogeny and timescale, based on DNA sequence data, of N.
nebulosa, two sub-species of N. diardi and some other closely related cats.

(c) Explain whether the data in Fig. 7.2 provide sufficient evidence on their own for the
existence of two separate species of Neofelis. [2]

The data may be insufficient

1. [For]: Although there could be two separate species of Neofelis, because

both have the same common ancestor about 1.4 million years ago before
diverging into separate species.

2. [Against] However, the speciation process may not be completed. They could
still be sub-species.

Further data from morphological, physiological, ecological, biological

studies may be needed to confirm this

(d) Describe the advantages of using DNA sequence data in constructing phylogenies
such as that shown in Fig. 7.2. [3]

Comment: You can refer to the evolution summary notes p19-20. For the 3 marks,
select the more significant points. You can also mention the use of mitochondrial DNA
sequence for constructing phylogenetic trees for closely related species and to
estimate time of divergence.

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Evolution II
 1. The nucleotide data are objective. Molecular character states are
unambiguous as A, C, G and T are easily recognisable and cannot be
confused

2. The nucleotide data are quantitative. Molecular data are easily converted to
numerical form and hence are amenable to mathematical and statistical
analysis and hence computation. The degree of relatedness can be inferred
and quantified by calculating the nucleotide differences between species

3. The nucleotide data can be used to compare species which are

morphologically indistinguishable due to convergent evolution or are very
closely related;

4. Furthermore, the use of mitochondrial DNA is useful because mtDNA does

not undergo genetic recombination. Thus any changes to DNA is due solely
to the accumulation of mutations over time at a regular rate. We can thus
estimate the time of speciation
[Total: 10]

Question 3 (N15/P2/Q7)
(a) State what is meant by the term, biological species. [2]

1. a group of organisms of the same species are capable of interbreeding and

producing fertile, viable offspring;
2. are reproductively isolated from other species;

(b) Explain how new species arise. [5]

1. When a population is separated into 2 sub-populations as they are

geographically isolated due to a physical barrier, interbreeding is prevented
and gene flow is disrupted;

However, disruption of gene flow is also possible when 2 sub-populations are

separated by behavioral isolation (e.g. different mating calls or preference to
courtship dance, etc) or/and physiological isolation (e.g. different time of
sexual maturation)

2. Different niches will present different selection pressures and individuals

best adapted to the environment will have a selective advantage will be
selected for (they survive to reproduce) and favourable alleles will be passed
on to the next generation and so the frequency of favourable alleles will
increase;

3. The 2 sub-populations will evolve independently over time, accumulating

different mutations which will lead to changes to allele frequencies due to
natural selection and genetic drift;

4. Over hundreds and thousands of generations, across long periods of time,

accumulation of genetic differences led to each sub-population becoming
reproductively isolated;

5. Such that they can no longer interbreed to produce viable, fertile offspring
and hence new species are formed through allopatric speciation;

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Evolution II
 For speciation that occurred when the sub-populations were living in the
same geographical location, it is known as sympatric speciation.

FYI: Allopatric speciation is more common than sympatric speciation. Unless it is an essay
question, you may choose to exclude sympatric speciation for this 5 marks STQ.
Fig.7.1 shows the phylogenetic tree of three species of closely related butterflyfish
based on nucleotide sequences, with ages estimated from fossil and biogeographic
data.

Fig. 7.1

(c) Describe the advantages of using nucleotide sequences in reconstructing phylogenetic

relationships. [3] Repeated question

1. They are objective. Molecular character states are unambiguous as A, C, G

and T are easily recognisable and cannot be confused;

2. Data is quantitative and easily converted to numerical form for statistical

analysis. The degree of relatedness can be inferred and quantified by
calculating the nucleotide differences between species;

3. Furthermore the mtDNA does not undergo recombination thus any changes
to DNA is due solely to the accumulation of mutations over time at a regular
rate. We can thus estimate the time of speciation;

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Evolution II
 Fig.7.2 shows the current distribution of these three species.

Fig. 7.2

(d) Suggest, with reference to Fig. 7.1 and Fig. 7.2, why breeding between C. lunulatus
and C. trifasciatus is possible. [3]
To answer this question well, you must make reference to the info from both figures.

