Vectors 1

UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Vectors

Contents
1 Introduction to vectors 2
1.1 Physical meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Magnitude and direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Vector algebra 6
2.1 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Vector addition and subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 The unit vectors i, j and k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 The scalar product of two vectors 10

3.1 Geometrical meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Scalar product of pairs of i, j, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 The vector product of two vectors 13

4.1 Geometrical meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5 Answers to exercises 17
Vectors 2

1 Introduction to vectors

1.1 Physical meaning

Physically, vectors are quantities that have magnitude and direction. For example, ve-
locity, acceleration and force are all vectors, whilst speed, temperature and mass are scalar
quantities.

1.2 Notation
In these notes we will discuss vectors in two dimensional (2D) or three dimensional (3D)
space. These can be represented by a directed line segment, or by an ordered collection
of numbers (scalars) called the vector’s components. Vectors will be denoted either by a
*
lower case letter in bold type (a), or as a directed line segment (AB). Handwritten vectors
will be underlined (a).
For example, in 2D:
y
A
2

1 B
a

x
O 1 2
* *
a = OA = (1, 2), b = OB = (2, 1), and (1, 2) 6= (2, 1).
Vectors in 3D space have three components, for example, (1, 0, −2) and (a1 , a2 , a3 ). The
vectors a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) are equal if and only if their corresponding
components are equal, i.e. if a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 . We often write a general vector
in 3D space as r = (x, y, z).

*
1.3 Magnitude and direction a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = OA.

The magnitude of a is written as |a|. It is the length of the line OA:

q
|a| = a21 + a22 + a23 . (4.1)
Vectors 3

( a1 , a2 , a )
3
A

a3
y
O
a1

a2
x

If |a| = 1 then a is a unit vector. Unit vectors are often denoted by a hat b — for example
b = ( 53 , 0, −4
a 5
) is a unit vector.
The zero vector is 0 = (0, 0, 0). It is the only vector with zero magnitude.

Examples 1A

Examples in Lectures

* *
Suppose that OP = r = (x, y, z) and that α, β, γ are the angles that the line OP makes
with the positive x, y, z axes respectively. Set l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ. Then
x y z
l= , m= , n= . (4.2)
|r| |r| |r|
*
The quantities l, m and n are known as the direction cosines of the line OP (they specify
its direction). Note that
x2 + y 2 + z 2
l 2 + m2 + n2 = = 1.
|r|2

Examples 1C

Examples in Lectures
Vectors 4

Summary: A vector in 3D space is represented by an ordered collection of scalars (its

*
components), or by a directed line segment: e.g. a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and P Q are both 3D
vectors. Vectors have both magnitude and direction.
Magnitude: The magnitude of a vector is its length. The magnitude of a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
is q
|a| = a21 + a22 + a23 .
A unit vector has magnitude 1.
Direction: The direction cosines of the vector r = (x, y, z) are the quantities l, m,
and n defined by
x y z
l= , m= , n= .
|r| |r| |r|
They satisfy
l = cos α , m = cos β , n = cos γ ,
where α, β and γ are the angles between r and the positive x, y and z axes respectively.
Vectors 5

Exercises: Introduction to Vectors

1. Find the values of x, y and z that make the vectors
a = (1, x − 3, y + 2) and b = (z + 2, 1 − z, 2 y + z) equal.

2. Evaluate |(1, 1, 1)|, |(1, 0, −1)|, |(1, −2, 3)|, |(0, 2, 3)|.

3. Which of the following are unit vectors?

(i) a = (3/5, 0, 4/5), (ii) b = (0, 0, −1), (iii) c = (1, 1, −1).

4. If 3/a, 5/a and 7/a are the direction cosines of a given vector, then find the value of
a.

5. A line makes an angle of π/3 with each of Ox and Oy. Find the angle it makes with
Oz.
Vectors 6

2 Vector algebra

2.1 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

Let t be a scalar, and a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) a vector. The vector ta is defined by

ta = (ta1 , ta2 , ta3 ) . (5.1)

2a -2a

It satisfies q
p
|ta| = (ta1 )2 + (ta2 )2 + (ta3 )2 = t2 (a21 + a22 + a23 ) = |t| |a| .
That is, the length of ta is the size of t multiplied by the length of a.
Vectors a and b are parallel if b = ta for some t 6= 0. They are in the same direction if
t > 0 and in the opposite direction if t < 0.
1
b=
The unit vector in the same direction as the vector a is a a.
|a|

Examples 2A
Examples in Lectures

2.2 Vector addition and subtraction

* * *
The sum of the vectors AB and BC is the directed line segment AC. That is,
* * *
AB + BC = AC . (5.2)

So vector addition can be thought of as “followed by”, and (5.2) is known as the triangle
law of vector addition (see the picture below).
It gives the same result as adding the vectors together componentwise — i.e. if a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), then

a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) (5.3)
a − b = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 ) . (5.4)
Vectors 7

It follows that

a+b = b+a
a − b = a + (−b) .

