Index

Chapter Name of the Chapter Page No.

01 Chemical Reactions and Equations 00 – 00
02 Acids, Bases and Salts 00 – 00
03 Metals and Non-metals 02 – 08
04 Carbon and its Compounds 09 – 13
05 Periodic Classification of Elements 14 – 18
06 Life Processes 19 – 24
07 Control and Coordination 25 – 27
08 How do Organisms Reproduce ? 28 – 30
09 Heredity and Evolution 31 – 34
10 Light Reflection and Refraction 35 – 39
11 The Human Eye and the Colourful World 40 – 42
12 Electricity 43 – 45
13 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 46 – 48
14 Sources of Energy 49 – 52
15 Our Environment 53 – 55
16 Management of Natural Resources 56 – 58

Mr. P. K. Singh (PGT Biology) prshttmsngh@gmail.com KV Muzaffarpur (F/S)

 Chapter-03 : Metals and Non-metals
Physical properties of metals :
 Metals are solids except mercury.
 Metals are hard except Lithium, Potassium, Sodium.
 Metals have metallic luster (shine).
 Metals are malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets).
 Metals are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
 Metals have high melting points. Gallium and Cesium have low melting points. They melt in the
palm of the hand.
 Metals have high boiling points.
 Metals are good conductors of heat. Best conductors are silver and copper. Poor conductors are
Lead and Mercury.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity. Best conductors are Silver and Copper.
 Metals are sonorous (produce sound when beaten).
Physical properties of non-metals :
 Non-metals may be solids, liquids or gases.
Solids – Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus etc.
Liquid – Bromine.
Gases – Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc.
 Non-metals are soft except diamond which is the hardest natural substance.
 Non-metals do not have luster except iodine crystals.
 Non-metals are not malleable.
 Non-metals are not ductile.
 Non-metals which are solids and liquids have low melting points.
 Non-metals which are solids and liquids have low boiling points.
 Non-metals are bad conductors of heat.
 Non-metals are bad conductors of electricity except graphite.
 Non-metals are not sonorous.

Chemical properties of metals :

 Reaction with oxygen : Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
 When copper is heated, it combines with oxygen to form copper oxide.
2Cu + O2  2CuO
 When aluminium is heated, it combines with oxygen to form aluminium oxide.
4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3
 Some metal oxides are basic oxides because they react with water to form bases.
4Na + O2  2Na2O Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
K + O2  K2O K2O + H2O  2KOH
  Some metal oxides show acidic and basic properties. They are called amphoteric oxides. E.g. -
Aluminium oxide, Zinc oxide etc.
Al2O3 + 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2O
(Basic)
Al2O3 + 2NaOH  2NaAlO2 + H2O
(Acidic) (Sodium aluminate)

 The reactivity of different metals with oxygen is different :

 Metals like potassium and sodium react vigorously with oxygen and catch fire if kept in open.
Hence they are stored in kerosene to prevent burning.
 If magnesium is heated, it burns with a bright flame.
 If iron is heated, it glows brightly.
 If copper is heated, it does not burn but forms a black coating of copper oxide.
 Silver and gold does not react with oxygen even at high temperature.
 Some metals like magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead etc. forms an oxide layer over it which
prevents further oxidation. They are called self-protecting metals.

 Reaction with water : Metals react with water to form metal oxides or metal hydroxides and
hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2
Ca + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2
2Al + 3H2O  Al2O3 + 3H2
2Fe + 3H2O  Fe2O3 + 3H2

 The reactivity of different metals with water is different :

 Sodium and potassium react violently with cold water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen
and catches fire.
 Calcium reacts less violently with water to form calcium hydroxide and water and does not catch
fire.
 Magnesium reacts only with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen.
 Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc react only with steam to form the metal oxides and hydrogen.
 Metals like lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water.

 Reaction with acids : Metals react with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen.
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
2Al + 6 HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2
Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
Fe + 2HCl  FeCl2 + H2
 The reactivity varies from metal to metal. For the above metals, the decreasing order of reactivity
is - Mg > Al > Zn > Fe.
 Copper, silver and gold do not react with dilute HCl.
 Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals react with nitric acid (HNO3) because it is a strong
oxidizing agent and it oxidizes the H2 into water and is itself reduced to oxides of nitrogen. 2Cu
+ 8HNO3  2Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 4NO2

 Reaction of metals with metal salt solutions : A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive
metal from its salt solution. It is a type of Displacement reaction.
 Magnesium displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
Mg + CuSO4  MgSO4 + Cu
 Zinc displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
 Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu

 Reactivity series of metals : The arranging of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is
called reactivity series of metals.

K - Potassium : Most reactive

Na - Sodium :
Ca - Calcium :
Mg - Magnesium :
Al - Aluminium :
Zn - Zinc : Reactivity decreases
Fe - Iron :
Pb - Lead :
H - Hydrogen :
Cu - Copper :
Hg - Mercury :
Ag - Silver :
Au - Gold : Least reactive

 How do metals an non-metals react ?

 Metals lose electrons and become positive ions. So, they are called electropositive elements. E.g.
- The atomic number of sodium is 11, its electronic configuration is 2,8,1. It has 1 valence
electron. It loses 1 electron and forms a sodium ion i.e. Na+.
Na  Na+ + 1 e-
EC = 2,8,1 2,8
Mg  Mg2+ + 2 e-
EC = 2,8,2 2,8
 Non-metals gain electrons and become negative ions. So, they are called electro- negative
elements. Eg- The atomic number of chlorine is 17, its electronic configuration is 2,8,7. It has 7
valence electron. It gains 1 electron and forms a chloride ion i.e. Cl-.
Cl + 1 e-  Cl-
 EC = 2,8,7 2,8,8
O + 2e  O2-
-

EC = 2,6 2,8
Formation of sodium chloride molecule : The atomic number of Na is 11, its electronic
configuration is 2,8,1. It has 1 valence electron, it loses 1 electron to form Na+ ion. The atomic number of
Cl is 17, its electronic configuration is 2,8,7. It has 7 valence electrons, it gains 1 electron to form Cl - ion.
Then the attraction between the Na+ ion and Cl- ion results in the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl)
molecule.

Formation of Magnesium chloride molecule : The atomic number of Mg is 12, its electronic
configuration is 2,8,2. It has 2 valence electrons, it loses 2 electrons to form Mg2+ ion . The atomic number
of Cl is 17, its electronic configuration is 2,8,7. It has 7 valence electrons, it gains 1 electron to form Cl- ion.
Then the attraction between Mg2+ ion and 2Cl- ions results in the formation of Magnesium chloride
(MgCl2) molecule.

Ionic compounds (Electrovalent compounds) : Ionic compounds are compounds formed by

the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal.

Properties of ionic compounds :

 They are formed by the transfer of electrons and are made up of ions.
 They are crystalline solids.
 They have high melting points and boiling points.
 They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents like petrol, kerosene.
 They conduct electricity in molten state or in solution.

Occurence of metals : Some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are found in the free state in the
earth’s crust because they are least reactive. Most metals are found as oxides, carbonates, sulphides,
halides etc.
 Minerals are elements or compounds which occur naturally inside the earth’s crust.
 Ore is a mineral from which metals can be extracted profitably.
 Gangue is the impurities present in the ore like rock particles, sand particles, clay particles etc.

Extraction of metals from their ores : Metals are extracted from their ores in three main steps.
They are :
 Concentration of the ore (Enrichment of the ore).
 Reduction to the metal.
 Refining (Purification of the metal).
 Concentration of the ore is the removal of gangue (impurities) from the ore by different methods.
Steps involved in the extraction of metals from their ores :

Ore
Metals of high reactivity Metals medium of reactivity Metals low of reactivity
Carbonate ore Sulphide ore Sulphide ore
Electrolysis of molten ore Calcination Roasting Roasting
Oxide of metal Metal
Reduction to metal
Pure metal Refining Refining

Extraction of metals low in the activity series : Metals which are low in the activity series
can be reduced to the metals by heating in the presence of oxygen (Roasting). E.g. - Mercury is obtained
from its ore Cinnabar (HgS) by heating in the presence of oxygen. When it is heated in the presence of
oxygen it is first converted into mercuric oxide (HgO) and on further heating it is reduced to mercury.
2HgS + 3O2  2HgO + 2SO2
2HgO  2Hg + O2
 Copper is obtained from its sulphide ore (CuS) by heating in the presence of oxygen.
2CuS + 3O2  2Cu2O +2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S  6Cu + SO2

Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series : Metals in the middle of the
activity series like Zn, Fe, Pb are found as oxide, sulphide or carbonate ores. It is easier to obtain metals
from their oxides than from their sulphides or carbonates. So, non-oxide ores are converted into oxide
form before reduction. Non-oxide ores can be converted into oxide form by roasting or calcination.
 Roasting is heating of an ore in the presence of oxygen. It is used to convert suphide ores into oxide
form. E.g. - 2ZnS + 3O2  2ZnO + 2SO2
 Calcination is heating of an ore in the absence of oxygen. It is used to convert sulphide ores into
oxide form. E.g. - ZnCO3  ZnO + CO2
 The oxide ore is then reduced to the metal by heating with a reducing agent. The most common
reducing agent is coke (carbon). E.g. -
ZnO + C  Zn + CO

Thermite reactions : Sometimes reactive metals like Na, Ca, Al etc. are used as reducing agents to
obtain metals from their oxides. E.g. -
3MnO2 + 4Al  3Mn + 2Al2O3 + Heat
Manganese dioxide Manganese
 The reaction between metal oxides and aluminium is highly exothermic and the metals are obtained
in molten state. Such reactions are called thermite reactions.
  The reaction between iron oxide and aluminium produces molten iron. This reaction is used to join
rail tracks, broken machine parts etc.
Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe + Heat

Extraction of metals at the top of the activity series : Metals at the top of the activity
series like K, Na, Ca, Al etc. cannot be obtained from their ores by simple heating or by heating with
reducing agents. They are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their molten chlorides. E.g. - When electric
current is passed through molten sodium chloride, sodium metal is deposited at the cathode and chlorine
gas is deposited at the anode.
At cathode : Na+ + e-  Na (Sodium metal)
At anode : 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e- (Chlorine gas)

Refining of metals : The removal of impurities from the metal to obtain the pure metal is called
refining of metals. The most common method for refining of metals is electrolytic refining. In this method
a block of the impure metal is made the anode and a thin sheet of the pure metal is made the cathode. The
electrolyte is a salt solution of the metal to be purified. E.g. - In the electrolytic refining of copper, a block
of impure copper is made the anode and a thin sheet of pure copper is made the cathode. The electrolyte
is acidified copper sulphate solution. When electric current is passed through the electrolyte, pure copper
from the anode is deposited at the cathode and the impurities settle down as anode mud.

Corrosion : Corrosion is the damage caused to metals due to the reaction of metals with oxygen,
moisture, carbon dioxide etc. E.g. -
 Formation of brown coating of rust over iron.
 Formation of green coating of basic copper carbonate over copper.
 Formation of black coating of silver sulphide over silver.

To show that air and moisture are necessary for the rusting of iron :
Take three test tubes marked 1, 2 and 3. Put iron nails in each of them. Put some anhydrous calcium
chloride in test tube 1 to absorb moisture. Pour some boiled distilled water in test tube 2 and pour some
oil over it to prevent air into the test tube. Pour some water in test tube 3. Fit the cork in the test tubes
and leave them for a few days. The nail in test tube 1 does not get rusted because it had only air and no
water. The nail in test tube 2 does not rust because it had only water and no air. The nail in test tube 3
gets rusted because it had air and water.

Prevention of corrosion : Corrosion of metals can be prevented by –

 Applying oil or grease.
 Applying paint.
 By galvanization (Coating with zinc).
  By tinning (Coating with tin).
 By electroplating (Coating a less reactive metal like chromium).
 By alloying (Making alloys).

Alloy : An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of a metal with other metals or non-metal.