1. Since C. lunulatus and C. trifasciatus share a relatively recent common

ancestor 5 million years ago as seen in Fig 7.1
2. and there are areas where they are found overlap as seen in Fig.7.2
3. they are able to interbreed and form hybrids

[Total:13]

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Evolution II
Question 4 (N14/P2/Q8)
Over one hundred species of picture-wing fly (Drosophila sp) have evolved from a single
female that migrated to the Hawaiian Islands five million years ago. (adaptive radiation;
definition in evolution summary notes, p12)

Different wing patterns were the basis for the original classification of different species of
picture-wing fly.

The different species of picture-wing fly may also be distinguished by different banding on
the polytene chromosomes of the larvae, after staining.

Fig. 8.1 shows a polytene chromosome with banding.

Fig. 8.1

(a) Suggest why different species of picture-wing fly show different banding. [3]

Different banding

1. [Reason]: Due to differences in DNA sequences at different gene loci

along the chromosomes

2. [Reason for sequence difference]: Arose due to DNA mutations which

could also give rise to new genes in some species.

3. [Result of differences in DNA sequences] could be distinguished by

different staining and result in different band patterns in the
chromosomes

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Evolution II
 Fig. 8.2 shows the Hawaiian Islands with the number of different species of picture-
wing fly on each island. The species on each island are different to the species on the
other islands.

Fig. 8.2

(b) Suggest why different species of picture-wing fly evolved on different islands. [4]

1. The islands were geographically isolated with the sea separating the
islands/allopatric speciation (with mention of type of barrier);

2. This meant that the gene flow between populations of flies on the islands
were disrupted;

3. With the different environment with their different selection pressures, e.g.
predation, habitats, available food sources (name one example);

4. Allele frequencies change because of natural selection and genetic drift;

5. The subpopulations evolve independently and accumulate different

mutations and allele frequency changes, that over time led to reproductive
isolation and formation of different species;

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Evolution II
 Using similarities in the banding of polytene chromosomes, it is possible to construct a
phylogenetic tree for the evolution of these flies.

Fig. 8.3 shows the phylogenetic tree for 35 species of picture-wing fly.

Fig. 8.3

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Evolution II
(c) Explain the differences between classification and phylogeny. [3]

Fig.8.3 was shown to direct you towards reasons related to the branching
network of a phylogenetic tree. Any 3 below.

(Traditional) Classification Phylogeny

1 Groups organisms based on Groups organisms based on the

overall/morphological similarities evolutionary history/relationship
and does not take into account the of organisms (i.e. ancestor-
evolutionary history/relationship descendent relationships)
of organisms

2 Organisms are grouped into a Evolutionary relationships are

hierarchical classification system shown as organisms are each
including kingdom, phylum, class, assigned a position on a branching
order, family, genus and species tree relative to other organisms

3 Organism is presented as a Organism is presented on a

binomial nomenclature/name branch tip on a phylogenetic tree

4 Does not allow inference of Allows inference of speciation

speciation events events as the nodes / branch-point
in the phylogenetic tree

5 Does not allow inference of Allow.

common ancestors
Descendants of a common
ancestor are represented in the
same branch

6 Cannot infer of how closely related Allow.

2 species are within a taxon in
each level of hierarchy How recently a branch-point
occurs indicates how closely
They are merely grouped together related 2 species are
in the same hierarchy, e.g.
“species” in classification.

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Evolution II
Question 5 (N12/P2/Q7)
It is widely accepted amongst evolutionary biologists that islands promote speciation.

