Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2019) 12:447

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4635-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Natural pozzolana used as a source of silica for improving

the behaviour of lime–stabilised clayey soil
Khelifa Harichane 1 & Mohamed Ghrici 1 & Hamid Gadouri 1,2

Received: 5 May 2018 / Accepted: 10 July 2019

# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2019

Abstract
Chemical soil stabilisation has been practiced for a long time by adding different additives such as cement, lime and fly ash for
improving their physico-mechanical properties. However, few studies related to the soil stabilisation using natural pozzolana
(NP), lime (L) or the combination of both were recorded for different applications in civil engineering. An experimental
investigation was undertaken to assess the effect of NP (containing 46.4% of silica) on the geotechnical properties of L–
stabilised yellow clayey soil (YCS), which was obtained from Algerian East-West highway project. Both the L and NP were
added to the YCS at levels of 0–8% and 0–20%, respectively. The prepared samples were tested for Atterberg’s limits, compac-
tion and unconfined compressive strength (UCS). In fact, the prepared specimens were cured for 1, 7 and 28 days, after which
they were subjected to UCS test. Based on the obtained results, the physico-mechanical properties of YCS can be successfully
improved by using the L alone whereby a further improvement was recorded when adding NP to the L–YCS mixture.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the apparent lack of SiO2 for some soils can be adequately supplemented by adding NP
which has a high amount of reactive silica. Moreover, because the NP is much cheaper than the lime, the use of NP as a better
source of silica is highly recommended for soil improvement and can reduce the construction costs.

Keywords Atterberg limits . Compaction characteristics (OMC and MDD) . Lime (L) . Natural pozzolana (NP) . Stabilisation .
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) . Yellow clayey soil (YCS)