E.g. - Steel – Iron, Carbon.
Stainless steel – Iron, Carbon, Cobalt, Nickel.
Brass – Copper, Zinc.
Bronze – Copper, Tin.
Solder – Lead, Tin (used for welding electrical wires together).
 If one of the metals in an alloy is mercury, it is called an amalgam.
 Chapter-04 : Carbon and its Compounds
Occurrence of carbon :
 Carbon is found in the atmosphere, inside the earth’s crust and in all living organisms.
 Carbon is present in fuels like wood, coal, charcoal, coke, petroleum, natural gas, biogas, marsh
gas etc.
 Carbon is present in compounds like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates etc.
 Carbon is found in the free state as diamond, graphite, fullerenes etc.

Bonding in carbon (Covalent bond) : The atomic number of carbon is 6, its electronic
arrangement is 2,4 and it has 4 valence electrons. It can attain stability by gaining 4 electrons, losing 4
electrons or sharing 4 electrons with other atoms.
 It does not gain 4 electrons because it is difficult for the 6 protons to hold 10 electrons.
 It does not lose 4 electrons because it needs a large amount of energy to lose 4 electrons.
 So, it shares 4 electrons with other atoms to attain stability resulting in the formation of covalent
bonds.
 Since carbon atom needs 4 electrons to attain stability, its valency is 4 and it is tetravalent.
Formation of covalent bonds : Covalent bond is chemical bond formed by the sharing of
electrons between atoms.
 The sharing of one pair of electrons results in the formation of single covalent bond, sharing of two
pairs of electrons results in the formation of double covalent bond and sharing of three pairs of
electrons results in the formation of triple covalent bond. Eg :-
 Formation of single covalent bond in Hydrogen molecule i.e. in H2 : The atomic number of
hydrogen is 1, its electronic arrangement is 1, it has 1 valence electron. It needs 1 electron more to
attain stability. So, two hydrogen atoms share 1 pair of electrons resulting in the formation of a
single covalent bond in hydrogen molecule H2.
 Formation of double covalent bond in oxygen molecule i.e. in O2 : The atomic number of oxygen is
8, its EC is 2,6 and it has 6 VE. It needs 2 electrons more to attain stability. So, two oxygen atoms
share two pairs of electrons resulting in the formation of a double covalent bond in oxygen molecule
O2 .
 Formation of triple covalent bond in Nitrogen molecule i.e. in N2 : The atomic number of nitrogen
is 7, its EC is 2,5 and it has 5 VE. It needs 3 electrons more to attain stability. So, two nitrogen
atoms share three pairs of electrons resulting in the formation of a triple covalent bond in nitrogen
molecule N2.
Formation of a very large number of carbon compounds : Carbon forms a very large
number of compounds. The number of carbon compounds is more than three million. It is more than the
number of compounds formed by all other elements. This is because :
  Carbon atom can form bonds with other carbon atoms to form long chains, branched chains and
closed rings. This property is called catenation.
 Since the valency of carbon is 4, it can form bonds with other carbon atoms or with atoms of other
elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens etc.

Hydrocarbons, Saturated and Unsaturated hydrocarbons :

 Hydrocarbons are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms.
 Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons having all single covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms.
 Alkanes have all single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms and their names end with –ane.
E.g. - Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6).

Isomerism : Carbon compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
are called isomers. This property is called isomerism.
E.g. - Butane (C4H10) has 2 isomers : n-Butane and isobutane.
Pentane (C5H12) has 3 isomers : n-Pentane, isopentane and Neopentane.

Functional groups : An atom or a group of atoms which decides the properties of a carbon
compound is called a functional group.
 Halide (Halo group) : -Cl, -Br, etc.
E.g. - CH3Cl – Chloromethane, C2H5Br – Bromoethane
 Alcohol : -OH (Names end with –ol)
E.g. - CH3OH – Methanol, C2H5OH – Ethanol
 Aldehyde : -CHO (Names end with –al)
E.g. - HCHO – Methanal, CH3CHO – Ethanal
 Carboxylic acid : -COOH (Names end with –oic acid)
E.g. - HCOOH – Methanoic acid, CH3COOH – Ethanoic acid
 Ketone : -CO (Names end with –one)
E.g. - CH3COCH3 – Propanone, CH3COC2H5 – Butanone

Homologous series : Homologous series is a group of carbon compounds having similar structures,
similar chemical properties and whose successive members differ by a
–CH2 group. E.g. - Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes etc.
 Alkanes have general molecular formula CnH2n+2 and their names end with –ane.
 Alkenes have general molecular formula CnH2n and their names end with –ene.
 Alkynes have general molecular formula CnH2n–2 and their names end with –yne.
Chemical properties of Carbon compounds :
 Combustion : Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to form water, carbon dioxide, heat and light.
E.g. - CH4 + 2O2  2H2O + CO2 + heat + light
C2H5OH + 3O2  3H2O + 2CO2 + heat + light
 Oxidation : Carbon compounds like alcohols are oxidized to carboxylic acids on heating with
oxidizing agents like alkaline Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or acidic potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7). E.g. –
alkaline KMnO4 + heat
C2H5OH ------------------------------ CH3COOH
Ethanol Ethanoic acid

 Addition reaction : Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen in the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst to form saturated hydrocarbons. E.g. - Ethene
undergoes addition reaction with hydrogen to form ethane in the presence of nickel or palladium
as catalyst.
Ni or Pd catalyst
C2H4 + H2 ---------------------- C2H6
 The addition of hydrogen in unsaturated hydrocarbons to form saturated hydrocarbons is called
hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated oils and fats to saturated oils and
fats.

 Substitution reaction : Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with halogens to

form substitution products. E.g. - Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the
presence of sunlight to form substitution products.
sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 ----------- CH3Cl + HCl
sunlight
CH3Cl + Cl2 ----------- CH2Cl2 + HCl
sunlight
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 ----------- CHCl3 + HCl
sunlight
CHCl3 + Cl2 ----------- CCl4 + HCl

Some important carbon compounds :

 Ethanol or Ethyl alcohol or C2H5OH :
 Properties :
 Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a pleasant smell and burning taste.
 It is soluble in water.
 Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
2C2H5OH + 2Na  2C2H5ONa + H2
  Ethanol reacts with hot conc. H2SO4 to form ethene and water. Conc. H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent
and removes water from ethanol.
conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH ---------------- C2H4 + H2O
 Uses :
 Ethanol is used for making alcoholic drinks.
 It is used as a solvent.
 It is used for making medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups, tonics etc.

 Ethanoic acid or Acetic acid or CH3COOH :

 Properties :
 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour in taste.
 It is soluble in water.
 A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
 Esterification : Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ester (Ethyl ethanoate) in the presence
of conc. H2SO4.
conc.H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ---------------- CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called esterification.
 Saponification : When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, the sodium salt of the
carboxylic acid and the parent alcohol are formed. This reaction is called saponification. E.g. -
Ethyl ethanoate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH  CH3COONa + C2H5OH
 Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O
 Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Soaps and detergents :
 Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids.
E.g. - Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)
 Structure of soap molecule : A soap molecule has two parts. A long hydrocarbon part which is
hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and grease and a short ionic part which is
hydrophilic (water attracting) and insoluble in oil and grease.
 Cleansing action of soap : When soap is dissolved in water it forms spherical structures called
micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules are arranged radially such that the hydrocarbon part
is towards the centre and the ionic part is towards outside. The hydrocarbon part dissolves the dirt,
oil and grease and forms an emulsion at the centre of the micelles which can be washed away by
water.
  Soaps do not wash well with hard water because it forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and
magnesium salts in hard water.
 Detergents are long chain sodium salts of sulphonic acids.
 Detergents wash well with hard water because it does not form insoluble precipitates of calcium
and magnesium salts in hard water.

Differences between soaps and detergents :

Soaps Detergents
(i) Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. (i) Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic
acids.
(ii) Soaps clean well in soft water but do not (ii) Detergents clean well with both hard and
clean well in hard water. soft water.
(iii) Soaps do not clean as well as detergents. (iii) Detergents clean better than soaps.
(iv) Soaps are biodegradable and do not (iv) Some detergents are non-biodegradable
cause pollution. and cause pollution.
 Chapter-05 : Periodic Classification of Elements
Classification of elements : The arranging of elements into different groups on the basis of the
similarities in their properties is called classification of elements. The classification of similar elements
into groups makes the study of elements easier. There are about 114 different elements known so far.

Early attempts at classification of elements : The earliest attempt to classify the elements
then grouping the known elements (about 30 elements) into two groups called metals and non-metals.
 The defect in this classification was that it had no place for metalloids (elements which have
properties of both metals and non-metals) which were discovered later.

Dobereiner’s Triads : Dobereiner classified elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses
into groups of three elements called triads. In each triad the atomic mass of the middle element was
approximately equal to the average atomic mass of the other two elements.
 The defect in this classification was that all the then known elements could not be correctly
arranged into triads.

Newland’s octaves : Newland classified the elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses
into groups of eight elements called octaves like the notes of music. He found that when the elements were
arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses into octaves then there was similarity of properties
in every eighth element.
 The defect in this classification was :
 All the known elements and elements discovered later could not be correctly arranged into octaves.
 Some elements having different properties were placed in the same rows like Cobalt and Nickel
having different properties is placed along with Fluorine, Chlorine and Bromine. Iron having
properties similar to Cobalt and Nickel are placed in different rows.

Mendeleev’s periodic law : The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
masses.

Mendeleev’s periodic table : Mendeleev classified elements in the increasing order of their atomic
masses and similarities in their properties. The formula of the oxides and hydrides formed by the elements
was also the basis for the classification of the elements.
 Mendeleev’s periodic table has 6 horizontal rows called periods and 8 vertical rows called groups.
The groups 1 to 7 had two sub-groups called A sub-group and B sub-group. Group 8 had 3 rows
of elements. Elements having similar properties were placed in the same groups. There are some
spaces left vacant in the table to accommodate the elements to be discovered in future.
  Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table :
 Elements were classified on a more fundamental basis of their atomic masses and properties.
 Spaces were left vacant to accommodate the elements to be discovered in future.
 It could predict the properties of the elements which helped in the discovery of new elements.
 The inert gas elements discovered later could be placed in a separate group without disturbing the
table.

 Defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table :

 Some elements are not arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses. Co is placed before
Ni and Te is placed before I etc.
 Position of hydrogen is not clear because it shows properties similar to metals as well as non-metals.
 The position of isotopes of elements is not clear.

Modern periodic law : The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

Modern periodic table : In the modern periodic table elements are arranged in the increasing order
of their atomic numbers in the form of a table having 7 horizontal rows of elements called periods and 18
vertical rows of elements called groups.
 Periods : There are 7 periods of elements as follows :
 First period has 2 elements H and He called very short period.
 Second period has 8 elements Li to Ne called short period.
 Third period has 8 elements Na to Ar called short period.
 Fourth period has 18 elements K to Kr called long period.
 Fifth period has 18 elements Rb to Xe called long period.
 Sixth period has 32 elements Cs to Rn called very long period.
 Seventh period has 28 elements from Fr to atomic number 114 called incomplete period.
 14 elements each of the sixth and seventh periods are placed separately at the bottom of the table.
 The 14 elements of the sixth period from La to Lu are called Lanthanides and the 14 elements of
the seventh period from Ac to Lr are called Actinides.
 In a period all the elements contain the same number of shells.

 Groups : There are 18 groups of elements divided into 9 main groups. They are I, II, III, IV, V,
VI, VII, VIII and 0 groups. The groups I to VII has two sub-groups each called A–subgroup and
B–subgroup. Group VIII has 3 rows of elements and
0-group has one row of elements.
 The A-subgroup elements are called normal elements.
 The B-subgroup elements are called transition elements.
 Lanthanides and Actinides are called inner transition elements.
 Group-1 (I A) elements are called alkali metals.
  Group-2 (II A) elements are called alkaline earth metals.
 Group-17 (VII A) elements are called halogens.
 Group-18 (0-group) are called noble gases.
 In a group all the elements have the same number of valence electrons. Group-I elements have 1
valence electron, Group-II elements have 2 valence electron, Group-III elements have 3 valence
electrons etc.

