DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA

NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

SABBAVARAM, VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

PROJECT TITLE:
AGRARIAN UNREST - PEASANT MOVEMENTS

SUBJECT:
SOCIOLOGY

NAME OF THE FACULTY:

PROFESSOR GANTA SATYANARAYANA

Name of the Candidate:

PYLA ACHUTHA MADHUMITHA
Roll No.: 21LLB098
Semester 2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.no. Topic Pg.no.

1. Acknowledgment 2

2. Abstract 3

3. Introduction- Agrarian Unrest- Peasant 4

Movements

4. Chapter 1: Pre- Independence Peasant 6

Movements

5. Chapter 2: Post- Independence Movements 12

6. Conclusion 19

7. Bibliography 20

1
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I express my sincere gratitude to our Sociology Professor Ganta Satyanarayana for his timely
and valuable guidance and input throughout the creation of this project. I am immensely
indebted to his kindness. I also thank the University for their assistance.

2
 ABSTRACT
Peasant movements are important variants of social movements. Peasant Movements in India
emerged during the British colonial period, when economic policies destroyed traditional
handicrafts and other minor enterprises, resulting in land ownership changes, overburdening
of agricultural land, tremendous debt, and impoverishment of the peasantry. The historical
processes of peasant marginalisation and political subjugation have been exacerbated by
social isolation, cultural segregation, and economic exploitation. The peasants' collective
realisations and understanding of these challenges has resulted in the emergence of many
historical peasant movements around the world.

3
 INTRODUCTION

Agrarian unrest - Peasant Movements

Agrarian discontent that is tied to agriculture in terms of working on the land or both
working on the land and owning it is referred to as peasant movements. In other words, these
are the agricultural labourers', poor and tiny peasant/tenants', and farmers/rich
peasant/tenants' resistance groups. The peasant movements are primarily concerned with
economic problems. However, in a few situations, the shifts have both economic and societal
implications. Such situations include those in which agricultural disturbance affects peasants
on both an economic and social level; for example, peasants fighting colonial tyranny for
both their rights and independence.

In India, peasant movements are divided into two categories: pre-independence/colonial time
and post-independence period. Because it is thought that the agricultural system has changed
through time and that the nature of peasant movements differs in terms of resistance traits,
concerns, and aims, the categorization is based on a historical range.

The anti-colonial activities of the pre-Independence period can also be classified as

anti-colonial movements, as they were directed at the groups that supported the 121 British
empire, such as landowners, moneylenders, and other exploiting classes. These movements
addressed problems concerning the nature of agricultural relations. The exploitation of the
agrarian classes – tenants/peasants/agricultural labourers, craftsmen, and so on — was the
foundation of these relationships. The landowners used them in a variety of ways to suit the
demands of the colonial troops and to satisfy their feudal purposes. Unreasonable rent
increases, begar (forced labour), physical torture, and eviction were among them. Natural
disasters such as famines and floods, crop commercialization, and debts exacerbated these
issues. The impoverished agricultural classes were not only evicted from the land they
cultivated, but they were also physically tormented for failing to fulfil the landowners'
economic and non-economic conditions.1

1
Arvind Das, Agrarian Unrest and Socio-Economic Change, 1900-1980 ‎(South Asia Books 1983) 7.

4
Certain events in India's political economy throughout the post-independence period can
serve as markers for the emergence and collapse of agricultural movements. These are the
policies implemented by the government in the 1950s, both at the national and provincial
levels, to bring about agrarian transformation — through land reforms, community
development programmes, and agricultural Extension schemes; the green revolution in select
areas of the country in the 1960s; and the opening of the agricultural sector to the world
market through the most recent phase of globalisation in the 1990s. These changes have led
to the formation of new concerns, the growth of new agricultural classes and the fall of
previous classes, as well as new forms of organisations and political mobilisation patterns.

5
Chapter 1.

Pre- Independence Peasant Movements

The pattern of agricultural discontent in India may be traced back to the British
administration, when large-scale nationalist mass uprisings took place.

Protests in Colonial India were primarily directed against the British Raj. They included
feelings towards the British Raj, the Zamindars, the Sahukars, and the Sarkars
(Landlord,Usurer and state). They rebelled against revenue rates, the elites' demand for taxes,
unpaid forced labour, punitive cess slabs, and the demand for repayment of loans with
exorbitant interest rates.