Abbreviations C–S–H Calcium silicate hydrates

YCS Yellow clayey soil C–A–H Calcium aluminate hydrates
NP Natural pozzolana C–A–S–H Calcium alumino-silicate hydrates
L Lime
LL Liquid limit
PL Plastic limit
PI Plasticity index
Introduction
OMC Optimum moisture content
For geotechnical projects, earthworks (cuttings/embank-
MDD Maximum dry density
ments) are unavoidable, as soil compaction is also an impor-
UCS Unconfined compressive strength
tant step that can significantly affect the growth of plant roots
due to the transport of construction materials outside the area
Editorial handling: Wissem Frikha of the project. Indeed, there are currently many research stud-
ies focused on assessing the effect of compaction on plant
* Hamid Gadouri roots due to traffic density due to the variation in heavy metal
hamid_gadouri2000@yahoo.fr accumulation (Kravkaz-Kuscu et al. 2018b; Sevik et al. 2018;
1
Turkyilmaz et al. 2018a, b). In addition, plants are the source
Geomaterials Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Civil Engineering and Architecture, Chlef University, BP 151, Hay
of life in the living world where they fulfil many ecological
Salem, 02000 Chlef, Algeria functions and shape the life of living beings in the environ-
2
Earth Sciences Department, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences and
ment. The life of living things in the world is directly or indi-
Earth Sciences, Khemis Miliana University, Khemis Miliana, Ain rectly dependent on plants. The ability of plants to fulfil their
Defla, Algeria functions primarily depends on the availability of appropriate
 447 Page 2 of 11
climatic and edaphic conditions. Therefore, the soil is one of
the absolutely necessary conditions for plant existence, which
is essential for the life of living things. The soil is defined as
“the part of the solid earth that has been altered by the loos-
ening of the earth, humus formation and chemical decompo-
sition, by the transport of humidification and chemical decom-
position products”. However, when it is examined in detail,
the soil is a very complex structure and the biological and
biochemical process in the soil is the basis of the terrestrial
ecosystem. In this respect, it is very important to examine the
structural change of the soil and to determine its relation with
the plant. Some studies have shown that it examined the
change of the soil structure in the forests according to the tree
species. An attempt to determine some soil characteristics
based on tree species and depth of soil was made within the
scope of the study. The soil is important for forest and land-
scape. Enzymes in the soil structure ensure that they are alive
in forest areas (Kravkaz-Kuscu et al. 2018a; Turkyilmaz et al.
2018c). For these reasons, it has become very necessary to
exercise caution in the completion of construction projects
such as roads, airports and dams, which often cause damage
to soils, plants and the ecosystem in general. As results, the
location of the project, as well as the source of the appropriate
building material, should be chosen for its completion, taking
into account all the criteria that stipulate the conservation of
soil and plants, which are necessary conditions in maintaining
ecological balance. However, the chemical treatment technol-
ogy of the soil for use in the completion of various civil engi-
neering projects (especially roads) is the most used and
cheapest (Gadouri et al. 2015, 2019; Gadouri 2017). This
technique allows us to re-use the soils that were removed
during the excavation, prevents us from bringing the soil out-
side the scope of projects and consequently reduces the costs
and time of completion and protects both soils and plants from
the high traffic density.
The first tests involving soil stabilisation have been
carried out in the USA in 1904 (Clare and Cruchley
1957). This process has been widely used during the
Second World War for roads construction. At the time,
engineers could avoid building on inappropriate sites
whenever the requirements for construction were not
met. Therefore, the availability of appropriate materials
was the conditions that governed the choice of the site
rather than the economic factors. It is obvious that con-
struction projects require soils of good geotechnical prop-
erties. However, it has been difficult to find adequate sites
for construction or good quality materials meeting an ac-
ceptable economic requirement. Fine soils with poor geo-
technical properties are frequently encountered.
Therefore, it is necessary to improve these properties in
order to make these soils acceptable for potential con-
struction projects. The improvement of soil properties
has been introduced for many years with the main aim
Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447
to make them capable of meeting the requirements of
specific technical projects (Gadouri et al. 2017a).
Fine-grained soil improvement has been practiced for a
long time by using mineral additives alone or in combination
between them. The use of cement for clayey soils stabilisation
is potentially promoter. Several studies have been conducted
by different researchers on the use of some types of additives
such as cement (Kennedy et al. 1987; Miller and Azad 2000),
L (Ola 1977; Okagbue and Yakubu 2000; Yi et al. 2015), NP
(Harichane et al. 2012; Zoubir et al. 2013; Gadouri et al.
2016a, 2016b; Al-Swaidani et al. 2016; Harichane et al.
2018; Gadouri et al. 2017a, b, c), volcanic ash (Hossain
et al. 2007; Hastuty et al. 2017), coal waste ash (Modarres
and Nosoudy 2015), fly ash (Beckham and Hopkins 1997;
Al-Rawas and Goosen 2006; Goswami and Singh 2005;
Kolias et al. 2005; Parsons and Kneebone 2005; Kolay and
Ramesh 2016), silica fume (Bagherpour and Choobbasti
2003; Kalkan 2009; Negi et al. 2013), cement kiln dust
(Peethamparan and Olek 2008; Amadi and Lubem 2014),
copper slag (Havanagi et al. 2006; Ziari et al. 2017), red
mud (Kalkan 2006), granulated blast furnace slag (Koyuncu
et al. 2004; Celik and Nalbantoglu 2013), phospho-gypsum
(Krishnan et al. 2014), ceramic dust (Koyuncu et al. 2004;
Sabat and Bose 2014), brick dust (Malhotra and John 1986;
Abd EI-Aziz and Abo-Hashema 2013), polyvinyl waste
(Oyekan et al. 2013), rice husk ash (Rahman 1986; Bhasin
et al. 1988; Muntohar and Hantoro 2000; Basha et al. 2003; Al
Hassan and Mustapha 2007; Sabat 2013; Ashango and Patra
2014), bagasse ash (Osinubi et al. 2009; Manikandan and
Moganraj 2014), olive cake residue (Nalbantoglu and
Tawfiq 2006), wheat husk (Attom and Shatnawi 2005), cas-
sava peels ash (Edeh et al. 2014; Bello et al. 2015), coconut
husk ash (Oluremi et al. 2012), groundnut shell ash (Oriola
and Moses 2010; Ijimdiya et al. 2012), incinerator ash (Al-
Rawas 2004), waste tire (Seda et al. 2007; Patil et al. 2011),
eggshell powder (Amu et al. 2005; Nyankson et al. 2013),
grain storage dust (Mughieda and Abu-Ashour 2006), glass
cullet (Eberemu et al. 2012), quarry dust (Sabat and Das 2009;
Sabat and Bose 2013), marble dust (Swami 2002; Gupta and
Sharma 2014), baryte powder (Srinivasulu and Rao 1995),
pyroclastic dust (Ene and Okagbue 2009), lime stone dust
(AI-Azzo 2009), granite dust (Mishra et al. 2014) and mine
tailings (Ramesh et al. 2013).
However, there is a lack of investigation about the use of
NP alone or in combination with L for soil improvement ap-
plications. Indeed, Hossain et al. (2007) have studied the ef-
fect of volcanic ash (from Papua natural resources in New
Guinea), cement, L and their combinations on both compac-
tion and UCS tests of two clayey soils. In terms of compac-
tion, they have found that for both clayey soils, the maximum
dry density (MDD) decreased and the optimum moisture con-
tent (OMC) increased as the volcanic ash content increased.
Also, the combination of volcanic ash, lime and cement
Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447 Page 3 of 11 447