Properties of elements in periods and groups :

 Valence electrons : In a period the number of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8 from the
left to the right and the number of shells is the same. E.g. - 2nd Period
Elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Electronic configuration 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of shells 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 In a group the number of valence electrons is the same for all the elements but the number of shells
increases from top to bottom. E.g. - Group–I A
Elements Atomic Electronic Valence Number of
number configuration electrons shells
H 1 1 1 1
Li 3 2, 1 1 2
Na 11 2, 8, 1 1 3
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1 4

 Valency : In a period the valency of the elements increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases from 4
to 0 from the left to the right. E.g. - 2nd Period
Elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Electronic configuration 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

 In a group the valency is the same for all elements of the group. E.g. - Group–I A
Elements Atomic Electronic Valence Valency
number configuration electrons
H 1 1 1 1
Li 3 2, 1 1 1
Na 11 2, 8, 1 1 1
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1 1
 Atomic size (Radius of the atom) : In a period the atomic size of the elements decreases from
the left to the right because the nuclear charge (number of protons) increases and so the electrons
are pulled closer to the nucleus. E.g. - 2nd Period
Elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Electronic configuration 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
Number of protons 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Atomic size decreases

 In a group the atomic size of the elements increases from top to bottom because the number of
shells increases and the distance between the nucleus and shells also increases. E.g. - Group–I A

Elements Atomic Electronic Valence Number

number configuration electrons of shells
H 1 1 1 1
Li 3 2, 1 1 2
Na 11 2, 8, 1 1 3
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1 4
Atomic size increases

 Metallic property (Electropositive nature) : In a period the metallic property of the elements
decreases from the left to the right. E.g. - 3rd Period
Elements - Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar

Metals Metalloid Non-metals

Metallic property decreases

 In a group the metallic property of the elements increases from the top to the bottom. E.g. – Group-
VI A.
Elements Metallic property
C Non-metal
Si Metalloid
Ge Metalloid
Sn Metal
Pb Metal
Metallic property increases

 Non-metallic property (Electronegative nature) : In a period the non-metallic property of

the elements increases from the left to the right. E.g.- 3rd Period
 Elements - Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar

Metals Metalloid Non-metals

Non-metallic property increases

 In a group the non-metallic property of the elements decreases from the top to the bottom. E.g. –
Group-VI A
Elements Metallic property
C Non-metal
Si Metalloid
Ge Metalloid
Sn Metal
Pb Metal
Non-metallic property decreases
 Chapter-06 : Life Processes
Criteria to decide whether something is alive : The most important criteria to decide
whether something is alive is movement. All living things move without the help of any external help. Some
movements are easily visible like the movements of body parts. Some movements are not easily visible like
molecular movements. The molecular movements in cells and tissues are necessary for all life processes.

Life processes : Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for
maintaining their life. The basic life processes are – nutrition, respiration, transportation and excretion.
 Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body for life
processes.
 Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with the help of oxygen
to release energy.
 Transportation is the process by which food, oxygen, water, waste products are carried from one
part of the body to the other part.
 Excretion is the process by which waste products are removed from the body.

Nutrition : Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body to
build the body, for growth, to repair the damaged parts of the body and for energy.
 Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules and most of the food is also carbon based
molecules. The outside raw materials used by living organisms are food, water and air.

Modes of nutrition : There are two main modes of nutrition. They are autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition.
 Autotrophic nutrition is nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food from simple
inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
e.g. - all green plants and some bacteria.
 Heterotrophic nutrition is nutrition in which organisms get their food directly or indirectly from
plants. e.g. - all animals, fungi and some bacteria.

Types of heterotrophic nutrition : There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition. They
are saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic nutritions.
 Saprohytic nutrition is nutrition in which organisms get their food from dead and decaying
organisms. They break down the food material outside their body and then absorbs it.
e.g. - mushroom, bread mould, yeast, some bacteria etc.
 Parasitic nutrition is nutrition in which organisms get their food from living organisms (host)
without killing them. e.g. - cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice, leeches, round worm, tape worm,
plasmodium etc.
  Holozoic nutrition is nutrition in which organisms take food directly and then digests and absorbs
it. e.g. - amoeba, paramecium, birds, fishes, humans etc.

Nutrition in plants : Photosynthesis is the process by which plants prepare food by using carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. The food prepared is carbohydrate which
is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is released in this process.
 Equation of photosynthesis is -
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O------------------------> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
 Process of photosynthesis takes place in three main steps. They are
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting up of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrates.
 Chlorophyll is the green pigments present in the leaves. If we observe a cross section of a leaf under
a microscope, we can see cells containing green dot like structures called chloroplasts which contain
chlorophyll.
 Stomata are tiny pores present in the leaves through which exchange of gases takes place. Each
stoma has a pair of guard cells which controls the opening and closing of the stomatal pore. When
water enters the guard cells, it swells and the pore opens and when the guard cells lose water, it
shrinks and the pore closes.

Activity to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis :

Take a potted plant having variegated leaves (croton plant). Keep it in a dark room for three days so
that all the starch is used up. Then keep it in sunlight for 6 hours. Then take a leaf from the plant and
mark the green areas of the leaf on a sheet of paper. Then dip the leaf in boiling water to make it soft.
Then dip the leaf in alcohol and heat it in a water bath to decolourise it and remove the chlorophyll. Then
wash the leaf in water and dip it in dilute iodine solution. It will be seen that only the green parts of the
leaf turns blue black. This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Activity to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis :

Take two potted plants of the same size and keep them in a dark room for three days so that all the
starch is used up. Then keep the plants on separate glass plates. Keeps a watch glass containing some
potassium hydroxide near one plant to absorb carbon dioxide. Cover both the plants with bell jars and
seal the bottom of the jars with vaseline to make it air tight. Keep the plants in sunlight for three hours.
Then take a leaf from each plant and test for starch. The leaf of the plant kept in the jar containing
potassium hydroxide does not show the presence of starch. This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary
for photosynthesis.
Nutrition in animals :
 Nutrition in amoeba : Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water. It takes in food by forming
finger like projections called pseudopodia and forms a food vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the
food is digested and absorbed. The undigested food is then passed out through the surface of the
cell.

 Nutrition in Human beings : Nutrition in human beings takes place in the digestive system. It
consists of the alimentary canal and glands which produce enzymes which breaks down food into
smaller molecules. The main organs of the digestive system are mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine and anus. The main glands are salivary glands, gastric glands, liver,
pancreas and intestinal glands.
 In the mouth : The food is broken down into smaller particles by the teeth and mixed with saliva
from the salivary glands. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary amylase which converts starch into
sugar. Then the food passes through the oesophagus into the stomach.
 In the stomach : The gastric glands produce gastric juice which contains the enzyme pepsin,
hydrochloric acid and mucous. Pepsin breaks down proteins. Hydrochloric acid makes the medium
acidic and helps in the action of pepsin. Mucous protects the walls of the stomach from the action
of the acid. Then the food passes into the small intestine.
 In the upper part of the small intestine (duodenum) : The food is mixed with bile from liver and
pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Bile breaks down fats into smaller globules. Pancreatic juice
contains the enzymes trypsin and lipase. Trypsin breaks down proteins and lipase breaks down
fats.
 In the small intestine : The walls of the small intestine produces intestinal juice. The enzymes of
the intestinal juice coverts disaccharides into glucose, peptides into amino acids and fats into fatty
acids and glycerol. The walls of the small intestine have several fingers like projections called villi
having blood vessels. It helps to increase the surface area for the absorption of digested food. The
digested food is absorbed by the blood and transported to all cells in the body. Then the undigested
food passes into the large intestine.
 In the large intestine : water is absorbed and the waste material is removed through the anus.

Respiration : Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with the help of
oxygen to release energy. It takes place in the mitochondria of the cells.
 The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules (Adenosine triphosphate)
from ADP molecules (Adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate.
ADP + inorganic phosphate ---------------Energy-------------> ATP
from respiration
 Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules. When the cells need energy, ATP is
broken down in the presence of water to form ADP and energy is released.
water
ATP --------------------------> ADP + Energy
Types of respiration : There are two main types of respiration aerobic and anaerobic.
 Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen. It produces more energy. The end
products are carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes place in most organisms. In aerobic
respiration glucose is converted into pyruvate in the cytoplasm and then in the presence of oxygen,
pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy in the mitochondria.
presence of oxygen
Glucose ------------------> Pyruvate ----------------------------> CO2 + H2O + Energy
in cytoplasm in mitochondria
 Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen. It produces less energy. The end
products are lactic acid or ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy. It takes place in muscle cells and
yeast. In anaerobic respiration in muscle cells, glucose is converted into pyruvate and in the
absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into lactic acid and energy.
absence of oxygen
Glucose-----------------------> Pyruvate ------------------------------> Lactic acid + Energy
in cytoplasm in muscle cells

 In anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is converted into pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen
pyruvate is converted into ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy. This process is called fermentation.
absence of oxygen
Glucose -----------------> Pyruvate -------------------------> Ethanol + CO2 + Energy
in cytoplasm in yeast

Respiration in Humans : The main organs of the respiratory system are nostrils, nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and diaphragm. Air enters through the nostrils.
The hairs and mucous traps the dust particles. Then it passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and enters the lungs. The trachea has rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing when
there is no air in the trachea. The bronchi divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles which ends in tiny
air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are supplied with blood vessels through which exchange of gases takes
place. The alveoli help to increase the surface area for the exchange of gases.

Mecahanism of breathing :
 When we breathe air inside, the muscles of the diaphragm contracts and moves downward and the
chest cavity expands and air enters into the lungs.
 When we breathe air outside, the muscles of the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward and the
chest cavity contracts and air goes out of the lungs.

Transportation :
 Transportation in Human beings : The main transport system in human beings is the
circulatory system. It consists of blood, arteries, veins capillaries and heart.
  Blood transports food, oxygen and waste products. It consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBC),
white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. Plasma transports food, water, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous
waste etc. Red blood cells transports oxygen. White blood cells kill harmful microbes and protect
the body. Platelets help in clotting of blood and prevent loss of blood during injury.
 Arteries carry pure blood from the heart to all parts of the body. They are thick walled and do not
have valves.
 Veins carry impure blood from all parts of the body to the heart. They are thin walled and have
valves.
 Capillaries are very narrow blood vessels which connects arteries and veins together. The
exchange of food, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. between the blood and cells take place through
the capillaries.
 Heart is a muscular organ which pumps blood to all parts of the body. It has four chambers. The
upper chambers are called atria and the lower chambers are called ventricles. Since the ventricles
pump blood to the different organs, so its walls are thicker than the atria. The right and left
chambers are separated by a septum. It prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood. The atria and ventricles have valves between them to prevent blood flowing backward.

Working of the heart (Circulation of blood) : When the left atrium relaxes oxygenated blood
from the lungs flows into it through the pulmonary vein. When it contracts, the left ventricle expands and
the blood flows into it. Then the left ventricle contracts and the oxygenated blood are pumped out through
the aorta to all parts of the body. After circulating through all parts of the body the deoxygenated blood
enters the right atrium through the vena cava. When the right atrium contracts, the right ventricle
expands and the blood flows into it. Then the right ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped to the
lungs through the pulmonary artery. In the lungs carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is absorbed and
the oxygenated blood again enters the left atrium and the process repeats.
 Since blood flows through the heart twice in one cycle, so it is called double circulation.
 Lymph is a colourless fluid present in intercellular spaces. It is formed from the plasma which
escapes from the capillaries. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries which forms lymph vessels
and joins into large veins. Lymph transports digested fats and drains excess fluids from
intercellular spaces back into the blood. It contains lymphocytes which kills germs and protects the
body.

