Tri-meridional analysis using arbitrary

meridians
Henry Burek”

c/o Dollond and Aitchison, 29 Market Street, Barnsley, South Yorkshire S70 l S N , UK

(Received 28 March 1990, in revised form 11 April 1990)

The evaluation of the sphero-cylindrical components of curvature or refraction from measurements taken
along three distinct meridians has been solved for various sets of three fixed meridians. A constraint of those
solutions has been that the meridians of measurement are necessarily predetermined, which introduces an
unwelcome restriction in experimental or clinical applications of tri-meridional analysis. A new solution is
presented (in three formats: analogue computer, graphical and algebraic), which enables any set of three
meridians to be used for tri-meridional analysis. A computer program listing (in BASIC) is included.

The curvature of a meridian of a cylindrical or toroidal
surface varies with the squared sine of the angle which
that meridian makes with the cylinder axis of that
surface‘.
If the curvature of the meridian, 4, is C,, and the
sphero-cylindrical components of curvature are R, (the
sphere component), Re (the cylinder component) and 8
(the axis of the cylinder component), then the value of
curvature of the surface: R J R , x 8 (in standard notation)
along the meridian 4 can be given as:
C, =R, + R e . sin’(6’ - 4 ) (1)
Conventionally, assessment of curvature of a toroidal
surface involves location of the two principal meridians
before taking curvature measurements along both of them
(as in keratometry or use of the familiar three-pronged
lens measure).
The principle of tri-meridional analysis of curvature is
that the sphero-cylindrical components of curvature can
be evaluated from just three curvature measurements,
each taken along a distinct meridian, without prior
location of the principal meridians.
In view of the direct relationship between refractive
power and curvature, this principle has been extended to
assessment of astigmatic refraction from meridional
measurements. This apparently invokes the well-known
fallacy of ‘oblique power’ as consideration of three
distinct meridians in the absence of knowledge of the
principal meridians implies that one (at least), two or all
three meridians may be oblique. The resolution of this
anomaly has been expertly described elsewhere’ -4.
The squared sine relationship between meridional
values and sphero-cylindrical components is found in
such applications as meridional refraction by stenopaic
slit’ or Scheiner’s disc’g3, subjective laser refraction6,
meridional keratometry7, analysis of vanfocal lens surfaces’
and analysis of photokeratograms’.
* FBCO
The difficulty of tri-meridional analysis is that, although
it is relatively easy to evaluate a meridional value from
the sphero-cylindrical components, the reverse process
is more complex. For example, if a lens or surface is
expressed as +3.00/-4.00 x 30 (in standard notation),
the following meridional values can be found directly
from Equation (1):
c180 = +2.00
C,, = +3.00
c,, = +2.00
c,, = + 1.00
c,, = 0.00
c,,, = - 1.00
C’,, = 0.00
Cj65 = + 1.00
In principle, given any three of these meridional values
(there are 56 permutations to choose from), it should be
+
possible to evaluate R, = 3.00, Re = -4.00 and 6’ = 30
degrees. The problem of evaluating the sphero-cylindrical
components from these meridional values has been solved
for fixed sets of three meridians, such as 180, 45 and 90
degree^^.^^" and 180,60 and 120 degrees6,”. An alternative
approach, proposed by Mandell and York’, allows
variable orientation of the meridians of measurement but
restricts their relative disposition to 45 degrees.
The difficulty associated with all of these solutions is
that the meridians of measurement are predetermined.
This imposes an unwelcome restriction on any experimental
or clinical application of tri-meridional analysis. For
example, in assessment of corneal toricity from a
phot~keratogram~, it may be found that the clearest (and
hence most accurately measured) parts of the image under
scrutiny do not lie on meridians conveniently displaced
by 45 degrees.