showed the same behaviour. In addition, for both clayey soils, Table 1 Physico-mechanical properties of YCS
the UCS increased with increasing volcanic ash content and Physico-mechanical properties Soil
curing period.
The NP can be found in abundance in areas of Beni-Saf Colour Yellow
which is a quarry located in West of Algeria (Ghrici et al. Depth (m) 4.50
2007). It is known that the clayey soil is a good source of Natural water content (%) 17.0
alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). However, the noticeable Specific gravity (–) 2.80
lack of SiO2 in some soils can be adequately supplemented Passing 80-μm sieve (%) 92.5
by the addition of NP which contains high amount of reactive Liquid limit (LL, %) 43.2
silica. The main aim of this paper is to assess the effect of NP Plastic limit (PL, %) 26.1
as a good source of silica on the geotechnical properties of L– Plasticity index (PI, %) 17.1
stabilised YCS. This work presented the results of the effect of Classification system (USCS) (–) CL
NP on the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity index Optimum moisture content (WOMC, %) 19.5
(PI) compaction characteristics (OMC and MDD) and UCS of Maximum dry density (γdmax, kN/m3) 16.5
L–stabilised YCS. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS, KPa) 104

Experimental investigation
Materials used
Soil
The YCS used in this study was obtained from the East-
West highway project located approximately 25 km East of
Chlef town. The soil was extracted to a depth of about 4 to
5 m (Fig. 1). After extraction, the YCS was placed in plas-
tic bags and transported to the laboratory for preparation,
identification and testing. The physico-mechanical and
chemico-mineralogical properties of YCS are presented
in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Mineral additives
The NP used in this study is a rock of volcanic origin. It was
obtained from Beni-Saf which is a quarry located in West of
Algeria. The rock was ground in the laboratory to a surface
area of 420 m2/kg which was verified according to ASTM
C204-07 (2007). However, the quicklime used in this study
is commercially available lime typically used for construction
purposes. The physico-chemical properties of these additives
are presented in Table 3.
Table 2 Chemico-mineralogical properties of YCS
Chemico-mineralogical name Chemical formula YCS (%)

Calcium oxide CaO 8.30

Magnesium oxide MgO 2.10
Iron oxide Fe2O3 6.40
Alumina Al2O3 16.6
Silica SiO2 47.4
Sulphite SO3 0.10
Sodium oxide Na2O 0.60
Potassium oxide K2O 2.60
Titan dioxide TiO2 0.70
Phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 0.20
pH – 9.10
Calcite CaCO3 15.0
Albite NaAlSi3O8 8.00
Illite 2K2O.Al2O3.24SiO2.2H2O 15.0
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 14.0
Montmorillonite Al2((Si4Al)O10)(OH)2.H2O 20.0
Chlorite Mg2Al4O18Si3 9.00
Fig. 1 YCS obtained from the East-West highway project located ap- Ferruginous minerals – 7.00
proximately 25 km East of Chlef town which was extracted to a depth Organic matter – 0.30
of about 4 to 5 m
 447 Page 4 of 11 Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447