Heart of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fishes :

 The heart in mammals and birds has four chambers, the right and left sides of the heart is separated
by a septum. This prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood and provides efficient
supply of oxygen. This is necessary because they need more energy to maintain their body
temperature.
 The heart in amphibians and reptiles has three chambers and allows some mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood because they do not use energy to maintain their body temperature. Their
body temperature is the same as the temperature of the surroundings.
 The heart in fishes has only two chambers and blood is oxygenated in the gills.
Transportation in plants : In plants, transportation of materials like food, water and minerals
takes place through conducting tissues called xylem and phloem.
 Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to all parts of the plant. It consists of xylem
vessels and tracheids. Water and minerals enter the roots by diffusion. Then due to transpiration,
the suction force helps in the upward movement of water and minerals.
 Phloem transports food from the leaves to the other parts of the plant. This process is called
translocation. The phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. Food from the leaves is
transferred to the xylem by the energy of ATP molecules. Due to osmotic pressure water enters the
phloem and helps in the transport of food.

Excretion : Excretion is the process by which the waste products produced during metabolic activities
is removed from the body. In unicellular organism the waste products are removed from the cells into the
surroundings by diffusion. In multicellular organisms the waste products are removed through specialized
organs.

Excretion in Human beings : The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra. Each kidney has a number of excretory units called nephrons.
 Each nephron has a cup like structure called Bowman’s capsule containing a bundle of capillaries
called glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule leads into a tubular structure which joins into a
collecting duct. The renal artery brings the nitrogenous waste like ammonia, urea, uric acid (urine)
along with excess water, salts etc. into the nephron. It filters the nitrogenous waste, water and salts
which passes through the tubular structure into the collecting duct. The waste then passes through
the ureters into the urinary bladder and then passed out through the urethra as urine.
 The useful products like amino acids, glucose, salts etc. are reabsorbed by the capillaries around
the tubular structure and goes into the real vein.

Excretion in plants : In plants the gaseous waste products produced during respiration (CO2) and
photosynthesis (O2) are removed through the stomata. Excess water is removed through the stomata. This
process is called transpiration.
 Some waste products are stored in the leaves and removed when the leaves dry and fall off. Some
waste products are stored in vacuoles. Some waste products like gums and resins are stored in the
old xylem cells. Some waste products are removed through the roots.
 Chapter-07 : Control and Coordination
Stimuli : The changes in the environment to which living organisms respond are called stimuli. E.g. -
Heat, Cold, Sound, Smell, Taste, Touch, Pressure, Gravity, Water etc.
 Living organisms respond to stimuli in the form of body movements.

Co-ordination : For a proper response to a stimulus many organs in the body should work together.
The working together of various organs in an organism to produce a proper response to a stimulus is
called co-ordination.

Co-ordination in animals : In animals, control and co-ordination is done by the nervous system
and endocrine system. The nervous system consists of the Brain, Spinal cord and Nerves.

Receptors : Receptors are the sense organs which receive the stimuli and pass the message to the brain
or spinal cord through the sensory nerves. E.g. –
 Photoreceptors in the eyes to detect light.
 Phonoreceptors in the ears to detect sound.
 Olfactory receptors in the nose to detect smell.
 Gustatory receptors in the tongue to detect taste.
 Tangoreceptors in the skin to detect touch.
Effectors : Effectors are the muscles and glands which respond to the information from the brain and
spinal cord through the motor nerves.
Sensory nerves : Sensory nerves carry information from the receptors (sense organs) to the brain
and spinal cord.
Motor nerves : Motor nerves carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the effectors
(muscles and glands).

Human nervous system :

 The human nervous system consists of the Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous
System.
 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves arising from the brain and spinal nerves
arising from the spinal cord.

Nerve cell (Neuron) : Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It has a
cell body called cyton containing a nucleus and cytoplasm. It has several branched structures called
dendrites. It has a long nerve fibre called axon which is covered by a protective covering called Myelin
sheath. The junction between two neurons is called synapse.
  Messages pass through the nerve cell in the form of chemical and electrical signals called nerve
impulse. The dendrites receive the information and start a chemical reaction which produces
electrical impulse which passes through the axon.

Brain : The brain is the main coordinating centre in the human body. It is protected by the cranium. It
is covered by three membranes called meninges filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid which protects
the brain from shocks.
 The brain has three main parts. They are fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.
 Fore brain consists of the cerebrum and olfactory lobes. It is the thinking part of the brain and
controls voluntary actions. It controls touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, mental activities like
thinking, learning, memory, emotions etc.
 Mid brain controls involuntary actions and reflex movements of head, neck, eyes.
 Hind brain consists of cerebellum, Pons and medulla. Cerebellum controls body movements,
balance and posture. Pons controls respiration. Medulla controls heart beat, blood pressure,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting etc.

Spinal cord : The spinal cord starts from the brain and extends through the vertebral column. It has
31 pairs of spinal nerves. It carries messages to and from the brain. It also controls reflex actions.

Reflex action : Reflex action is a sudden, unconscious and involuntary response of the effectors to a
stimulus. E.g. - We suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a hot object. In this reflex action,
the nerves in the skin (receptor) detect the heat and pass the message through the sensory nerves to the
spinal cord. Then the information passes through the motor nerves to the muscles (effectors) of the hand
and we withdraw our hand.

Reflex arc : The pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc. In a reflex arc, the stimulus is received
by the receptors (sense organs) and it passes through the sensory nerves to the spinal cord. From the spinal
cord the information passes through the motor nerves to the effectors (muscles/glands) for the response.

Co-ordination in plants : In plants, control and co-ordination is done by chemical substances called
plant hormones or phytohormones.
 There are five main types of plant hormones. They are Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic
acid and Ethylene.
 Auxins help in cell division, cell elongation and growth.
 Gibberellins help in growth of stem and branches.
 Cytokinins help in cell division, formation of fruits and seeds.
 Abscisic acid inhibits growth and affects wilting of leaves.
 Ethylene helps in flowering and ripening of fruits.
Movements in plants : Movements in plants are of two main types. They are Tropic movements
and Nastic movements.
 Tropic movements are directional movements towards or away from the stimulus and it depends
on growth. They are of different types like Phototropism, Geotropism, Chemotropism,
Hydrotropism etc.
 Phototropism : It is the movement of plants in response to light.
If it is towards light called positive phototropism. E.g. - Bending of shoot towards light.
If it is away from light called negative phototropism. E.g. - Bending of root away from light.
 Geotropism : It is the movement of plants in response to gravity.
If it is towards the gravity called positive geotropism. E.g. - Downward growth of roots.
If it is away from gravity called negative geotropism. E.g. - Upward growth of shoot.
 Chemotropism : It is the movement of plant in response to chemical stimuli. E.g. - Growth of
pollen tube towards the ovule.
 Hydrotropism : It is the movement of plants in response to water. E.g. - Growth of roots towards
water.
 Nastic movements are non-directional movements which are neither towards nor away from the
stimulus and it does not depend on growth. E.g. - If we touch the leaves of touch-me-not plant, its
leaves fold up and drop down immediately due to the change in the amount of water in the leaves.
Depending upon the amount of water in the leaves, it swells or shrinks.
Endocrine glands in human beings : The endocrine glands also help in control and co-
ordination. The endocrine glands produce chemical substances which help to control and co-ordinate
various activities in the body.
 The endocrine glands in our body are Pineal, Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid,
Thymus, Adrenal, Pancreas, Testes and Ovary.
Examples of co-ordination by endocrine glands :
 When we are frightened or angry, the adrenal glands produce more adrenalin hormone which is
sent through the blood to the heart, rib muscles and diaphragm. This increases breathing rate to
supply more oxygen to the muscles to prepare the body to either run away or fight with the enemy.
 Iodine is needed by the thyroid gland to produce the hormone thyroxin. Thyroxin controls the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and helps in proper growth. If the diet is deficient
in iodine it causes goiter.
 The pituitary gland produces growth hormones. Deficiency of this hormone in childhood causes
dwarfism. Excess of this hormone causes tall growth.
 The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which controls the blood sugar level. Increase in blood
sugar level causes diabetes. A diabetic patient has to take insulin injections to control his blood
sugar level.
 The testes in males produce the hormone testosterone which controls the production of sperms and
changes during puberty.
 The ovary in females produces the hormone estrogen which controls the production of eggs and
changes during puberty.
 Chapter-08 : How do Organisms Reproduce ?
Reproduction : It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same
species. Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in the population of a species. If organisms
do not reproduce, their population decreases and species will become extinct.

Do organisms create carbon copies of themselves ?

The DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules in the chromosomes in the nucleus are
responsible for the transfer of characters from the parents to their offspring. During reproduction the
reproductive cells produce two copies of the DNA which separate into two cells. The DNA copies will be
similar but not identical to each other. So, the new individuals have slight variations from their parents.
This is the basis for variations and evolution of new species.

The importance of variation : DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining
the body designs of different organisms to survive in the existing environment. But the environment is
constantly changing due to changes in temperature, climate, water levels etc. If organisms cannot adjust
themselves to the changes in the environment then their species will become extinct. If there are variations
in some individuals of a species, they may be able to survive the changes in the environment. So, variations
in species are necessary for the survival of different species and for the evolution of new species.

Types of reproduction : There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms. They are
asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction is reproduction in which new individuals are produced from a single parent.
 Sexual reproduction is reproduction in which two individuals are involved to produce a new
individual.
 Asexual reproduction is of different types. They are Fission, Budding, Regeneration,
Fragmentation, Spore formation, Vegetative propagation etc.
 Fission : Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism divides and forms
two or more new individuals. Fission is of two types. They are binary fission and multiple fission.
 Binary fission : In this method an organism divides and forms two individuals. First the nucleus
divides and forms two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two daughter cells. E.g. -
Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
 Multiple fission : In this method one organism divides into many daughter cells. E.g. - Plasmodium
(Malarial parasite).
 Budding : In this method a bud like projection is formed on the body of the organism. The bud
then develops into a new individual. Then it separates from the parent and forms an independent
individual. E.g.- Hydra, Yeast etc.
 Regeneration : In this method a part of the body if the organism if cut or broken can develop
into a new individual. E.g.- Hydra, Planaria, Star fish etc.
  Fragmentation : In this method the body of a simple multicellular organism breaks up into
smaller pieces on maturation and each fragment develops into new individuals. E.g. - Spirogyra.
 Spore formation : In this method sporangia produce tiny cells called spores. When the spores
come in contact with a moist surface, it develops into new individuals. E.g.- Rhizopus, Mucor,
Penicillium etc.
 Vegetative propagation : In this method new plants are produced from the vegetative parts of
the plant like root, stem or leaf. E.g. - from roots in Dahlia, sweet potato; from stem in Potato,
Ginger; from leaf in Bryophyllum, Begonia.
 Plants produced by vegetative propagation produce flowers and fruits earlier than those produced
from seeds. It also helps in the propagation of plants which do not produce seeds like rose, jasmine
banana etc.
 Vegetative propagation can also be done artificially by cutting, layering, grafting etc.

Reproductive parts of a flower : The stamen and pistil are the reproductive parts of the flower.
Stamen is the male reproductive part. It produces pollen grains in the anther which contains the male
germ cell (male gamete). Pistil is the female reproductive part. It produces ovules in the ovary which
contain the female germ cell (female gamete).

Pollination : The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
It takes place by wind, water or insects. If the pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma
of the same flower called self-pollination and if it is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma
of another flower called cross pollination.

Fertilization : After the pollen grain is transferred to the stigma it produces a pollen tube which passes
through the style and enters the ovary and ovule. In the ovule the male germ cell (male gamete) fuses with
the female germ cell (female gamete) to form a zygote. This process is called fertilization.
 After fertilization the zygote divides several times and forms the embryo which then develops into
the seed and the ovary develops into the fruit.