(a) Explain the ways in which islands favour the formation of new species. [6]
Repeat question - Refer to Evolution Tutorial I Q4

Idea of disruption of gene flow between populations (of same species) due to a reason
1. Islands are geographically isolated as they are surrounded by water that acts
as a physical barrier preventing interbreeding. This results in the disruption of
gene flow;

For islands - To consider many vacant ecological niches

2. The islands due to their differing habitats / environments, present many niches
for the species to fill – idea of adaptive radiation;

Idea of natural selection in different population

3. e.g. of differences. Soil type – sandy or clayey, availability of water, availability
of shade, availability of food, plant types;

4. Thus the (common) ancestral species on different islands were exposed to

different selection pressures and natural selection acts on them;

5. There is existing variation in the population and those with favourable traits
have a selective advantage to the local conditions and will be selected for,
increasing the frequency of favourable alleles / and will survive, reproduce and
pass on their alleles to the next generation;

Idea of independent evolution among the different population

6. As the different sub populations evolved independently of each other, their
allele frequencies changed as they accumulated different genetic mutations, and
were subjected to genetic drift and natural selection;

7. Over hundreds and thousands of generations, each population on the different

islands became reproductively isolated;

8. Hence they can no longer interbreed to produce viable, fertile offspring and
hence new species are formed through allopatric speciation (i.e. macroevolution
occurs);

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Evolution II
 Our understanding of the phylogeny of species has been greatly improved through the
use of molecular techniques.

Many phylogenetic studies use mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA.

(b) Suggest advantages of using mitochondrial DNA. [2]

1. There is no recombination/crossing over in mitochondrial DNA from parent to

offspring (idea of no recombination) unlike nuclear DNA, hence changes in
DNA sequence is SOLELY due to the accumulation of mutations over time at
a regular rate. This allows estimation of time of speciation;

2. Faster mutation rate (key idea) compared to nuclear DNA and hence it is useful
for comparing individuals within a species or species that are closely related
as you require discernible differences between the DNA of organisms being
compared;

The phylogenetic relationship of three genera of butterflies, Ornithoptera, Trogonoptera

and Troides was investigated using nucleotide sequences of the ND5 gene obtained
from mitochondrial DNA.

Fig. 7.1 shows a phylogenetic tree based on this ND5 gene nucleotide sequence data.

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Evolution II
(c) Describe the advantages of using nucleotide data such as this in classifying organisms.
[3]

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

1. The nucleotide data are objective. Molecular character states are

unambiguous as A, C, G and T are easily recognisable and cannot be
confused;

2. The nucleotide data are quantitative. Molecular data are easily converted to
numerical form and hence are amenable to mathematical and statistical
analysis and hence computation. The degree of relatedness can be inferred
and quantified by calculating the nucleotide differences between species;

3. The nucleotide data can be used to compare species which are

morphologically indistinguishable due to convergent evolution or are very
closely related;

4. Remotely related organisms such as bacteria, humans and sunflower can also
be compared because they share some proteins such as cytochrome c;
[Total: 11]

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Evolution II
Question 6 (N11/P2/Q7)
Fig. 7.1 is a phylogenetic tree, constructed using base sequences from ribosomal RNA
molecules, showing the common origin of all forms of life on Earth.

Bacteria Archaea Animalia

Plantae
Fungi

Protoctista

Common Ancestor
Fig. 7.1

(a) (i) Explain the relationship between classification and phylogeny. [3]

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

1. Classification is the organisation of species according to particular

characteristics and may not take into consideration the evolutionary
relationship between the species;

2. Phylogeny is the organisation of species according to particular

characteristics which takes into consideration the evolutionary relationship
between the species;

3. The relationship between classification and phylogeny is phylogenetic

classification where species are categorised into the hierarchical
classification based on the evolutionary relationships derived from
phylogeny;

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 (ii) Explain why molecular evidence is better than morphological evidence in
determining phylogeny. [4]

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

[Note: Any four of the points below (as far as possible try to refer to the
phylogenetic tree and the use of rRNA above. Points 1 - 4 are the better
points to highlight).]
1. All known life is based on nucleic acids and would have rRNA and thus
studies involving any types of taxa can use rRNA sequence data;
2. The rRNA sequences can be used to compare species that are
morphologically difficult to compare to establish evolutionary
relationships e.g., animals and bacteria;
3. rRNA sequences are objective and quantitative. Molecular character
states are unambiguous (e.g. A, C, G and U) whereas some
morphological characters such as colour, texture, can be ambiguous;
(note: reject A, G, C, T as the molecule used is RNA);
4. Molecular characteristics can clearly show if organisms are wrongly
classified due to morphological characters that are similar between
organisms due to convergent evolution.;
Other valid points
5. Molecular data (nucleotide or amino acid sequences) are easily
converted to numerical form and hence are amenable to mathematical
and statistical analysis.;
6. Offers a large and essentially limitless set of characters to be studied.
Each nucleotide position can be considered a character and the
ribosomal RNA can provide about 5 thousand bases on average;
[Total: 7]