Table 3 Physico-chemical properties of both L and NP (after Harichane NP, L and the combination of both (L–NP). However, the
et al. 2011)
distilled water was added to the mixture for obtaining a paste
Physico-chemical name L (%) NP (%) soil which was placed in an airtight container for 24 h before
the test in order to ensure the maximum water diffusion into
Physical form Dry white powder Dry brown powder the mixture.
Specific Gravity 2.00 –
Over 90 μm (%) < 10 –
Compaction test
Over 630 μm (%) - –
Insoluble material (%) < 1.00 –
The compaction tests were carried out in accordance with
Bulk density (g /L) 600–900 –
ASTM D698 (2000). The prepared samples with and without
Loss on ignition – 5.30
additives were introduced into plastic boxes, keeping them for
CaO > 83.0 9.90
1 h before the execution of the compaction test.
MgO < 0.50 2.40
Fe2O3 < 2.00 9.70
Al2O3 < 1.50 17.5
UCS test
SiO2 < 2.50 46.4
SO3 < 0.50 0.80
In order to assess the effect of both additives (NP and L) as
well as their combinations on the bearing capacity of YCS, the
Na2O 0.45 3.30
UCS tests were performed on several soil specimens accord-
K2O – 1.50
ing to ASTM D2166 (2000). However, each sample was
CO2 < 5.00 –
compacted in a cylindrical mould at the OMC and MDD de-
TiO2 – 2.10
duced from compaction tests. After demoulding, all the spec-
P2O5 – 0.80
imens were stored in plastic boxes to prevent any loss of
CaCO3 < 10 –
moisture and they were kept in the laboratory at a temperature
and relative humidity of 25 °C and 50%, respectively. In ad-
Tests procedures dition, the samples were made for different curing periods (1,
7 and 28 days) where the UCS tests were performed for each
Several laboratory tests for Atterberg’s limits, compaction and curing period. The UCS values considered in this study were
UCS were performed on the selected YCS. Several combina- the average of two tests performed on each type of sample.
tions of NP and L were used for its stabilisation. Several per-
centages of NP (0, 10 and 20%) and L (0, 4 and 8%) were used
in this study for stabilising the selected YCS. For this, nine Results and discussion
combinations were studied (Table 4).
Atterberg limits
Atterberg limits test
Variation of the LL
Atterberg’s limits (LL, PL and PI) were performed according
to ASTM D4318 (2000). The air-dried YCS was initially Figure 2 illustrates the change in the LL of YCS stabilised by
mixed in the dry state with the predetermined amounts of using L, NP and their combinations. As indicated, the LL
slightly increased from 43.24 to 44.76% when adding 8%L
Table 4 A summary of the mix combinations tested for YCS samples content. The same behaviour was observed by Ola (1977) and
Designation YCS (%) L (%) NP (%) 49
0%L
4%L
P0L0 100 0 0
8%L
Liquid Limit (%)