Male reproductive system : The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes which
produces the male reproductive cells called sperms and the hormone testosterone. It is present in sac like
structures called scrotum. From each testis arises a tube called vas deferens. It joins into the urethra. The
urethra is enclosed in a muscular organ called penis. It has an opening called genital pore. The seminal
vesicles and prostate glands produce fluids which provide nutrition and help in the movement of the
sperms.

Female reproductive system : The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries which
produces the female reproductive cells called ova or eggs and the hormone estrogen. Above the ovaries
are tubes called oviducts or fallopian tubes. The two oviducts unite into a bag like structure called uterus.
The uterus has opening called vagina.

Fertilisation in human beings : During sexual intercourse the sperms from the male enters into
the vagina of the female. The sperms reach the oviduct. One sperm fuses with an egg and forms a zygote.
The zygote then gets implanted in the uterus. The zygote then starts dividing to form an embryo. The
embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood through the placenta. The development of the child takes
nine months and then the child is born.

Menstruation : The ovary produces one egg every month and the uterus prepares to receive the
fertilized egg. Its wall becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels for nourishing the embryo. If
fertilization does not take place then the uterus wall breaks and comes out of the vagina as blood and
mucous. This cycle takes place once every month and is called menstruation.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases : These diseases are transmitted through sexual contact. They
may be bacterial infections like gonorrhea and syphilis etc. or viral infections like warts and AIDS.

Prevention of pregnancy (Contraception) : Pregnancy can be prevented by three main

methods. They are Barrier methods, Chemical methods and Surgical methods.
 Barrier methods consist of using condoms, cervical caps, Copper-T etc.
 Chemical methods consists of taking drugs like oral pills, vaginal pills etc.
 Surgical methods consists of removing or tying a small part of the vas deferens in males
(Vasectomy) or fallopian tube in female (Tubectomy).
 Chapter-09 : Heredity and Evolution
Heredity : The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their off springs is called heredity.

Variations : The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species
are called variations.

Accumulation of variations during reproduction : When organisms reproduce, the

offspring show minor variations due to inaccuracies in DNA copying. These variations are less in asexual
reproduction and more in sexual reproduction.
 Some variations are useful variations and they help the organism to adjust to the changes in the
environment. Some variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment
and they may die and become extinct.

Rules for inheritance of characters (traits) : Characters are transferred through genes
which are DNA molecules in the chromosomes present in the nucleus of the cell.
 The inheritance of characters is due to the fact that both the father and mother contributes equal
amount of genetic material to the child. So, for each trait there are two factors one from the father
and one from the mother.
 Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments with garden pea plants and determined the rules
for the inheritance of traits.

When plants having one pair of character was crossed (Monohybrid cross) :
Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character – a tall pea plant and a short pea plant. He selected
pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall plants (Tt) in
the first generation (F1). When the first generation plants were self-pollinated, he obtained tall and dwarf
plants in the ratio 3:1 in the second generation (F2).
 The ratio of pure tall (TT), hybrid tall (Tt) and pure dwarf (tt) was in the ratio 1:2:1.
 The trait that is expressed in the F1 generation is called the dominant trait and the trait that is
suppressed in the F1 generation is called the recessive trait.

When plants having two pairs of characters were crossed (Dihybrid cross) :
Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters – shape and colour of seed. He selected plants
having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) and cross pollinated them. He
obtained all plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F1 generation. When these plants were self-
pollinated then in the F2 generation out of 16 plants, 9 had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green (Rryy),
3 had wrinkled yellow (rrYy) and 1 had wrinkled green (rryy) seed. In the ratio 9:3:3:1.
Sex determination in human beings : Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
nucleus of the cell. Among these two chromosomes are sex chromosomes i.e. X and Y. The female has two
X-chromosomes (XX) and male has one X and one Y-chromosome (XY). The sperms and eggs have one
set of sex chromosomes. Some sperms have X-chromosome and some have Y-chromosome. All eggs have
X-chromosome.
If a sperm having X-chromosome fuses with an egg having X-chromosome the child will be a girl. If a
sperm having Y-chromosome fuses with an egg having X-chromosome the child will be a boy.

Some variations help organisms to survive : There are some beetles living in green bushes.
They increase their numbers by reproduction. Crows can easily see the red beetles and they are eaten by
the crows. During reproduction due to some variation some green beetles are produced instead of red
beetles. The green beetles are not visible to crows and are not eaten by them. Then gradually the
population of the red beetles decreases and the population of the green beetles increases. This variation
has helped the organisms to survive.

Some variations do not help organisms to survive : During sexual reproduction a colour
variation occurs in red beetles and some blue beetles are produced instead of red beetles. Both the red and
blue beetles are visible to crows and are eaten by them. Then the population of both red and blue beetles
decreases. This variation has not helped the organisms to survive.

Aquired traits cannot be passed from one generation to the next : If the population
of beetles increases and plants are affected by diseases then the food available for the beetles decreases
and their body weight also decreases. If after a few years the availability of food increases then the body
weight of the beetles also increases. This acquired trait cannot be passed from one generation to the next
because there is no change in their genetic composition.

Speciation (Formation of new species from existing species) : The formation of new
species from existing species is mainly due to one or more of the following factors like Accumulation of
variations, Physical barriers, Genetic drift, Natural selection and Migration.
 Accumulation of variations : The differences between the individuals of the same species is
called variations. The accumulation of variations over several generations produces new species.
 Physical barriers : Populations may get separated by physical barriers like mountains, rivers,
lakes etc. These isolated groups produce variations which can produce new species.
 Genetic drift : Natural calamities or introduction of new members of the same species in an area
can produce changes in the gene pool of the population and new variations are produced which can
produce new species.
 Natural selection : Only those individuals of a species which have useful variations and can
adapt to the changes in the environment survive and the others die. These organisms can produce
variations and new species.
  Migration : Some individuals of a species may migrate to a new geographical area and adjust to
the changes in the environment there and develop new variations and produce new species.

Evolution : The gradual changes taking place in living organisms giving rise to new organisms due to
changes in their genetic composition is called evolution.
 Inherited traits are traits in an organism due to changes in the genetic composition and it can be
passed from one generation to the next and it results in evolution.
 Acquired traits are traits which are acquired by an organism during its life time and it cannot be
passed from one generation to the next and it does not result in evolution.
Evidences of evolution : There are a number of common features in different organisms which
provide evidence to show evolutionary relationship. The main evidences of evolution are from the study
of Homologous organs, Analogous organs and Fossils.
 Homologous organs are similar in structure but different in functions. E.g. - The fore limbs of
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals have similar structures but different functions. Frog
(amphibian) uses its fore limb to raise the front of the body. Lizard (reptile) uses its fore limb for
walking and running. Birds forelimbs are modified as wings for flying. Mammals use the fore limbs
for grasping, walking, running, swimming, flying etc. This shows evolutionary relationship.
 Analogous organs are different in structures but similar in functions. E.g. - The wings of butterfly,
bird and bat have different structures but similar functions. This shows evolutionary relationship.
 Fossils are the remains of organisms which lived long ago. From the study of fossils we can know
their structures and the time period in which they lived. The fossils of complex and recent
organisms are found closer to the surface of the earth and the fossils of simpler organisms are found
deeper inside the earth. The age of fossils can be determined by Radio Carbon Dating. The study
of fossils shows evolution of simpler forms into complex forms and their evolutionary relationship.
Some fossils are - Tree trunk fossil, Fish fossil (Knightia), Ammonite (Invertebrate), Trilobite
(Invertebrate), Dinosaur skull (Rajasaurus).

Evolution by stages : Complex organisms and its organs developed from simpler organisms
gradually over generations.

 Evolution of eyes : The eyes of planarians are just eye spots to detect light. It developed gradually
into a complex organ in higher animals.

 Evolution of feathers : Feathers were first developed in dinosaurs and used for protection from
cold. Later birds used them for flying.

 Evolution by artificial selection : Humans cultivated wild cabbage for over 2000 years and
produced different vegetables from it by artificial selection. E.g. –
 Cabbage – by selecting short distance between the leaves.
  Cauliflower – by selecting sterile flowers.
 Kale – by selecting large leaves.
 Kholrabi – by selecting the swollen stem.
 Broccoli – by arresting flower growth.

Evolution should not be equated with progress : Evolution has not resulted in progress.
Evolution has resulted in the formation of several complex species from simpler species due to variations,
genetic drift and natural selection. This does not mean that one species gets eliminated when new species
are formed or that the new species are better than the older species. Species get eliminated only if they are
not able to adapt to the changes in the environment. Several species which could adapt to the changes in
the environment still continue to survive for example bacteria.
 Human beings have not evolved from chimpanzees. They had a common ancestor from which they
evolved separately. Human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution but they are only one species
among the several evolving species.

Human evolution (Homo sapiens) : There is a great diversity among human beings in their forms and
features around the world. Human beings evolved in Africa. Some of them stayed there and others
migrated to different parts of the world. Then due to genetic variations and the environmental changes in
different geographical regions they developed changes in their forms and features.
 Chapter-10 : Light Reflection and Refraction
Light : Light is a form of energy which helps us to see objects. When light falls on objects, it reflects the
light and when the reflected light reaches our eyes then we see the objects. Light travels in straight line.
The common phenomena of light are formation of shadows, formation of images by mirrors and lenses,
bending of light by a medium, twinkling of stars, formation of rainbow etc.
Reflection of light : When light falls on a highly polished surface like a mirror most of the light is
sent back into the same medium. This process is called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection of light :
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Spherical mirrors : Spherical mirror is a curved mirror which is a part of a hollow sphere. Spherical
mirrors are of two types - concave mirror and convex mirror.
 Concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards. Rays of light
parallel to the principal axis after reflection from a concave mirror meet at a point (converge) on
the principal axis.
 Convex mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards. Rays of light
parallel to the principal axis after reflection from a convex mirror get diverged and appear to come
from a point behind the mirror.
Terms used in the study of spherical mirrors :
 Center of curvature is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part (C).
 Radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part (R).
 Pole is the centre of the spherical mirror (P).
 Principal axis is the straight line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror.
 The rays of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection meet at a point on the principal axis
or appear to come from a point on the principal axis behind the mirror is called principal focus
(F).
 Focal length (f) is the distance between the pole and principal focus.
 In a spherical mirror the radius of curvature is twice the focal length i.e.
R = 2f or f = R/2
Reflection by spherical mirrors :
 In a concave mirror a ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection passes through the
focus. In a convex mirror a ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection appears to
diverge from the focus.
 In a concave mirror a ray of light passing through the focus after reflection goes parallel to the
principal axis. In a convex mirror a ray of light directed towards the focus after reflection goes
parallel to the principal axis.
  In a concave mirror a ray of light passing through the centre of curvature after reflection it is
reflected back along the same direction. In a convex mirror a ray of light directed towards the
centre of curvature after reflection it is reflected back along the same direction.
 In a concave or a convex mirror a ray of light directed obliquely at the pole is reflected obliquely
making equal angles with the principal axis.

Images formed by concave mirror :

 When the object is at infinity then the image is formed at the focus (F), it is highly diminished, real
and inverted.
 When the object is in between centre of curvature (C) and infinity then the image is formed between
C and F, it is diminished, real and inverted.
 When the object is at C then the image is formed at C, it is same size as the object, real and inverted.
 When the object is in between C and F then the image is formed in between C and infinity, it is
enlarged, real and inverted.
 When the object is at F then the image is formed at infinity, it is highly enlarged, real and inverted.
 When the object is in between F and pole (P) then the image is formed behind the mirror, it is
enlarged, virtual and erect.

Images formed by convex mirror :

 When the object is at infinity then the image is formed at F behind the mirror, it is highly
diminished, virtual and erect.
 When the object is in between infinity and pole then the image is formed behind the mirror in
between F and P, it is diminished, virtual and erect.
Uses of spherical mirrors :
 Concave mirrors are used –
 In torches, search lights and head lights of vehicles to get parallel beams of light.
 As shaving mirrors to see larger image of the face.
 By dentists to see larger images of the teeth. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate
sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
 Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles which give erect diminished images of
objects. They also have a wider field of view than plane mirrors.