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Question 7 (N10P2Q7)
Fig. 7.1 shows the distribution of four species of extinct giant flightless birds whose fossil
skulls have recently been found on five of the Hawaiian islands. The age of the islands is
shown in millions years (My).

Fig. 7.1

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) extracted from the fossil skulls has shown that the
common ancestor of these four species was a species of small flying duck, now extinct, that
probably reached the Hawaiian islands from the mainland of America not long after the
formation of Kauai.

(a) Explain why evolution of different species of these birds on each island supports
Darwin’s theory of natural selection. [2]

1. The different species of birds on each island were exposed to different

environments and there were different selection pressures on each island
acting in favour or against particular adaptations of the birds;

2. Those birds at a selective advantage can survive to maturity, mate, reproduce

and passed on their favourable alleles / genes (R: traits) to their offspring (vice
versa for those at selective disadvantage);

Note: Due to geographical isolation, there was no interbreeding and gene flow
between the populations on each island, thus leading to allopatric speciation.

Over successive generations, evolution of different species of these birds on each

island occurred, leading to adaptive radiation.

Diverse forms of birds have thus arisen by descent with modifications from
ancestral species by accumulation of modifications as the population of birds
adapt to the new environments.

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(b) (i) Suggest why it is not possible to determine the phylogeny of the birds from the
morphological features of the fossil skulls. [2]

1. The fossil skulls were incomplete/damaged especially Chelychelynechen

quassus and Thambetochen xanion;

2. There are very few morphological characters that they all share (with just the
incomplete skull fossil) that can form a basis of comparison and so we can’t
draw any evolutionary relationships between the four groups;

(ii) Explain the advantage of molecular methods in determining phylogeny. [2]

1. They are objective. Molecular character states are unambiguous as A, C, G

and T are easily recognisable and cannot be confused;

2. Data is quantitative and easily converted to numerical form for statistical

analysis. The degree of relatedness can be inferred and quantified by
calculating the nucleotide differences between species;

Context-specific advantages

3. Furthermore, the mtDNA does not undergo recombination thus any changes
to DNA is due solely to the accumulation of mutations over time at a regular
rate. We can thus estimate the time of speciation;

4. Even dead tissue may be used so long as the DNA or protein remains intact
and you do not even need an entire specimen;

Any 2. Choice of advantages boils down to the context of the question. Choose
the most important points.

(c) Suggest why there are no giant flightless birds in Hawaii. [2]

1. Flightless birds will have difficulty crossing the sea to reach Hawaii from the
older islands;

2. Flightless birds became extinct before the emergence of Hawaii;

3. Hawaii island emerged from the ocean some 0.43mya leaving insufficient time
for flightless birds to evolve from birds that could fly;
[Total: 8]

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ESSAY QUESTIONS
Question 1 (N08H2P2Q9)
(a) Describe how classification differs from phylogeny. [7]