P0L4 96 4 0 46
P0L8 92 8 0
P10L0 90 0 10
43
P10L4 86 4 10
P10L8 82 8 10
P20L0 80 0 20 40
P20L4 76 4 20 0 10 20
Natural Pozzolana (%)
P20L8 72 8 20
Fig. 2 Effect of L, NP and their combinations on the LL of YCS
Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447
George et al. (1992). For CL-class soil, Yong and Ouhadi
(2007) have found that the LL increased from 45.8 to 55%
with the addition of 6%L content. In addition, Bell (1996) has
observed that the LL increased from 30 to 37% for 8%L con-
tent. Variations (increases or decreases) in LL values depend
on the type of the stabilised soil. In addition, the increase in the
LL occurs for kaolinitic soils while the decrease in the LL
occurs for montmorillonitic soils (Attoh-Okine 1995;
Sivapullaiah et al. 2003).
The reduction in the LL can be attributed to the cationic
exchange caused in the soil by divalent calcium ions
(Goswami and Singh 2005). Moreover, clays with lower va-
lence cations such as sodium (Na+) showed a significant cat-
ionic exchange and consequently, a considerable reduction in
the LL as the L content increased (Miller and Azad 2000;
Khattab et al. 2008; Bozbey and Garaisayev 2010). The addi-
tion of NP slightly reduced the LL from 43.24 to 42.96% with
the addition of 20%NP content. Similar trends have been re-
ported by several researchers (Muntohar and Hantoro 2000;
Muntohar 2006; Turker and Cokca 2006; Degirmenci et al.
2007).
For the combination (4%L–NP), it can be seen that there is
a marginal decrease in the LL from 44.31 to 44.09% for
10%NP addition but a small increase was observed beyond
this content (10%NP). However, for the combination (8%L–
NP), a considerable decrease in the LL was recorded when
adding 10 and 20%NP contents. The same behaviour has been
observed by Ansary et al. (2006) where the LL decreased from
42.8 to 41% when combining 3%L with 12% fly ash.
Variation of the PL
Figure 3 shows the changes in the LL of YCS stabilised by
using L, NP and their combinations. It is quite clear to see that
for 8%L content, the PL increased from 26.11 to 35.23%.
Nalbantoglu and Tawfiq (2006) have found that the PL in-
creased from 22.2 to 37.5% when adding 7%L content. The
same behaviour has been observed by Rahman (1986) where
the PL increased from 24.9 to 47.7% for 10%L addition. The
45
Plastic Limit (%)
35
25
0%L
4%L
8%L
15
0 10
Natural Pozzolana (%)
Fig. 3 Effect of L, NP and their combinations on the PL of YCS
Page 5 of 11 447
immediate increase in the PL can be explained by the soil
particles flocculation.
When using NP alone, the PL increased from 26.11 to
34.01 and 32.88% for the addition of 10 and 20%NP contents,
respectively. Similar trends have been observed by Muntohar
and Hantoro (2000) and Basha et al. (2003) where they have
used the rice husk ash as an additive. However, the addition of
slight fly ash content to the unstabilised soil significantly in-
creased its PL due to the replacement of finer clay particles by
larger fly ash particles (Goswami and Singh 2005). For the
effect of L–NP on the PL of YCS, it should be noted that the
use of NP with different contents has a significant effect on the
PL which considerably increased from 31.87 up to 41.89%
and from 35.23 up to 42.17% respectively with the combina-
tions (4%L–NP) and (8%L–NP).
Variation of the PI
The results of the effect of NP on the PI of L–stabilised YCS
samples are presented in Fig. 4. It is known that the decrease in
the PI indicates an improvement in the workability of the
stabilised soil. As shown in Fig. 4, the stabilised YCS showed
an immediate decrease in its PI when L is added. It is obvious
to observe that the addition of 8%L was sufficient to improve
the soil workability by reducing the PI from 17.13 to 9.53%.
The same behaviour has been observed by Nalbantoglu and
Tawfiq (2006) where the PI decreased from 45.6 to 13.5% for
7%L addition. Several researchers have shown the same trend
in their research works (Attoh-Okine 1995; Bagherpour and
Choobbasti 2003; Sivapullaiah et al. 2003; Ansary et al. 2006;
Khattab et al. 2008; Bozbey and Garaisayev 2010).
With NP as an additive, it can be seen that there is a con-
siderable reduction in the PI for 10%NP addition but a slight
increase was recorded beyond this content (10%NP). Similar
results have been observed by Parsons and Kneebone (2005)
and Rahman (1986) where they have used the fly ash and rice
husk ash, respectively. However, the use of both L and NP as a
combined treatment produced a considerable reduction in the
PI compared with the L used alone. For example, the combi-
nation 8%L + 20%NP decreased the PI from 9.53 to 1.63%.
18
0%L
4%L
Plasticity Index (%)
8%L
12
6
0
20 0 10 20
Natural Pozzolana (%)
Fig. 4 Effect of NP on the PI of L–stabilised YCS samples
 447 Page 6 of 11 Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447

Effect of stabilisers on the classification of YCS a 25

Optimum Moisture Content (%)

Atterberg’s limits results (PI, LL) were plotted on the
Casagrande plasticity diagram for determining the new classi-
fication of stabilised YCS according to the Unified Soil
20
Classification System (USCS) (ASTM D2487–06 2006).
Figure 5 shows the changes produced by the addition of L,
0%L
NP and their combinations on the classification of YCS. 4%L
It is quite clear to see that the unstabilised YCS was clas- 8%L
sified as a CL-class soil because the point representing this 15
0 10 20
class soil was slightly above the A-line. However, for any type Natural Pozzolana (%)
of treatment, the CL-class soil was transformed into ML-class
soil. Indeed, changes in soil classes can be attributed to the b 18
flocculation of clay particles stabilised with L and NP. In other 0%L

Maximum Dry Density (kN/m3)

words, the change in the plasticity of YCS caused by the 4%L
8%L
addition of NP and L is likely to be adequate for most con-
struction operations to continue under severe environmental
conditions. 16