New Cartesian sign convention for spherical mirrors :

 The object is always placed on the left of the mirror and light from the object falls from the left to
the right.
 All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole.
 All distances measured to the right of the pole are taken as positive.
 All distances measured to the left of the pole are taken as negative.
 The height measured upwards perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as positive.
 The height measured downwards perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as negative.
Mirror formula for spherical mirrors : The mirror formula for spherical mirrors is the
relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f).
The mirror formula is expressed as : 1/v + 1/u = 1/f
Magnification for spherical mirrors : Magnification for spherical mirrors is the ratio of the
height of the image to the height of the object.
Magnification = Height of the image / Height of the object
m = hi / ho
 The magnification is also related to the object distance and image distance. It is expressed as :
Magnification (m) = hi / ho = - v / u

Refraction of light : When light travels obliquely from one transparent medium into another it gets
bent. This bending of light is called refraction of light.
 When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal.
 When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab : When a ray of light passes through
a rectangular glass slab, it gets bent twice at the air-glass interface and at the glass-air interface.
 The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray and is displaced through a distance.
Laws of refraction of light :
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant for the light
of a given colour and for the given pair of media i.e.
sin i / sin r = constant
This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Refractive index : The absolute refractive index of a medium is the ratio of the speed light in air or
vacuum to the speed of light in medium i.e.
Refractive index = Speed of light in air or vacuum / Speed of light in the medium
n=c/v
 The relative refractive index of a medium 2 with respect to a medium 1 is the ratio of the speed of
light in medium 1 to the speed of light in medium 2.
Spherical lenses : A spherical lens is a transparent material bounded by two surfaces one or both of
which are spherical. Spherical lenses are of two main types - convex and concave lenses.
 Convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges. Rays of light parallel to the principal
axis after refraction through a convex lens meet at a point (converge) on the principal axis.
 Concave lens is thinner in the middle and thicker at the edges. Rays of light parallel to the principal
axis after refraction get diverged and appear to come from a point on the principal axis on the
same side of the lens.
Refraction by spherical lenses :
 In a convex lens a ray of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus
on the other side of the lens. In a concave lens it appears to diverge from the focus on the same side
of the lens.
 In a convex lens a ray of light passing through the focus after refraction goes parallel to the
principal axis. In a concave lens a ray of light directed towards the focus after refraction goes
parallel to the principal axis.
 In a convex lens and concave lens a ray of light passing through the optical centre goes without any
deviation.

Images formed by convex lens :

 When the object is at infinity then the image is formed at the focus F2, it is highly diminished, real
and inverted.
 When the object is in between infinity and C1 then the image is formed in between F2 and C2, it is
diminished, real and inverted.
 When the object is at C1 then the image is formed at C2, it is the same size as the object, real and
inverted.
 When the object is in between C1 and F1 then the image is formed in between infinity and C2, it is
enlarged, real and inverted.
 When the object is at F1 then the image is formed at infinity, it is highly enlarged, real and inverted.
 When the object is in between F1 and optical centre (O) then the image is formed on the same side
of the lens, it is enlarged, virtual and erect.

Images formed by concave lens :

 When the object is at infinity then the image is formed at the focus (F1) on the same side of the lens,
it is highly diminished, virtual and erect.
 When the object is in between infinity and F1 then the image is formed in between F1 and O on the
same side of the lens, it is diminished, virtual and erect.

Sign convention for spherical lenses : The sign convention for spherical lenses is the same as
in spherical mirrors except that the distances are measured from the optical centre (O).
 The focal length of a convex lens is positive and the focal length of a concave lens is negative.

Lens formula for spherical lenses : The lens formula for spherical lenses is the relationship
between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f).
The lens formula is expressed as : 1/v – 1/u = 1/f

Magnification produced by spherical lenses : Magnification for spherical lens is the ratio of
the height of the image to the height of the object i.e.
Magnification = Height of the image / Height of the object
 m = hi / ho
 The magnification is also related to the ratio of the object distance and image distance. It can be
expressed as :
Magnification (m) = hi / ho = v / u

Power of a lens : The power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length (in metre) i.e.
P = 1/f (m) or f = 1/P
 The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).
 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
 The power of a convex lens is positive and the power of a concave lens is negative.
 Chapter-11 : The Human Eye and the Colourful World
The human eye : The human eye is the sense organ which helps us to see the
colourful world around us.
 The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms an image on
a light sensitive screen called retina. The eye ball is almost spherical
in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm. Light enters the eye through a transparent membrane
called cornea. Behind the cornea, there is a muscular diaphragm called iris which has an opening
called pupil. The pupil controls the amount of light entering inside the eye. The eye lens helps to
focus the image of objects on the retina. The ciliary muscles help to change the curvature of the
lens and to change its focal length.

Working of the eye : The eye lens forms a real inverted image of the object on the retina. The light
sensitive cells in the retina then produce electrical signals which are carried by the optic nerves to the
brain. The brain processes the information and sends the message to the eye and then we see the object.

Power of accomodation of the eye : The ability of the eye lens to see both near and distant
objects by adjusting its focal length is called the power of accommodation of the eye.
 The eye lens is composed of a fibrous jelly like material. Its curvature can be changed to some
extent by the ciliary muscles. The change in the curvature of the eye lens can change its focal length.
When the muscles are relaxed then the lens becomes thin and its focal length increases. When the
muscles contract then the lens becomes thick and its focal length decreases.

Near point : The minimum distance at which the eye can see objects clearly is called the near point
or least distance of distinct vision. For a normal eye, it is 25 cm.

Far point : The farthest distance up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of
the eye. For a normal eye, it is between 25cm and infinity.

Defects of vision and their correction :

 Myopia or near sightedness : Myopia is a defect of vision in which a person can see nearby
objects clearly but cannot see distant objects clearly because the image is formed in front of the
retina.
 Myopia may be due to :
 Increase in curvature of the eye lens.
 Increase in the length of the eye ball.
 It can be corrected by using suitable concave lens.
  Hypermetropia or far sightedness : Hypermetropia is a defect of vision in which a person can
see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects clearly because the image is formed behind
the retina.
 Hypermetropia may be due to :
 Decrease in curvature of eye lens.
 Decrease in the length of the eye ball.
 It can be corrected by using a suitable convex lens.

Presbyopia : Presbyopia is a defect of vision in old people in which they are not able to see nearby
objects clearly due to the increase in the distance of near point.
 Presbyopia is due to the weakening of the ciliary muscles and decrease in the flexibility of the eye
lens. It can be corrected by using suitable convex lens.
 Sometimes they are not able to see both nearby and distant objects clearly. It can be corrected by
using bifocal lenses consisting of both concave and convex lenses. The upper part is concave for
correction of distant vision and the lower part is convex for correction of near vision.

Refraction of light through a glass prism : When a ray of light passes through a glass prism,
it gets bent twice at the air-glass interface and glass-air interface.
 The emergent ray is deviated by an angle to the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of
deviation.
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism : When a beam of white light is passed through a
glass prism, it is split up into a band of colours called spectrum. This is called dispersion of white light.
The spectrum of white has the colours Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR).
The red light bends the least and the violet light bends the most.
Recombination of the spectrum of white light produces white light : When a beam
of white light is passed through a glass prism, it is split up into its component colours. When these colours
are allowed to fall on an inverted glass prism, it recombines to produce white light.

Rainbow formation : A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It
is caused by the dispersion of sunlight by water droplets present in the atmosphere. The water droplets
act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the sunlight then reflect it internally and finally refract it
again when it comes out of the rain drops. Due to the dispersion of sunlight and internal reflection by the
water droplets we see the rainbow colours.

Atmospheric refraction : Atmospheric refraction is due to the gradual change in the refractive
index of the atmosphere. The refractive index of the atmosphere gradually increases towards the surface
of the earth because the hot air in upper layer is less dense than the cool air near the earth surface. So,
light gradually bends towards the normal. Therefore, the real position of a star is different from its
apparent position.
Twinkling of stars : The twinkling of stars is due to the atmospheric refraction of star light and due
to the changing in the position of the stars and the movement of the layers of the atmosphere. So, the light
from the stars is sometimes brighter and sometimes fainter and it appears to twinkle.
 Planets are closer to the earth than stars. The light from stars is considered as point source of light
and the light from planets are considered as extended source of light. So, the light from the planets
nullify the twinkling effect.

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset : The sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before sunrise
and about two minutes after sunset due to atmospheric refraction.
 The apparent flattening of the sun’s disc at sunrise and at sunset is also due to atmospheric
refraction.

Scattering of light :
 Tyndall effect : When a beam of light passes through a colloidal solution, the path of light
becomes visible due to the scattering of light by the colloid particles. This is known as Tyndall
effect.
 The earth’s atmosphere contains air molecules, water droplets, dust, smoke etc. When
sunlight passes through the atmosphere the path of the light becomes visible due to the
scattering of light by these particles.
 The colour of the scattered light depends upon the size of the scattering particles. Very fine
particles scatter blue light. Larger particles scatter different colours of light.

 Why is the colour of the clear sky blue ?

 The fine particles in the atmosphere have smaller size than the wave length of visible light.
They can scatter blue light which has a shorter wave length than red light. When sunlight
passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in the atmosphere scatter the blue colour
more strongly than the red and so the sky appears blue.
 If the earth had no atmosphere there would not be any scattering of light and the sky would
appear dark. The sky appears dark at very high altitudes.

 Colour of the sky at sunrise and sunset : At sunrise and at sunset, the sun is near the
horizon and the light from the sun travels through the thicker layers of the atmosphere and longer
distance through the atmosphere. Near the horizon, most of the blue light scattered away by the
particles of the air and the red light reaches on our eyes. So, the sun appears reddish at sunrise and
sunset.
 Chapter-12 : Electricity
Electric current : It is the flow of electrons through a conductor.
 The device which causes the flow of electrons through a conductor is called a cell.
 Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
 Electric current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This is called
conventional current.
 Electric current is the rate of flow of charges through a conductor or the quantity of charges
flowing through a conductor in unit time. I = Q/t
 The SI unit of current is called ampere (A).
 One ampere is the current flowing through a conductor if 1 coulomb of charge flow through it in
1 second. 1ampere = 1coulomb/1 second
 Electric Current is measured by an ammeter. It is always connected in series in a circuit.
 The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C). It is the charge contained in 6x1018 electrons.

Electric potential and Potential difference : Electric current will flow through a conductor
only if there is a difference in the electric potential between the two ends of the conductor. This difference
in electric potential between the two ends of a conductor is called potential difference.
 The potential difference in a circuit is provided by a cell or battery. The chemical reaction in the
cell produces a potential difference between the two terminals and sets the electrons in motion and
produces electric current.

Potential difference : The potential difference between two points A and B of a conductor is the
amount of workdone to move a unit charge from A to B.
Potential difference = Workdone / Charge or, V = W/Q
 The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).
 One volt is the potential difference when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb
from one point to the other.
1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb or, 1V = 1 J/1C
 Potential difference is measured by a voltmeter. It is always connected in parallel across the two
points between which the potential difference is to be measured.
Electric circuit : Electric circuit is a continuous and closed path of an electric current.
Ohm’s law : Ohms law is a relationship between the potential difference across a conductor and the
current flowing through it.
 Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between its ends provided its temperature remains constant.
I α V or, V α I
V = IR
Where R is a constant called resistance for a given metallic wire at a given temperature.
Verification of Ohm’s law : Set up the circuit diagram. First use one cell and note the current (I)
in the ammeter and the potential difference (V) in the voltmeter across the nichrome wire. Repeat by using
two cells, three cells and four cells and note the readings in the ammeter and voltmeter. Then plot a graph
between the current (I) and potential difference (V).
 The graph will be a straight line. This shows that the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.