Basis of Classification Phylogeny

comparison
1 (Basis of) Classification groups organisms Whereas phylogeny traces the
grouping of based on overall/morphological evolutionary history of organisms
organisms similarities and does not take into based on ancestor-descendent
account the evolutionary history of relationships;
organisms
2 System of It is a system of naming. It involves Organisms are arranged based on
organizing grouping organisms into a their evolutionary relationship with
organisms kingdom, phylum, class, order, each other with each organism
family, genus and species using a assigned a position on a branching
hierarchical classification* tree relative to other organisms;
system
3 How species Uses binomial nomenclature* Uses a phylogenetic tree where
are presented related organisms are grouped into
the same branche on a phylogenetic
tree;
4 Nature of Being based on morphological Makes use of homologous
characteristic characters, does not discriminate characters* that are derived from a
s between analogous or common ancestor to group
homologous characters organisms;
5 Types of Uses only morphological Uses morphological anatomical,
characters characteristics embryological as well as molecular
used characteristics such as DNA, RNA,
amino acid sequences; Also fossil
records.
6 Strengths and Easily place an organism into its Cannot immediately place an
weaknesses well defined group. organism into the phylogram as
evolutionary history need to be
established from multiple sources;
May wrongly classify organisms Rarely classifies wrongly as
that are not related but look similar convergent evolution will be placed in
due to convergent evolution* separate branches;
7 Inference of Does not allow inference of While phylogeny indicates speciation
speciation historical speciation events events as the node of the
events phylogenetic tree;
8 Inference of Cannot infer of how closely related Allows accurate inference of how
relationships 2 species are especially since they closely related 2 species are by
are grouped together in the same looking at how recently they diverged
hierarchy, “species” from their common ancestor;
9 Inference of Does not allow inference of Allows inference of common
common common ancestors ancestors. Descendants of a
ancestors common ancestor are represented in
the same branch;

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Question 2 (N07H1P2Q5)
(a) Using named examples, explain how anatomical and molecular homology support
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. [9]

Explain the basis of using homology to support Darwin’s theory of evolution

1. Very different organisms share an underlying similarity because of their

shared common ancestry and this similarity is called homology;

2. These characteristics present in an ancestral organism developed into

different forms as the result of natural selection, as they faced different
environmental conditions; (descent with modification)

Anatomical homology (named e.g./ how are they homologous / descent with
modification

3. An example is the pentadactyl (five-digit) limb* structure of tetrapods, 4-

limbed animals, like the amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals;
4. The forelimbs of humans, cats, whales and bats show the same arrangement
of bones from the shoulder to the tips of the digits, even though these
appendages have very different functions: lifting/grasping, walking,
swimming and flying and don’t resemble each other;
5. Natural selection had resulted in the different forms of the pentadactyl limb to
suit their specialised functions/environment;
6. and that it was a modification of the five-digit forelimb of the common
ancestor which they all descended from;

Molecular homology (named e.g./ how are they homologous / descent with
modification)

7. Molecular homology refers to similarity in DNA, RNA & amino acid

sequences* e.g the cytochrome c gene or the p53 protein;
8. These are typically important enough that every organism possesses them
and they carry out the same function in different organisms. Their sequences
are significantly conserved suggesting shared common ancestry;
9. An ancestral gene nucleotide sequence would be modified over many
generations due to accumulation of mutations;
10. Homologous protein provides direct correlation to the relatedness of the
species from which they are derived – sequences of closely related species
tend to be more similar to each other;

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(b) Explain how gel electrophoresis can be used to provide evidence of molecular
homology. [8]

Technique of gel electrophoresis (max 6m)

DNA extraction
1. DNA from various/different organisms being compared are extracted using a
buffer and purified;

PCR to isolate and amplify a homologous gene

2. Carry out polymerase chain reaction/PCR; Use specific forward and reverse
primers that hybridise to the 3’ flanking regions of a potential homologous
gene

Agarose gel electrophoresis

3. The DNA is loaded into an agarose gel. DNA, being negatively charged, will
migrate towards the positive electrode under an electric field

(Understanding: Meshwork of polymer fibers impede the movement of longer

fragments more than shorter fragments)

4. Fragments are thus separated based on size with smaller fragments migrating
further along the gel than shorter fragments;

5. The DNA fragments are stained with EtBr, a DNA binding dye, causing them to
fluoresces under UV light;

Analysing the results

6. The PCR primers would hybridise to the DNA of the homologous gene it was
targeting and amplify the gene;

7. If there was indeed molecular homology amongst the organisms being

compared, the gel would reveal the same banding pattern for all the organisms
compared;

8. Once it is established that the different organisms show molecular homology,

their DNA can then be sequenced to determine the degree of nucleotide
similarity with the DNA from closely related organisms being the most similar;

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Question 3 (N13P2Q9)
(a) Describe the binomial nomenclature of a species and the basis of hierarchical
classification of species into taxonomic groups. [7]