Compaction characteristics
Figure 6 depicts the effect of NP on compaction characteristics
(OMC and MDD) of L–stabilised YCS samples. It is obvious
to observe that OMC increased (Fig. 6a) and MDD decreased
(Fig. 6b) as the L content increased. Similar behaviours have
been observed by several researchers (Ola 1977; Rahman
1986; George et al. 1992; Bell 1996; Sivapullaiah et al.
2003; Hossain et al. 2007; Kavak and Akyarli 2007; Khattab
et al. 2008; Manasseh and Olufemi 2008; Bozbey and
Garaisayev 2010; Solanki et al. 2009). The increase in OMC
and decrease in MDD values can be explained by the follow-
ing reasons: (i) the lime caused the aggregation of clay parti-
cles due to the cation exchange process which changed the
grain size of stabilised soil and consequently affected the soil
particles to occupy larger spaces (more open structure); (ii) the
specific density of L is generally low compared with that of
the unstabilised soil; (iii) Pozzolanic reactions between clay
particles and L are responsible for the increase in the OMC as
this process increased the affinity of the soil to water.
60
Yellow soil
Lime
50
NP
Plasticity Index (%)
14
0 10 20
Natural Pozzolana (%)
Fig. 6 Effect of NP on compaction characteristics of L–stabilised YCS
samples. a OMC. b MDD
However, when using NP alone as an additive, a marginal
effect on compaction characteristics was recorded. On the oth-
er hand, the stabilisation of YCS using the combination of L
and NP showed an increase in OMC but a decrease in MDD
values. This variation was correct only for 4 and 8%L mixed
with 10%NP because beyond this value (10%NP), the varia-
tion becomes practically constant. Several researchers (Ola
1977; Rahman 1986; Basha et al. 2005) have revealed that
the change in the MDD may be due to the particle size and
specific density of soils and additives used.
Unconfined compressive strength
Figure 7 presents the results of the effect of NP on UCS of L–
stabilised YCS samples. The addition of L alone increased the
CH UCS of stabilised YCS samples. This is in perfect agreement

40 Soil+NP+4%Lime with other results reported by many researchers (Ola 1977;

Soil+NP+8%Lime
30
Rahman 1986; Attoh-Okine 1995; Sivapullaiah et al. 2003;
Osinubi 2006; Hossain et al. 2007; Khattab et al. 2007; Lin
CL
20 et al. 2007; Khattab et al. 2008; Manasseh and Olufemi 2008;
10
Sharma et al. 2008; Bozbey and Garaisayev 2010; Solanki
CL-ML MH or OH et al. 2009). This increase (in strength) can be attributed to
ML or OL
0 the chemical reaction between L and clay particles by devel-
0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid Limit (%) oping cementing agents (calcium silicate hydrates, C–S–H;
Fig. 5 Effect of L, NP and their combinations on the classification of calcium aluminate hydrates, C–A–H; and/or calcium
YCS alumino-silicate hydrates, C–A–S–H) which bind the clay
Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447
3 P0L4
P0L8
P0L0
P10L0
P20L0
P10L4
2 P20L4
UCS (MPa)
P10L8
P20L8
1
0 periods.
0 5 10 15 20 25
Curing time (days)
Fig. 7 Effect of NP on UCS of L–stabilised YCS samples
particles together. In general, the UCS increased with the cur-
ing period due to the pozzolanic activity of L–YCS mixture.
For example, after 28 days curing period, the UCS of YCS
increased from 0.1 up to 1.1 MPa when adding 8%L content.
In contrast, the addition of NP alone did not significantly
affect the UCS of unstabilised YCS. For example, with
20%NP content, the stabilised YCS showed a marginal in-
crease in the UCS by about 234 kPa after 28 days curing
period. On the other hand, high UCS values were recorded
when using the combination of L and NP with high contents,
especially for a longer curing period. In fact, it can be seen that
with the combination 8%L + 20%NP and after 28 days curing
period, the UCS of YCS increased from 0.1 up to 2.98 MPa
which is 28 and 2.8 times larger than that of the unstabilised
YCS and 8%L–stabilised YCS, respectively.
Finally, for the stabilised YCS, the UCS increased with
increasing additives content and curing period. The soil
stabilisation using the combination of L and NP produced
higher compressive strengths compared with the L and NP
added alone. Therefore, the NP cannot be used alone for the
stabilisation of problematic clayey soils. However, the UCS of
clayey soils stabilised with L alone can be considerably im-
proved by the addition of 10 or 20%NP. The high performance
of L–NP–stabilised YCS is due to the chemical reaction be-
tween both SiO2 and Al2O3 (from NP and YCS) and calcium
(from L addition) to form cementing agents (C–S–H, C–A–H
and/or C–A–S–H) which bind the soil particles together.
Statistical models for predicting the UCS
of problematic soils
Based on the experimental results, a statistical model was
developed for predicting the UCS at different curing periods.
This model was based on the quadratic response surface meth-
od (Montgomery and Runger 2002; Myers et al. 2016) with
two experimental variables (NP and L). The suggested model
is given by the following relationship (Eq. (1)):
qt ðx; yÞ ¼ a0 þ a1 x þ a2 y þ a11 x2 þ a22 y2 þ a12 xy
Page 7 of 11 447
where qt is the UCS at age t days, x and y are the contents of
NP and L, respectively, and a0, a1, a2, a11, a22 and a12 are the
coefficients of the proposed models. These coefficients are
identified statistically using STATISTICA-Version.12
Software (2013) for 1, 7 and 28 days curing period and given
in Table 5.
Figure 8 illustrates the iso-response curves of the UCS
deduced from the interaction effect between both additives
used (NP and L) and stabilised YCS after different curing
30
At 1 day curing period, the stationary point (the maximum
UCS) was obtained for both 6%L and 20%NP contents (Fig.
8a). However, for 7 and 28 days curing periods, similar iso-
response curves were observed (Fig. 8b, c). In general, the
point of maximum UCS is around to 20%NP and 6%L for
all the curing periods.
Conclusions
Several laboratory tests were carried out in order to assess the
effect NP (as a good source of silica) on the physico-
mechanical properties of L–stabilised YCS. Based on the ob-
tained results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Atterberg’s limits can be considerably changed by the ad-
dition of L alone. For YCS classified as CL-class soil, there is
an increase in both LL and PL whereby a significant decrease
in the PI was observed. The addition of NP alone to the YCS
produced a slight modification for Atterberg’s limits by in-
creasing PL and decreasing both LL and PI values.
However, when NP and L were added to the YCS as a
combined treatment, a noticeable change in the plasticity be-
haviour was recorded due to the significant reduction in its PI.
The use of L, NP and the combination of both considerably
improved the soil classification (according to the USCS)
where the YCS classified as CL-class soil was transformed
to ML-class soil.
The L was found to have a considerable effect by decreas-
ing the MDD of stabilised YCS whereby a marginal effect was
recorded when using NP alone. For the combination L–NP,
the same behaviour was observed as compared with the L
used alone. It was found that the L increased the OMC but a
slight influence was observed when using NP alone; however,
the combination of both additives increased the OMC.
The addition of L alone improved the UCS, especially for a
longer curing period while the increase in the UCS is little
when NP was added alone. However, the combination of L
and NP significantly improved the UCS of the stabilised YCS.
In addition, the same combination (L–NP) produced higher
strengths compared with those developed by L or NP used
alone.
ð1Þ In general, NP is highly recommended to be used as a better
source of silica for improving the physico-mechanical
 447 Page 8 of 11 Arab J Geosci (2019) 12:447