Resistance : Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of current through it.
According to Ohm’s law R = V/I
 The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
 If the potential difference across the two ends of a wire is 1 V and the current flowing through it
is 1 A then the resistance R of the conductor is 1 ohm (1 Ω ).
 Since I = V/R. The current flowing through a resistor is inversely proportional to the resistance.
So, if the resistance is doubled then the current gets halved.

Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends :

The resistance of a conductor depends upon its :
 Length
 Area of cross section
 Material of the conductor.

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of
cross section of the conductor.
R α l …………………(i)
R α 1/A …………….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
R α l/A
R = ρ l/A
Where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality called Resistivity of the material of the conductor.
 The SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter (Ωm).
 Conductors like metals and alloys have low resistivity 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ωm.
 Insulators like rubber, glass etc. have high resistivity 1012 Ωm to 1017 Ωm.

Resistors in series :
When three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series across AB then
 The current in all the resistors is the same.
 The total voltage (PD) across the resistors is equal to the sum of the voltage across each resistor.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
 The equivalent resistance is the sum of the resistances of each resistor.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel :
When three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel across AB then
 The voltage (PD) in all the resistors is the same.
 The total current in all the resistors is the sum of the current in each resistor.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
 The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of each resistance.
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Electrical energy and Electric power :
 Electrical energy is the workdone to maintain the flow of current in a conductor.
W=QxV
W = (I x t) x (I x R)
W = I2Rt
The unit of electrical energy is joule (J).

 Electric power is the rate at which electric current is used.

Power = Workdone / Time
P = W/t = I2Rt/t = I2R
Power = I2R = I x (IR) = I x V
Power = I x V
The SI unit of power is watt (W).

 One watt is the power when 1A of current flows across a potential difference of 1V.
 The commercial unit of energy is watt hour (Wh) or kilo watt hour (kWh).
 One kWh is the energy consumed when 1kW of power is used for 1 hour.
1kWh = 1000 watt x 3600 seconds = 3.6 x 106 joules.

Heating effect of electric current : If a current I flows through a resistor of resistance R and
t be the time for which a charge Q flows through it then the workdone to move the charge through
potential difference V is
W=QxV=VxIxt
W=Pxt
Or, Heat energy supplied = P x t = V x I x t
According to Ohm’s law, V = IR
Heat produced (H) = I2Rt
 Chapter-13 : Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
Magnetic field : The region around a magnet where the force of attraction or repulsion can be
detected is called magnetic field.
 Magnetic field around a magnet can be detected by using a magnetic compass.

Magnetic field lines : Magnetic field lines are the paths around a magnet along which the north pole
of a magnetic compass needle tends to move.
 The magnetic field lines around a magnet can be observed by sprinkling iron filings around a
magnet. It can also be observed by moving a magnetic compass around a magnet.
 The magnetic field lines emerge at the North Pole and merge at the South Pole.
 The magnetic field lines are closer at the poles.
 The magnetic field lines do not intersect each other.

Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor : If a magnetic compass is placed

near a conductor carrying current (wire), the needle is deflected. This shows that a conductor carrying
current has a magnetic field around it.
 If the direction of the current is from north to south, the deflection of the magnetic needle is towards
the east.
 If the direction of the current is from south to north, the deflection of the needle is towards the
west.
 The magnetic field around a current carrying straight conductor is in concentric circles. It can be
observed by passing a current carrying straight conductor through a cardboard and sprinkling
iron filings on it.

Right hand thumb rule : The direction of the magnetic field around a conductor is given by the
Right Hand Thumb Rule.
 It states that ‘If a current carrying conductor is held in the right hand such that the thumb points
in the direction of current then the fingers wrapped around the conductor shows the direction of
the magnetic field’.

Magnetic field due to a current through a circular loop : When current is passed
through a circular conductor (loop) the magnetic field produced is in the form of concentric circles around
the conductor. Towards the centre the arcs of the circles become larger and appear as straight line.

Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid : A solenoid is a circular coil of wire in the shape
of a cylinder.
  When current flows through a solenoid, it behaves like a bar magnet. The ends of the solenoid
behave like the North and South poles of a magnet. The magnetic field produced by a solenoid is
similar to the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet.
 The strength of the magnetic field depends upon the strength of the current and the number of
turns of the coil.
Electromagnet : A strong magnetic field inside a solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece of magnetic
material like a soft iron when placed inside the coil. Such a magnet is called an electromagnet.
 If electric current is passed through a wire wound around a piece of soft iron, it behaves like a
magnet. Such a magnet is called an electromagnet.

Force on a conductor carrying current in a magnetic field : A. M. Ampere suggested

that if a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field and exerts a force on a magnet then a
magnet should also exerts a force on a current carrying conductor. E.g. - If an aluminium rod is suspended
horizontally by a wire between the poles of a horse shoe magnet and current is passed through the wire
then the aluminium rod is displaced. If the direction of current is reversed, the direction of displacement
is also reversed. The force exerted is maximum if the conductor is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule : The direction of force (motion) of a current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
 It states that ‘If we hold the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the left hand perpendicular to
each other such that the fore finger points in the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger
points in the direction of current then the thumb shows the direction of force (motion) of the
conductor’.

Electromagnetic induction : Given by Michael Faraday.

 The motion of a magnet with respect to a coil or a change in the magnetic field induces a potential
difference in the coil and produces induced current. This is called electromagnetic induction.

Motion of a magnet with respect to a coil produces induced current : If a magnet

is moved towards or away from a coil of wire connected to a galvanometer, the galvanometer needle shows
a deflection. This shows that current is induced in the coil due to the motion of the magnet.

Change in magnetic field produces induced current : Take two coils of wires wound
around a cylindrical paper roll. Connect one coil to a battery and the other coil to a galvanometer. If
current is passed through the first coil, the galvanometer needle shows a deflection in the second coil. If
the current is disconnected, the needle moves in the opposite direction. This shows that current is induced
due to change in magnetic field.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule : The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s Right Hand
Rule.
 It states that ‘If the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right hand is held perpendicular
to each other such that the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor, the fore finger
points in the direction of the magnetic field then the middle finger shows the direction of induced
current’.

Direct current (DC) : A current that always flows in one direction only is called direct current.
 The current we get from a battery is a direct current.
Alternating current (AC) : A current that reverses its direction periodically is called alternating
current.
 Most power stations in our country produce alternating current. AC changes direction every 1/100
second and its frequency is 50 Hertz (Hz).
 One advantage of AC over DC is that it can be transmitted over long distances without much loss
of energy.
 Electric power to homes is supplied through the mains. It has two wires. One is a live wire (positive
wire) with red insulation and the other is a neutral wire (negative wire) with black insulation. The
potential difference between the two wires is 220V. The earth wire with green insulation is
connected to a metal plate kept in the ground.
 Two separate circuits are used. One is of 15A for appliances with high power rating like geysers,
air conditioners etc. The other is of 5A for fans, bulbs etc. The different appliances are connected
in parallel so that every appliance gets equal voltage and even if one is switched off the others are
not affected.
 The appliances having metallic body like electric iron, refrigerators etc., their metallic body is
connected to the earth wire so that if there is leakage of current, it passes to the earth and prevents
electric shock.
Electric fuse : Electric fuse is a safety device used in electric circuits to protect the circuit and
appliances from damage due to overloading and short circuit. It is a wire having high resistance and low
melting point. If excess current flows through the circuit, the fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit. Fuse
wire is made of a metal or an alloy of metals like lead, tin, aluminium and copper. Fuse wire is connected
in series with the live wire.

Overloading : Overloading is caused due to increase in voltage or if the live wire and neutral wire
comes in contact or if too many appliances are connected to a single socket. It results in overheating of the
wires and can cause damage to the circuit and appliances.

Short circuit : Short circuit is caused when the live wire and neutral wire comes in contact and the
current suddenly increases in the circuit. It causes spark, fire and damage to the circuit and appliances.
 Chapter-14 : Sources of Energy
Characteristics of a good source of fuel :
 It should have a high energy output per unit mass or volume.
 It should be easily available.
 It should be easy to store and transport.
 It should be economical.

Sources of energy : There are two main sources of energy as conventional and non-conventional
sources of energy.
 Conventional sources of energy are wood, flowing water and fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural
gas).
 Non-conventional sources of energy are solar energy, wind energy, biomass energy, ocean energy
(tidal energy, wave energy and ocean thermal energy), geothermal energy, nuclear energy etc.
 Some sources of energy are renewable like sun, wind, flowing water, ocean, wood, biomass etc.
 Some sources of energy are non-renewable like coal, petroleum and natural gas.

Conventional sources of energy :

 Fossil fuels : Fossil fuels are formed inside the earth from the remains of plants and animals after
millions of years. The fossil fuels are coal, petroleum and natural gas. Fossil fuels are non-
renewable sources of energy. So, they should be conserved and used judiciously.
 Disadvantages of fossil fuels :
 Burning of fossil fuels release gases and harmful particles which causes air pollution.
 Burning of fossil fuels release acidic oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which causes acid rain which
is harmful for living organisms, affects soil and water, causes damage to buildings, corrosion of
metals etc.
 Burning of fossil fuels release a large amount of carbon dioxide gas which increases the
temperature of the atmosphere and causes global warming (green house effect).

 Thermal power plants : In thermal power plants, the heat energy produced by burning fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum or natural gas is used to heat water and change it into steam which rotates
the turbines of generators to produce electricity.

 Hydro power plants : In hydro power plants, water from rivers are stored by constructing
dams. The water from the dam flows down through pipes and rotates the turbines of generators to
produce electricity.
 Advantages of hydro power plants :
 Flowing water is a renewable source of energy.
 The electricity produced does not cause pollution.
 The water stored in dams can also be used to control floods and for irrigation.

 Disadvantages of hydro power plants :

 The initial cost is high.
 Large areas of land get submerged and the decomposition of vegetation produces methane gas
which is a greenhouse gas.
 It causes displacement of people from large areas of land.

 Biomass energy : The waste materials and dead parts of living things are called biomass. E.g. -
wood, animal dung, vegetable waste, agricultural waste, sewage etc. Biomass is decomposed by
anaerobic microorganisms to produce biogas.
 Biogas is a mixture of gases containing methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.

 Biogas plant : The biogas plant has a large underground tank made of bricks and cement. The
lower part is the digester and the upper part has a dome with a gas outlet. On one side of the tank
above the ground is a mixing tank and on the other side is an overflow tank. Animal dung is mixed
with water in the mixing tank and the slurry is sent into the digester. In the digester, the slurry is
decomposed by anaerobic micro-organisms and after a few days biogas is produced. The gas is
taken out through the gas outlet and used for heating and lighting purposes. The slurry left behind
is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus and is used as manure for crops.

 Wind energy : Wind energy is used in wind mills which converts the kinetic energy of the wind
into mechanical or electrical energy. The kinetic energy of wind can be used to do mechanical work
like lifting water from wells or grinding grains in flour mills. It can also be used to rotate the
turbines of generators to produce electricity. A single wind mill produces only a small amount of
electricity. So, a large number of wind mills in a large area are coupled together to produce more
electricity in wind energy farms.

 Advantages of wind energy :

 It is a renewable source of energy.
 It does not cause pollution.
 The recurring cost is less.

 Disadvantages of wind energy :

 Wind is not available at all times.
 It requires a large area of land.
 A minimum wind speed of 15 km/h is required.
Non-conventional sources of energy :
 Solar energy : Solar energy is the energy obtained from the sun in the form of heat and light.
The heat energy is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker, solar water heater, solar furnaces
etc. The light energy is used in solar cells.
 Solar cooker : The box type solar cooker has an insulated box painted black inside. It is covered
by a glass plate which allows heat to enter inside but does not allow heat to escape out. It has a
mirror to reflect more sunlight into the box. The food to be cooked is kept in containers inside the
box. It can produce a temperature of 100°C to 140°C.