During the British government, exploitation had a negative impact on Indian peasants.
Peasants, on the other hand, fought against the British in a broader framework in response to
colonial exploitation. As time passed, the peasant's cause's resistance evolved as well. They
began to fight for their rights and the injustice that had been done to them. After 1858, this
behaviour got more explosive, and action was taken.

The concerns of the Neelha farmers of Champaran and the Kheda farmers of Gujarat inspired
Mahatma Gandhi's Indian campaign. The peasant movements of the past and now are
strikingly different. In 1917, Gandhi and his allies mobilised the peasants of Champaran
(Bihar) against indigo planter extortion, and in 1918, Gandhi organised the renowned Kheda
Satyagraha in Gujarat against land revenue realisation. Sardar Patel organised the Bardoli
Satyagraha against the enactment of land revenue in 1928. In Bengal in 1859-60, the Indigo
peasant rebellion was the most popular movement.2

2
Arvind Das, Agrarian Unrest and Socio-Economic Change, 1900-1980 ‎(South Asia Books 1983) 20.

6
Most Impacting Peasant Movements of this Period are as follows:

1. Champaran Movement

The peasant movement in Champaran was an element of the independence movement. After
returning from South Africa, Gandhiji experimented with non-cooperation by leading peasant
movements in Champaran (Bihar) and Kheda (Gujarat). The basic concept was to organise
peasants and force them to fulfil their demands.

Champaran's peasant uprising began in 1917 and lasted until 1918. The major goal was to
incite the people to revolt against the European colonists. These planters exploited peasants
by not adequately compensating them for their labour. In order to grow indigo, European
planters used a variety of unlawful and brutal practises. Peasants were exploited not just by
European colonists, but also by native zamindars. Gandhiji took up their cause and started a
movement in response to this scenario.

Causes of Champaran peasant movement:

The land rent has skyrocketed. The European colonists forced the peasantry to produce
indigo, which limited their farming options. The peasants were compelled to devote their
finest land to cultivating crops in accordance with the landlord's intentions. The peasants
were paid meagre salaries, which were insufficient to support their families. Champaran's
villagers were living in deplorable circumstances and abject poverty.

In the hands of European planters, landlords, and government officials, the peasantry of
Champaran suffered greatly. Gandhiji, who had just returned from South Africa, intended to
put his non-cooperation and Satyagraha into practise in India. Champaran's villagers
welcomed his rule as well.3

Unfortunately, the episode of Chauri Chaura made the movement violent in the end. This
incident enraged Gandhiji greatly. The Champaran fight, on the other hand, is regarded as a
component of the national movement. In April 1917, the Champaran Satyagraha took place.

3
D. N. Dhanagre, Peasant movements In India 1920-1950 (Oxford 1983) 56.

7
The British authorities used quite harsh means to subjugate the people of Champaran. For
failing to pay the excessive rents, the peasants were tortured. As a result, the peasants of
Champaran had to endure a lot of pain and suffering. However, the movement has resulted in
some significant outcomes. On May 1, 1918, the Governor-General of India enacted the
Champaran Agrarian Act. The peasants who took part in the movement benefited greatly
from the nonviolence doctrine. The movement also aided in the expansion of the economy.

2. Kheda Movement

The Kheda peasant uprising is also known as the no-tax uprising. It was a satyagraha led by
Gandhiji, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Indulal Yajnik, N.M. Joshi, Shankerlal Pareekh, and
others that began in March 1919.

It was another attempt at nonviolence, similar to Champaran. It was also attended by

members of the intelligentsia. Inadvertently, the movement created a chance for educated
public workers to engage in direct touch with rural life. The educated workers learned to
identify with the peasantry and offered themselves up as sacrifices.

Patidar peasants made up the majority of the Kheda peasantry. The Patidars have long been
famed for their agricultural prowess. The terrain of Kheda, which is located in central
Gujarat, is ideal for growing tobacco and cotton. The Patel farmers have a good education as
well. The peasants' struggle was orchestrated for a variety of reasons.4

4
Kankanala Munirathna Naidu, Peasant movements in India (Reliance Publishing House, 1994) 69.

8
Causes of Kheda Movement:

The Kheda land and planted crops were appraised by the government. The revenue was
enhanced as a result of the land data obtained in this manner. The peasants were outraged by
this.