Table 5 Coefficients ( a0, a1, a2, a11, a22 and a12) used by the proposed model for predicting the UCS of problematic clayey soils

Age (days) Coefficients of the model R

a0 a1 a2 a11 a22 a12

1 102.866 2.058 39.793 − 0.065 − 4.466 1.056 0.988

7 55.589 − 1.082 156.461 0.563 − 16.783 6.010 0.978
28 41.692 22.142 529.628 − 0.279 − 52.096 11.622 0.989

behaviour of lime–stabilised problematic clayey soils having

poor silica amounts.
In Algeria, NP (containing high amount of silica) is avail-
able with high contents and can be used as a stabiliser alone or
in combination with L for earth structures such as road, dams
and airport subgrade. Also, it can be used as a main additive
for cement production in order to form high contents of
cementing agents, especially the formation of C–S–H com-
pounds due to the presence of silica in cement from NP
addition.
Due to the intensity of the road networks and dams current-
ly built in Algeria as well as the large amounts of embankment
with insufficient or poor mechanical characteristics, it is high-
ly recommended to develop a hydraulic binder for these types
of projects based on NP, L and gypsum. For this, it will be
necessary to make a detailed study on several combinations of
NP-L-gypsum to optimise their effects and consequently, to
recommend the adequate combination for problematic soil
stabilisation. In addition, it is very important to assess the
effect of organic matter and some chemical compounds (phos-
phate, chloride, nitrate…etc.) on the behaviour of NP-L-
gypsum mixtures used as building materials for earth
structures.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the head of

Hydraulic Laboratory of Hassiba Benbouali University, Chlef, Algeria.

Fig. 8 Iso-response curves of UCS deduced from L–NP–stabilised YCS
samples after different curing periods. a 1 day. b 7 days. c 28 days
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