 Solar water heater : A solar water heater has an insulated box painted black inside with a system
of copper tubes. It is covered with a glass plate which allows heat to enter inside but does not allow
heat to escape out. When water flows through the copper tube it absorbs heat and becomes hot.

 Solar cells : Solar cell is a device which converts solar energy into electrical energy. Solar cells
are made from semi-conductors like silicon, germanium, gallium etc. A single solar cell produces a
voltage of about 0.5 V to 1 V and produces about 0.7 W electricity. So, several solar cells are
arranged in a solar panel to produce more electricity.
 Advantages of solar cell :
 It uses renewable source of energy.
 It produces electricity which does not cause pollution.
 It can be used in remote areas where there is no power supply.
 Disadvantages of solar cell :
 It uses a special grade of silicon which is expensive.
 Silver is used for connecting the cells together which is more expensive.
 The current produced is DC and to convert it to AC increases the cost.

 Energy from the sea : Energy from the sea is obtained in three different forms. They are Tidal
energy, Sea wave energy and Ocean thermal energy.
 Tidal energy : The periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational attraction of the moon
causes tides. A dam is constructed at a narrow opening between the land and sea. The movement
of water during high tide and low tide can be used to rotate the turbines of generators to produce
electricity.

 Sea wave energy : When strong wind blows over the sea it produces huge waves. The kinetic
energy of the moving waves can be used to rotate the turbines of generators to produce electricity.

 Ocean thermal energy : There is a temperature difference between the warm surface water and
the cold water at the bottom of the oceans. This difference is about 20°C. The warm surface water
is used to boil liquid ammonia and the vapour is used to rotate the turbines of generators to produce
electricity. The cold water from the bottom is then pumped up to cool the vapour back to liquid.
 Geothermal energy : The deeper regions of the earth’s crust is very hot. This heat melts rocks
and forms magma. The magma moves up and collects below at some places called Hot spots. The
underground water in contact with hot spot gets heated into steam at high pressure. By drilling
holes into hot spots the steam coming out can be used to rotate turbines of generators to produce
electricity.

 Nuclear energy : Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear reactions.
 During nuclear reactions some mass is converted into energy and so a very large amount of energy
is produced during nuclear reactions.
 Nuclear reactions are of two types as nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
 Nuclear fission : Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of a heavy atom like
uranium, plutonium etc. splits into smaller nuclei with the release of a large amount of energy. It
is used to make atom bombs and to produce electricity.
 In a nuclear power plant, the heat energy produced by a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction
is used to produce steam which rotates the turbines of generators to produce electricity.

 Nuclear fusion : Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which small nuclei fuse together to form
a heavier nucleus with the release of a very large amount of energy. The energy of sun is produced
by the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nucleus. It is also used to make the hydrogen bomb.
 Advantages of nuclear energy :
 It produces a very large amount of energy per unit mass than any other source of energy.
 If safety measures are taken, it is more environment friendly than fossil fuels.
 Disadvantages of nuclear energy :
 The cost of a nuclear reactor is very high.
 The availability of nuclear fuel is limited.
 Nuclear reactors produce harmful nuclear wastes which is difficult to dispose.
 Chapter-15 : Our Environment
Effect of adding waste to the environment : Human activities produce a lot of waste
materials which are thrown away into the environment. These wastes cause pollution of air, water and
soil.
 The waste materials produced are of two main types as biodegradable wastes and non-
biodegradable wastes.
 Biodegradable wastes are decomposed into harmless substances by microorganisms. E.g. -
vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, cotton, jute, wool, wood, leather, paper, animal dung, animal
bones etc.
 Non-biodegradable wastes are not decomposed by microorganisms. E.g. - polythene bags, plastics,
synthetic fibres, glass, metals, synthetic rubber, insecticides, pesticides etc.

Ecosystem and its components : An ecosystem consists of all the living organisms in an area
along with the non-living components and their interaction.
 There are two types of ecosystems.
 Natural ecosystems : They are formed by nature like forests, deserts, grass lands, mountains,
ponds, lakes, rivers, oceans etc.
 Artificial ecosystems : They are formed by human like gardens, parks, crop fields, aquarium,
zoo etc.

 Components of an ecosystem : An ecosystem consists of two main components. They are biotic
and abiotic components.
 Biotic components are the living components like plants, animals and microorganisms. They
consist of producers, consumers and decomposers.
 Producers are green plants which produce food by photosynthesis.
 Consumers are herbivores which get their food directly from plants, carnivores which get their
food indirectly from plants and omnivores which get their food directly or indirectly from plants.
 Decomposers are microorganisms which decompose dead plants and animals. They decompose
complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances in the soil which are again used by
plants.
 Abiotic components are the non-living components like air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight,
temperature, wind etc.

Food chain : A food chain is the flow of food energy from one organism to the next and to the next and
so on. They usually start with a producer (plants) and end with a carnivore. In a food chain an organism
gets food from one group of organisms. E.g. -
Grass ------------------ Deer ----------------- Lion
(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)
 Grass ---------------- Insects ---------------- Frog ----------------- Snake
(Producer) (P. consumer) (S. consumer) (Tertiary consumer)

Grass ------- Moth --------- Frog --------- Snake --------------- Hawk

(Producer) (P. consumer) (S. consumer) (T. consumer) (Quaternary consumer)

Food web : Food web is a group of several interconnected food chains. In a food web an organism gets
food from more than one group of organisms.

 Each step in a food chain where transfer of food energy takes place is called trophic level.
 The first trophic level consists of producers.
 The second trophic level consists of primary consumers.
 The third trophic level consists of secondary consumers.
 The fourth trophic level consists of tertiary consumers.
 Since the transfer of food energy decreases at every trophic level, the number of trophic levels are
limited and do not exceed four or five.

Energy flow in trophic levels : Green plants (producers) absorb about 1% of solar energy falling
on the leaves and stores it as food energy during photosynthesis.
 During the transfer of food energy from one trophic level to the next, 90% of the energy is lost to
the environment and only 10% is transferred to the next trophic level. So, there is a decrease in the
amount of food energy transferred at every trophic level by 10%. This is known as the 10% law.

Biological magnification (Biomagnification) : Harmful chemicals like insecticides and

pesticides which are used to protect crops from insects and pests are absorbed by plants and enter the
food chain. Since these chemicals are non-biodegradable, they get accumulated at every trophic level and
their concentration increases. Since human beings occupy the highest trophic level, the concentration of
these harmful chemicals is maximum in our bodies.
 The increase in concentration of harmful chemicals in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic
levels is called biological magnification.
Human activities affect the environment :
 Depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere : Ozone molecule contains three oxygen atoms
(O3). At higher levels in the atmosphere the UV radiation splits some oxygen molecules (O 2) into
free oxygen atoms which combine with oxygen molecules (O2) to form ozone. It is highly poisonous.
UV radiation
O2 ------------------ O + O
O2 + O -------------- O3
 The ozone layer present in the higher layer of the atmosphere protects the earth from the harmful
UV radiation from the sun. UV radiation causes skin cancer in humans.
 The ozone layer is being damaged by the use of chemicals like chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs) used
in refrigerators and fire extinguishers. So, the use of CFCs is now being reduced to protect the
ozone layer.

 Managing the garbage we produce : The household waste is called garbage. Some of the
garbage is biodegradable and some are non-biodegradable. Garbage causes pollution of air, water
and soil. So, it should be disposed properly.
 Some of the methods of garbage disposal are :-
 Land fills
 Recycling
 Production of biogas and manure
 Preparation of compost
 Incineration
 Sewage treatment.
 Chapter-16 : Management of Natural Resources
Natural resources : Natural resources are the resources available in a nature like air, water,
sunlight, soil, minerals, forests, wild life etc. Natural resources are of two main types as renewable and
non-renewable natural resources.

 Renewable natural resources : Those resources which can be replenished in a short period of time
like air, water, sunlight, forests etc.

 Non-renewable natural resources : Those resources which cannot be replenished in a short

period of time like minerals (coal, petroleum, natural gas, metals etc.) because they take millions of
years to be formed.

 Human activities produce a lot of waste materials which are thrown away into the environment. These
wastes cause pollution of natural resources like air, water and soil.
 The three R’s to save the environment are Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
 Reduce means using less of natural resources and avoiding wastage of natural resources.
 Recycle means the materials like paper, plastic, glass, metals etc used for making things can again
be used for making new things instead of synthesizing or extracting new paper, plastic, glass or
metals.
 Reuse means using things again and again like the plastic bottles in which we buy jams, pickles etc
can be again used for storing things in the kitchen.

Need for management of natural resources : All the things we use and consume are obtained
from natural resources. Due to increase in population, industrialization and urbanization the demand for
natural resources is increasing and their availability is limited. So, there is a need for proper management
of natural resources.
 The proper management of natural resources consists of :
 Judicious use of natural resources and avoiding wastage of natural resources.
 Long term planning for the use of natural resources so that it last not only for the present but also
for future generations.
 The exploitation of natural resources should not be for the benefit of a few people but should be
distributed equally for all.
 While extracting and using natural resources we should also plan for the safe disposal of wastes so
that no damage is caused to the environment.
Forests :
 Importance of forests :
 Forests help to preserve biodiversity.
 Forests are natural habitats of plants and animals.
 Forests provide timber, wood, fuel, medicines, fodder etc.
 Forests help to maintain ecological balance.
 Forests help to control climate and rainfall.
 Forests help to prevent soil erosion and controls floods.
 Forests help to maintain the oxygen–carbon dioxide balance in nature.

 Stake holders of forests : People who are associated with forests directly or indirectly are –
 People living in and around forests depend on forests for their livelihood.
 Industrialists who use the raw materials from forests for manufacturing paper, medicines, furniture
etc.
 Forest Department of the Government who owns the forests and controls the resources from the
forests.
 Nature and wild life organizations who want to conserve and preserve forests.

 Conservation of forests :
 Afforestation – planting of more trees.
 Preventing or reducing deforestation.
 Preventing over grazing by cattle.
 By setting up wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves etc.
 Undertaking social forestry programs like Van Mahotsav, Chipko movement for planting and
protecting trees on a large scale.

Wildlife :
 Importance of wildlife :
 Wildlife helps to preserve biodiversity.
 Wildlife helps to maintain food chains and food web.
 We get useful products from wildlife like food, medicines, leather, bones, honey, lac etc.

 Conservation of wildlife :
 Preserving the natural habitats of animals.
 Banning poaching of animals.
 Protecting endangered species of animals.
 Setting up of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves etc.
Water :
 Uses of water : Water is a basic necessity for all living things. We use water for our daily needs, for
agriculture, transportation, construction of buildings, roads, dams etc. Water is a natural habitat for
aquatic organisms.
 Human activities are affecting the availability of water and causing pollution of water bodies.
 Advantages of dams :
 Irrigation of crops.
 Producing electricity.
 Supplying water to towns and cities.
 To control floods.
 Disadvantages of dams :
 Social problems : It displaces a large number of people who have to be rehabilitated.
 Economic problems : It is expensive and uses a huge amount of public money.
 Environmental problems : It causes deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
 Water harvesting (Rain water harvesting) : Water harvesting is collecting and storing rain
water for future use. The common methods of water harvesting are –
 Digging pits, ponds, lakes etc.
 Building small earthen dams or concrete check dams.
 Construction of dykes.
 Construction of reservoirs.
 Construction of rooftop collecting units in houses.
 Advantages of underground water :
 It does not evaporate easily.
 It spreads out and recharges wells.
 It provides moisture for irrigation of crops.
 It does not get polluted easily.
 It does not provide breeding ground for mosquitoes and houseflies.

Coal and petroleum :

 Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels formed by the decomposition of dead plants and animals inside the
earth after several millions of years. They are non-renewable sources of energy.
 Petroleum reserves may last for about 40 years and coal reserves may last for about 200 years.
 Coal and petroleum contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. When they are burnt, they
release carbon dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which causes global warming.
 Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur combine with moisture in the air and produces acid rain.