The peasants had been afflicted by a famine, which had resulted in widespread crop failure.
The government, on the other hand, refused to tolerate crop failure and insisted on the full
realisation of land tax. The peasantry, on the other hand, conducted its own research and
insisted that the government was wrong to demand the entire land tax.

The Gujarat Sabha, which was made up of peasants, sent petitions and telegrams to the
province's highest governing officials, requesting that the income assessment for 1919 be
suspended. Officials, on the other hand, upheld and rejected the popular demand for
non-payment of taxes. When the authorities refused to accept the Kheda peasants' demands
for non-payment of land tax, Gandhiji advised them to engage in satyagraha. The government
confiscated the peasants' livestock, confiscated their homes, and took away their mobile
possessions due to nonpayment of land tax. Fines and penalties were issued to the peasants.
Due to the approval of some of the peasants' main demands, the Kheda movement came to an
end.5

Some of the achievements of the struggles:

The land rent would be paid by the well-to-do Patidar peasants, while the impoverished ones
would be offered remissions. The vast majority of the peasantry, who made up the small and
destitute population, were content. Peasants were also awakened to their demands as a result
of the movement. Indirectly, the peasants wanted to be a part of the independence movement.
The influence of success was also felt by Gujarati peasants and those in neighbouring states.
The fight taught them that true freedom from injustice and exploitation would not be possible
until their country attained complete independence. To these folks, the bureaucracy looked to
be an alien agency rather than a well-wisher.

5
D. N. Dhanagre, Peasant movements In India 1920-1950 (Oxford 1983) 77.

9
3. Indigo Revolution by the Peasants of Bengal

Bengal was the first to cultivate indigo in 1777. Indigo was in high demand all across the
world. The need for blue dye in Europe made indigo trade profitable. Planters in Europe had
a monopoly on indigo, and they coerced Indian farmers to cultivate it by signing bogus
contracts. Indigo was pushed on the peasants in place of food crops. This was the objective of
the advance loans. Farmers who took out loans were unable to repay them because of the
exorbitant interest rates. Also excessive were the tax rates. Farmers who could not pay their
rent or refused to do what the planters demanded were ruthlessly repressed. They were
pushed to sell indigo at non-profitable prices in order to maximise the profits of the European
planters. If a farmer refused to produce indigo and instead grew rice, the planters employed
unlawful methods like plundering and burning crops, kidnapping the farmer's family
members, and so on to force the farmer to cultivate indigo. The government was always on
the side of the planters, who were granted several privileges and judicial immunity. Indigo
growers in Bengal's Nadia area revolted by refusing to plant indigo. They retaliated by
attacking the officers who intervened. In reaction, the planters raised rents and evicted the
farmers, resulting in additional discontent.6

The Movement:

Peasants in the Barasat division of the districts Nadia and Pabna went on strike in April 1860,
refusing to plant indigo. Other regions of Bengal were affected by the strike. The uprising
was put down, and the government and certain zamindars massacred numerous farmers. The
Bengali intellectuals, Muslims, and missionaries all supported the uprising. The insurrection
was backed by the whole rural people. The press backed the uprising and played a role in
depicting the farmers' misery and fighting for their rights. The insurrection was mostly
nonviolent, and it served as a forerunner to Gandhi's later nonviolent satyagraha. The uprising
was not spontaneous. It took years of persecution and suffering on the part of the farmers at
the hands of the planters and the government to build up. In this revolt, Hindus and Muslims
joined together against their rulers. Many zamindars and ryots, or farmers, came together at
this time.

6
Puja Mondal, 'Top 6 Peasant Movements in India – Explained!' (Article Library, 29 November 2019)
<https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/top-6-peasant-movements-in-india-explained/32958> Accessed
on 21 March 2022.

10
Achievements:

Despite the government's harsh suppression of the uprising, it was a success. In 1860, the
government established the Indigo Commission in reaction to the uprising. "Not a chest of
Indigo reached England without being smeared with human blood," according to the account.
In addition, a notice was issued stating that farmers could not be compelled to cultivate
indigo. Since the planters stopped their factories and went for good, indigo cultivation was
virtually washed away from Bengal by the end of 1860. The dramatisation of the revolution
in the play Nil Darpan, as well as numerous other works of prose and poetry, made the revolt
extremely popular. This resulted in the insurrection gaining centre stage in Bengal's political
awareness, influencing many subsequent movements.7

7
Kankanala Munirathna Naidu, Peasant movements in India (Reliance Publishing House, 1994) 52.

11
Chapter 2

Post- Independence Movements

Agrarian movements increased dramatically after 1947, owing to the hopes for independence
and the hopes for improvements in agrarian relations.