y
B
5

BC
4
AB
3 C

2 A AC

x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

For example, in the above 2D picture, A is the point (1, 2), B is (4, 5), and C is (8, 3). The
* * *
directed line segments AB, BC and AC are the vectors (3, 3), (4, −2) and (7, 1). So we have
* * *
AB + BC = (3 , 3) + (4 , −2) = (3 + 4, 3 − 2) = (7, 1) = AC .
*
The vector AB is the position of B relative to A. It follows from the triangle law that
* * *
OA + AB = OB, and so
* * *
AB = OB − OA . (5.5)
The sum of two vectors a and b can be found by considering a parallelogram with sides
along a and b:
b

a+b
a a

Examples 2C
Examples in Lectures
Vectors 8

2.3 The unit vectors i, j and k

These are unit vectors along the three axes: i = (1, 0, 0) (along the x−axis); j = (0, 1, 0)
(along the y−axis); and k = (0, 0, 1) (along the z−axis). It is often convenient to represent
a given vector in terms of these unit vectors:

(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k . (5.6)

This is two different ways of writing the same thing.

Note: that these are the only two ways of writing a vector a in component form. Quantities
such as (a1 i, a2 j, a3 k) do not make sense.

Examples 2E

Examples in Lectures

Summary: Let s and t be scalars, and a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be vectors.

Then ta + sb = (ta1 + sb1 , ta2 + sb2 , ta3 + sb3 ).
* * *
The triangle law of addition is AB + BC = AC: so vector addition can be thought
* * *
of as “followed by”. In particular AB = OB − OA.
The vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) can be written in terms of the unit vectors i, j and k as
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.
Vectors 9

Exercises: Vector algebra

1. Find unit vectors having the same direction as each of the following:
(i) a = (3, 0, 4), (ii) b = (2, −3, 6), (iii) c = (1, 1, −1).

2. Evaluate | − i − 2j − 3k|, |2i − 2j + k|, | cos α i + sin α j|.

3. If u = ai + 2j + 4k and v = 3i + bj + k, then find a and b such that u and v are

parallel.

4. A, B and C are the points (−1, 2, 4), (2, 5, 3) and (3, 2, 1) respectively. Express in
* * * * * * *
the form xi + yj + zk the vectors AB + AC, BA − BC, 2 AB + 3 BC − 5 CA,
* * *
AB + BC + CA.
* * *
5. P and Q are the points (2, 3, −6) and (3, −4, 5). Find the lengths of OP , OQ and P Q
and determine their direction cosines. What are the coordinates of the midpoints of
OP , of OQ and of P Q ?
Vectors 10

3 The scalar product of two vectors

The scalar (or dot, or inner) product of the two vectors a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
is denoted by a · b and defined to be

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 . (6.1)

It is a scalar quantity.
The scalar product satisfies:
(1) a · b = b · a.
(2) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.
(3) a · a = |a|2 .
Note that (a · b) · c is meaningless.

Examples 3A

Examples in Lectures

3.1 Geometrical meaning

* *
If θ is the angle between the vectors OA = a and OB = b, then

a · b = |a| |b| cos θ . (6.2)

θ A
x
O a

Demonstration: We rotate the axes so that a = (a, 0, 0) and b = (b1 , b2 , 0) (rotating the
axes does not change the angle between two vectors).
Vectors 11

We have cos θ = b1 /|b|, |a| = a and a · b = a b1 . So |a| |b| cos θ = a b1 = a · b, which is our
formula (6.2).
It follows from (6.2) that the angle θ between the two vectors a and b satisfies

a·b
cos θ = , (6.3)
|a| |b|

and this equation gives a useful way of calculating θ.

Examples 3C

Examples in Lectures

Note: two nonzero vectors a and b are perpendicular (at right angles) if and only if a·b = 0.
This will be useful later when we look at planes.

3.2 Scalar product of pairs of i, j, k

The vectors i, j and k are pairwise perpendicular, so
i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.
They are all unit vectors (they each have modulus 1) and so
i · i = j · j = k · k = 1.

Summary: The scalar product of a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

It satisfies
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ ,
where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
Vectors 12

Exercises: Scalar product

1. Evaluate the following scalar products.

(a) (3, 8, 2) · (5, 1, 2) (b) (2 i + 3 j + 4 k) · (4 i − 3 j + 9 k)

(c) (3, 0, 4) · (0, 5, −10) (d) (j − k) · (j + k)

2. Let u = (2, 1, 2) and v = (3, 0, −4).

(a) Evaluate u · v, u · (2 u + v), |u|, and |v|.
(b) Find the angle between u and v.
(c) Find the angle between u and the x−axis.

3. If a and b are given vectors with magnitudes a and b, and if

c = a b + b a and d = a b − b a, then find the angle between c and d in terms of a and
b.
Vectors 13

4 The vector product of two vectors

The vector (or cross, or outer) product of the two vectors a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b =
(b1 , b2 , b3 ) is denoted by a × b (or sometimes by a ∧ b) and is defined to be

a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k .