What is binomial nomenclature:

1. In binomial nomenclature, each species is assigned a 2-part latin name with the
genus followed by the species;

2. e.g. Homo sapiens is the binomial name of humans with Homo being the genus
while sapiens is the species. The genus is capitalized while the species is not.
Both names are underlined separately or italicized;

Advantage
3. Precision -

Linnaeus came up with this precise naming system because it avoids ambiguity
that may arise if common names are used instead. e.g. there are many “cats”
and there must be a better way to distinguish the different cats

4. Systematic -
A newly discovered species can be easily categorized and named;

What is the basis of hierarchial classification of species  taxonomic groups:

5. The organisms are systematically grouped into a hierarchy of increasingly

inclusive taxons/categories;

6. Closely related organisms are grouped together in the same taxon, a group of
related organisms at a particular level;

7. Related species are grouped in the same genus, related genera in the same
family and so on;

8. The hierarchical taxons are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum,
kingdom, domain with the species being the most exclusive group and the
domain being the most inclusive group;

9. Traditional Linnean classification determines relatedness based on observable

morphological similarities but increasingly, evolutionary relationships are taken
into account as well;

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(b) Explain the biological concept of the species. [7]
What:
1. The biological concept of a species defines a species as is group of organisms
capable of interbreeding and producing fertile, viable offspring;

2. A species is thus reproductively isolated from other populations and no longer

share a common gene pool with them;

Basis of the BSC:

3. The basis of this concept is that two populations have accumulated sufficient
genetic differences in both allele frequencies and unique mutations that they
develop both pre-zygotic and post-zygotic mechanisms that prevent mating
and/or fertilization;

Disadvantages
4. This definition cannot be applied to asexually reproducing organisms;

5. This concept cannot be applied to extinct species whose breeding behavior

cannot be observed;

6. There are some organisms that may physically and physiologically be capable
of mating but, for various reasons, do not normally do so in the wild. e.g.
different mating call. It is disputed whether they are indeed a different species

7. It difficult to apply the BSC to sub-species because some sub-species can

interbreed with each other but other sub-species cannot interbreed.

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(c) Outline the advantages of molecular methods in classifying organisms. [6]

1. They can be used to compare and categorise species so morphologically

indistinguishable due to convergent evolution or are very closely related;
2. On the other hand, remotely related organisms such as bacteria, humans and
sunflower can also be compared because they share some proteins such as
cytochrome c and all known life is based on nucleic acids. This forms a basis
for comparison.;
3. They are objective. Molecular character states are unambiguous as A, C, G and
T are easily recognisable and cannot be confused with another whereas some
morphological characters, such as those based on the shape of a structure, can
be less easy to distinguish because of overlaps between different character
states;
4. They are quantitative. Molecular data are easily converted to numerical form and
hence are amenable to mathematical and statistical analysis and hence
computation. The degree of relatedness can be inferred and quantified by
calculating the nucleotide differences between species;
5. Some molecular differences may not be reflected as a difference in the
morphological character and hence may not be picked up by morphological
analysis. e.g. a nucleotide difference in the third base of a codon, or intron.
6. While small genetic differences, may result in major phenotypic differences. In
such instances, vast differences in morphology can exaggerate the evolutionary
distance between two species but not in the case of molecular methods. e.g. in
snakes, the loss of forelimbs and elongation of the body, both radical changes
in body form, are due to mutations in several Hox genes that affect the
expression of body patterns and limb formation.
7. Offers a large set of characters to be studied relatively quickly. Each nucleotide
position can be considered a character with 4 character states, A, C, G and T,
and organisms have millions - billions of nucleotide positions. There are limited
morphological characters that can be studied, e.g number of segments, number
of legs, shape of thorax etc;
8. Amino acid sequences for many proteins and nucleotide sequences for a rapidly
increasing number of genomes can be accessed from electronic databases and
used for comparative study and classification. No physical specimen needs to
be preserved;
9. Both living and dead tissue may be used so long as the DNA or protein remains
intact and you do not even need an entire specimen. This increases the
accessibility of studying elusive or rare species;

[Total: 20]

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