1. The Telangana Movement

The Nizam of Hyderabad was the target of this campaign. At the period, the agrarian
organisation followed the feudal system. There were two types of land tenure systems in use
at the time: Ryotwari and Jagirdari. Peasants possessed patta in their names and were the
proprietors and registered inhabitants of the land under the Ryotwari system.

Shikmidars were the cultivators themselves. Chieftain's domains were known as Khalsa
lands. The Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were the Khalsa communities' hereditary tax
collectors. In the jagir villages, the tax was collected by the jagirdars. At the local level, the
jagirdars and Deshmukhs had enormous influence.

The mediators, the Jagirdars and Deshmukhs, were in charge of collecting taxes from the
cultivators. These middlemen, who were selected by the Nizam, oppressed and exploited the
peasants. They collected hefty taxes and distorted records, causing dissatisfaction among the
poor peasants.8

Small peasants and landless labourers were exploited by the Jagirdars and Deshmukhs. The
Deshmukhs and Jagirdars were referred to as "Dora," which means "village master." This
exploitation became legalised throughout time and became known as the vetti system. Under
this system, a landlord or Deshmukh could compel a family to cultivate his land, assign

8
Shea, Thomas. ‘Agrarian Unrest and Reform in South India.’ (1954) 23 (6) Far Eastern Survey <
https://doi.org/10.2307/3023840> Accessed 22 March 2022.

12
domestic or official work that was mandatory on the peasant's family and passed down from
generation to generation.9

The Telangana peasant movement was closely linked to the arrival of Communists in Andhra
Pradesh in 1942, when the British government removed the ban on the Communist Party of
India due to its pro-war stance. The main sources of dissatisfaction among the peasantry were
the pro-capitalist and semi-feudal forms of production and commerce. Following WWII,
wholesale prices plummeted, giving moneylenders a chance to strengthen their hold on
indebted small farmers and impoverished renters.

The number of agricultural labourers has risen as a result of the forces of change in the
agricultural economy.

Main Causes:

The feudal tyranny that peasants had to endure at the hands of jagirdars and deshmukhs was
the foundation of the discontent. In 1946, the Telangana area was hit by a severe famine. All
of the crops failed, and food and fodder supplies were in limited supply. Food and other
commodity prices have risen. The year 1946 was a watershed moment for both renters and
sharecroppers. There was a lot of unhappiness among the peasantry, and they were simply
waiting for the ideal moment to explode and start a revolt. This year presented many
possibilities to start a peasant uprising. The Communist Party of India's major goal was to
mobilise the peasants. It launched a campaign to promote the impoverished peasant's
demands in order to attain this goal. Against the British policy of compulsory grain tax
collection, the Communists organised the farmers. Gradually, the movement expanded
throughout Telangana.

9
Puja Mondal, 'Top 6 Peasant Movements in India – Explained!' (Article Library, 29 November 2019)
<https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/top-6-peasant-movements-in-india-explained/32958> Accessed
on 21 March 2022.

13
Achievements:

When the Nizam of Hyderabad approved the choice to remain outside of the Indian Union,
the Communists organised an anti-Nizam and pro-integration agitation in the Warangal,
Nalgonda, and Khammam districts. Lands taken over by landowners in lieu of debt
repayments during the 1930s economic slump were dispersed among peasants and farmers at
this time.

The government's uncultivated land and woodlands were also allocated to the landless.
Minimum wages were raised, and societal evils such as wife-beating were addressed. Even
after the Nehru government's armed intervention against the Nizam was successful, the
Communists maintained their anti-government position. A terrible conflict erupted between
peasants headed by Communists and the government, which had oppressed the peasantry.10

The administration, on the other hand, responded to the concerns highlighted by the
movement. In 1949, the Jagirdari Abolition Regulation was repealed, and in 1950, the
Hyderabad Tenancy and Agricultural Lands Act was passed. Over 6,00,000 renters,
accounting for over a quarter of all agricultural property, have been designated as "protected"
tenants, with the ability to acquire land on favourable terms. Land reforms in Telangana have
been effectively implemented as a result of the campaign.