It is a vector quantity.
It is easiest to remember the definition in “determinant form”:
¯ ¯
¯ i j k ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ a a ¯ ¯ a a ¯ ¯ a a ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ 2 3 ¯ ¯ 1 3 ¯ ¯ 1 2 ¯
a × b = ¯ a1 a2 a3 ¯ = i ¯ ¯ − j¯ ¯ + k¯ ¯,
¯ ¯ ¯ b2 b3 ¯ ¯ b1 b3 ¯ ¯ b1 b2 ¯
¯ b1 b2 b3 ¯

where ¯ ¯
¯ a b ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ = ad − bc.
¯ c d ¯

Examples 4A

Examples in Lectures

The vector product satisfies:

(1) b × a = −a × b (just interchange a and b in the definition), so the order matters.
(2)
¯ ¯
¯ i j k ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
a × a = ¯ a1 a2 a3 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ a1 a2 a3 ¯
= (a2 a3 − a3 a2 ) i − (a1 a3 − a1 a3 ) j + (a1 a2 − a2 a1 ) k = 0 .

i.e. a × a = 0 for any vector a.

(3)
¯ ¯
¯ i j k ¯
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
i×j = ¯ 1 0 0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯ 0 1 0 ¯
= (0 − 0) i + (0 − 0) j + (1 − 0) k = k .

Similarly, we get j × k = i, k × i = j, j × i = −k, k × j = −i, i × k = −j.

(4) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c.
Vectors 14

(5) a×(b×c) 6= (a×b)×c in general, so you must use brackets, (a×b×c is meaningless).

Examples 4C

Examples in Lectures

4.1 Geometrical meaning

The vector product satisfies
b,
a × b = |a| |b| sin θ n (7.1)
b is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b.
where θ is the angle between a and b, and n
Note:
(1) a × b is perpendicular to both a and b (this will be useful later).
(2) If a × b = 0, then a and b are parallel (i.e. θ = 0 or π).
Formula (7.1) is an equation involving vectors, and if we look at the length of each side of
the equation (i.e. take the modulus of (7.1)) we have

|a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ

= twice the area of the triangle with sides along a and b.

area = 12 |a| |b| sin θ = 21 |a × b|

b

θ
a

The area of the parallelogram with sides parallel to a and b is |a × b|.

Examples 4E

Examples in Lectures
Vectors 15

Summary: The vector product of a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is

a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k .

The best way to calculate it is using the determinant form.

The vector product satisfies
b,
a × b = |a| |b| sin θ n
where θ is the angle between the two vectors, and n b is a unit vector perpendicular to
both a and b.
The area of the triangle with two sides along a and b is
1
area = |a × b| .
2
Vectors 16

Exercises: Vector product

1. Find a × b, where

(a) a = (3, −1, 2), b = (1, 1, −4) (b) a = (2, 1, 7), b = (3, 1, −1)
(c) a = (0, 1, 6), b = (−1, 2, 1) (d) a = (1, 2, −1), b = (3, 6, −3)

2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both 3 k + j and 2i − j − 5 k.

3. Let a = 2 i + 2 j, b = 3 i − j + k and c = 4 i − k. Find a × (b × c) and (a × b) × c

and verify that they differ. Find a × b + a × c and a × (b + c), and verify that they
are the same.

4. Find the area of the parallelogram with two of its sides along 3 i + 4 j and i + j + k.

5. Use the vector product to find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, −1, 0),
B(2, 1, −1) and C(−1, 1, 2).
Vectors 17

5 Answers to exercises

Introduction to vectors
1. x = 5, y = 3, z = −1.
√ √ √ √
2. 3, 2, 14, 13.
3. a and b are unit vectors; c isn’t.
√
4. a = ± 83.
5. angle is π/4 or 3π/4.

Vector algebra
√ √ √
1. (i) (3/5, 0, 4/5), (ii) (2/7, −3/7, 6/7) (iii) (1/ 3, 1/ 3, −1/ 3).
√
2. 14, 3, 1 (for any α).
3. a = 12, b = 0.5.
4. 7i + 3j − 4k, −4i + 3k, 29i − 3j − 23k, 0.
√ √
5. Lengths: 7, 5 2, 3 19.
3 −4 1 1 −7 11
Direct. cosines: 2/7, 3/7, −6/7; √ , √ , √ ; √ , √ , √ .
5 2 5 2 2 3 19 3 19 3 19
Midpoints: (1, 3/2, −3), (3/2, −2, 5/2), (5/2, −1/2, −1/2).

Scalar product
6.1. (a) 27, (b) 35, (c) −40, (b) 0.
6.2. (a) −2, 16, 3, 5. (b) ≈ 97.66o , (c) ≈ 48.19o .
6.3. angle = π/2 (i.e. 90o ).

Vector product
1. (a) (2, 14, 4) (b) (−8, 23, −1)
(c) (−11, −6, 1) (d) (0, 0, 0) = 0
1
2. √ (−1, 3, −1).
11
3. (a) (8, −8, 12) and (2, −30, 8).
(b) (0, 0, −16) and (0, 0, −16).
√
4. 26.
√
5. 3 2.