10
Shea, Thomas. ‘Agrarian Unrest and Reform in South India.’ (1954) 23 (6) Far Eastern Survey <
https://doi.org/10.2307/3023840> Accessed 22 March 2022.

14
 2. Naxalbari Peasant Movement

The Naxalbari peasant revolt was the most significant and biggest in post-colonial India. It
took place in the state of West Bengal's northern region. It was led by a group of CPI(M)
leaders who disagreed with the party's official viewpoint. Kanu Sanyal and Charu Mazumder
were the two most important CPI(M) leaders who spearheaded the agitation. It erupted in the
eastern Himalayan foothills of West Bengal, near a region named Naxalbari, in the Siliguri
subdivision of Darjeeling District. The situation took a militant turn in the three Police
Station areas of Naxalbari, Kharibari, and Phansidewa. "These areas were distinct from others
in West Bengal because of the enormous number of tea plantations and the presence of a
substantial tribal population." The Santhals, Rajbanshis, Oraons, Mundas, and a small
number of Terrai gurkhas make up the tribal population in this region, which has grown along
the lines of a plantation economy. West Bengal has a history of land conflicts as a result of
these two elements. The landless peasants in this region had long argued that the tea
plantations and the wealthier peasants were encroaching on their land. As a result of this
uniqueness, the Naxalbari area has seen a number of peasant disputes, most of which have
been led by local peasant leaders rather than outside middle-class leaders.

After the creation of a new administration in West Bengal, in which the CPI(M) was a key
partner, the Naxalbari uprising erupted in April 1967. Kanu Sanyal asked that land that was
not owned and tilled by peasants be redistributed. The agitation continued in full swing till
June, encroaching on the Siliguri subdivision. Peasants began "burning all legal deeds and
paperwork; unequal agreements between moneylenders and peasants were to be proclaimed
null and invalid; hoarded rice was to be taken by the peasants and distributed among the
peasants; all jotedars were to be tried and sentenced to death, and so on.". He pushed peasants
to equip themselves with old-fashioned weaponry. The activities extended to other parts of
the state as well as Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, eventually forming the Naxalite movement. As
a result, the Naxalbari peasant rebellion in Independent India had far-reaching
implications."11

11
Rajesh Kumar Nayak, ‘AGRARIAN UNREST IN BIHAR: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW’ (2010) 71 Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress <http://www.jstor.org/stable/44147594> Accessed 23 March 2022.

15
3. Tebhaga Movement

Tebhaga is a Sanskrit term that means "three harvest portions." It was a sharecroppers'
movement, with two-thirds of the crop going to them and one-third going to the landlord. On
their tenancy, sharecroppers used to contribute a fifty-fifty share of the output. At the period,
the crop-sharing system was known as barga, adhi, bhagi, and so on, and sharecroppers were
known as bargadars or adhiars.

In 1946-1947, these sharecroppers posed a severe threat to the custom of the bargadar and the
landlord sharing crops. During the 1946 harvest, sharecroppers in a few north and
northeastern Bengal districts went to the fields and chopped down and thrashed the crops on
their own.12

Causes:

There were two causes for the sharecroppers' insurgency as a result of this move. First, they
said that dividing the output in half was unjustifiable. Because the tenants provided the
majority of the labour and other investments, and the landowner's involvement in the
production process was minimal, the tenants argued that the latter should get just one-third of
the harvest share, rather than half.

Second, renters were forced to keep their grains in the landlord's granary and split the straw
and other by-products of the grains on a half-share basis. The renters were not willing to
abide by this guideline. The renters said that the harvest stock would be held in the tenants'
complex, and that the landlord would not get "any" of the shares from the grain byproducts.

The Tebhaga movement was organised by the Bengal Provincial Krishak Sabha. The
sharecroppers banded together under the leadership of the sabha to fight the landowners. The
peasantry, on the other hand, provided leadership. The movement extended across Bengal's
19 districts, although its intensity was felt more strongly in a few areas. The landlords refused

12
Susapien, 'Peasant Movements and the Indian State' (Medium, 7 April 2020)
<https://susapien.medium.com/peasant-movements-and-the-indian-state-ab37b793ab05> Accessed 22 March
2022.

16
to comply with the tenants' requests and phoned the cops. The tenants were arrested by the
authorities, and several of them were placed behind prison.13

The tenants were enraged by this conduct, and they began a new chant calling for the whole
Zamindari system to be abolished. The phrase also suggested that the rate of rents, which had
been raised by the Tebhaga movement's peasants, be decreased. Peasants designated their
zones as Tebhaga regions in a few locations during the Tebhaga movement, and various
Tebhaga committees were formed to control the area locally. Most landlords had come to
terms with the Tebhaga peasants and dropped the proceedings filed against them due to
pressure from Tebhaga campaigners.

In the districts of Jessore, Dinajpur, and Jalpaiguri, such Tebhaga areas were developed.
Later, the Tebhaga regions grew in popularity in Midnapur and the other 24 parganas. Such
events prompted the administration to file a measure in the Legislative Assembly in early
1947.

Achievements:

The law advocated reforming the country's bhagi system, which had sparked agrarian
discontent. However, the administration was unable to get the bill into law due to other
political developments in the nation. Furthermore, the Tebhaga movement was put on hold as
a result of the new government's pledges and the partition of Bengal.

To some extent, the Tebhaga movement was effective, since it is believed that roughly 40%
of sharecropping peasants received the Tebhaga right from the landlords themselves. The
practise of extortion in the guise of abwabs was also outlawed.

In the East Bengal areas, however, the campaign was less effective. In these districts, a new
wave of Tebhaga movement erupted in 1948-1950. The authorities assumed this was the
work of Indian agents, and the general populace agreed, abstaining from participating in the

13
Susapien, 'Peasant Movements and the Indian State' (Medium, 7 April 2020)
<https://susapien.medium.com/peasant-movements-and-the-indian-state-ab37b793ab05> Accessed 22 March
2022.

17
movement. The East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950, however, was
passed as a result of the movement's inception.

18
 CONCLUSION

Though these uprisings were not intended to overthrow British authority in India, they did
raise consciousness among Indians. Peasants had a strong sense of their legal rights and used
them to assert them both within and outside of the courts. Peasants were the driving force
behind agricultural movements, fighting for their own needs. During the Non-Cooperation
Movement, many Kisan Sabhas were created to organise and campaign for peasant demands.
These movements weakened the landed class's influence, contributing to the agricultural
structure's transition. Peasants felt compelled to band together and oppose exploitation and
injustice. These insurgent movements paved the way for a slew of additional upheavals
around the country.

Though it is difficult to determine if peasant revolts and movements contributed significantly

to the bigger and longer-term aims of total social restructuring, their importance rests in
highlighting basic questions concerning land, lives, and livelihood. In response to their
protests, the government implemented land reforms, enacted the Land Ceiling Act, and
abolished the zamindari system, albeit these changes are still incomplete. The existence of a
significant overlap of concerns and interests between the peasant movement and
environmental, social, and other movements is now recognised as a significant aspect of the
peasant movement. As a result, intersectionality is a persistent, ubiquitous phenomenon in all
peasant movements today.

19
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Arvind Das, Agrarian Unrest and Socio-Economic Change, 1900-1980 ‎(South Asia Books
1983)

2. Puja Mondal, 'Top 6 Peasant Movements in India – Explained!' (Article Library, 29

November 2019)
<https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/top-6-peasant-movements-in-india-explained/
32958> Accessed on 21 March 2022.
3. Kankanala Munirathna Naidu, Peasant movements in India (Reliance Publishing House,
1994)

4. D. N. Dhanagre, Peasant movements In India 1920-1950 (Oxford 1983)

5. Shea, Thomas. ‘Agrarian Unrest and Reform in South India.’ (1954) 23 (6) Far Eastern
Survey < https://doi.org/10.2307/3023840> Accessed 22 March 2022.

6. Rajesh Kumar Nayak, ‘AGRARIAN UNREST IN BIHAR: A HISTORICAL

OVERVIEW’ (2010) 71 Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/44147594> Accessed 23 March 2022.

7. Susapien, 'Peasant Movements and the Indian State' (Medium, 7 April 2020)
<https://susapien.medium.com/peasant-movements-and-the-indian-state-ab37b793ab05>
Accessed 22 March 2022.

20