Q 1990 Butterworth-Heinemannfor British College of Optometrists

280 Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July 0275--5408/90/030280-06

Ideally what is required is a solution that allows the
use of any three meridians with equal facility. The classical
approach to this type of problem is to form three
simultaneous equations (one for each meridional value)
and evaluate the unknown quantities ( R s , R,, 0) by
elimination. This works well for ‘easy’ meridians (multiples
of 30 degrees and 45 degrees)as a great deal of simplification
takes place in the expansion of the expressions. However,
if the general case of any three meridians is considered,
the task rapidly becomes onerous and virtually intractable.
An alternative approach to this particular problem is
by means of analogy. If the meridional values of curvature
of any toroidal surface are plotted against their meridional
angles (i.e. ordinate = C, abscissa = 4), the curve is
found to be sinusoidal in nature; but, instead of a period
of 360 degrees (as in the function y = sin x), the period
of the curve is 180 degrees. In other words the curve is
related to the function y = sin 2x. This should come as
no surprise as it can be shown that:
sin’x =$ + 3.sin(2x - 90)
The point to be made is that the variation of C, against
24 is truly sinusoidal. The existence of sinusoidal variation
suggests analogy with the geometry of the circle.
Figure I shows the sinusoidal variation of meridional
value against meridional angle. The peak of the sinusoidal
curve gives the value of the sphere component, the
meridional angle at which this is found gives the axis of
the (negative) cylinder component. The difference between
the minimum and peak values of the sinusoidal curve
gives the value of the cylinder component (negative
cylinder form). The mean of the peak and minimum
values gives the mean sphere value, R,. Alongside the
sinusoidal curve the same information is displayed with
respect to a graduated circle. The angular graduations of
the circle are in doubled degrees so that a meridional
angle of 4 degrees is represented by an actual angle of
24 degrees. The circle is orientated so that the graduation
corresponding to the negative cylinder axis is the highest
vertical point. The centre of the circle is placed at a height
equivalent to the mean sphere value and the diameter of
the circle is equal to the cylinder power value. Thus if
the vertical height of any portion of the circle’s rim is
plotted against the value of its angular graduation, the
form of curve obtained is exactly the same as that shown
for the variation of C, against 4.
In addition to representing lateral displacement in
circular motion, the sinusoidal curve is also found in the
development of an obliquely sectioned right circular
0 45 90 135 180
Meridian (degrees)
Figure 1 Sinusoidal variation of meridional values of curvature
Arbitrary meridian tri-meridional analysis: H . Burek
Figure 2 Sinusoidal variation in the developed surface of an obliquely
sectioned cylinder
cylinder. If the surface of a cylinder that has been cut at
an oblique angle is unrolled onto a plane surface, the
undulation of the cut edge is sinusoidal ( a useful method,
incidentally, of producing a template to draw a sine
curve).
Conversely, a sinusoidal variation can be represented
by an obliquely sectioned cylinder (Figure 2). Thus, the
variation of meridional value of a sphero-cylindrical
surface can also be represented analogously by the
geometry of an obliquely sectioned right circular cylinder.
If the base (or any other circular section) of a right circular
cylinder is taken as the reference circle, and a point on
the reference circle denotes 0 degrees, then an individual
meridional value can be represented by a point on the
surface of the cylinder whose distance from the reference
circle is proportional to C, and whose angular displacement
around the cylinder is 24 degrees.
The points representing three distinct meridional values
define a plane, the intersection of this plane with the
cylinder results in an elliptical section. The distance of
any point on the elliptical section from the reference circle
varies (sinusoidally) around the cylinder. The two points
of greatest interest are the maximum and the minimum
points of the deviation (Figure 3 ) . From the maximum
and minimum points the values of the sphero-cylindrical
components represented by this construction can be
evaluated. The angular displacement of the maximum
point around the cylinder gives the value of 20. The
distance of the maximum point from the reference circle
is proportional to the value of R,. The difference between
the distances of the minimum and maximum points from
the reference circle is proportional to the value of R,.
Having established a three-dimensional model of
sphero-cylindrical values, the question then is, how can
it be applied to the solution of problems? Two methods
that require little calculation are an analogue computer
method and a graphical method.
Analogue computer method
The versatility, sophistication and ubiquity of digital
computers overshadows analogue devices, which solve
specific problems by virtue of the fact that their construction
or behaviour is analagous to the elements of the problem”.
Such a device can be constructed to solve sphero-
cylindrical/meridional value problems by exploiting the
variable geometry of a liquid column in a tilted cylindrical
vessel and is a useful illustration of how an ostensibly
difficult mathematical problem is amenable to solution
by relatively simple means.
Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July 281
 Arbitrary meridian tri-meridional analysis: H. Burek
First, the apparatus must be constructed. The materials
required are a transparent cylindrical vessel (e.g. a bottle)
containing some liquid (preferably coloured), a transparent
acetate sheet, adhesive tape and drawing materials. A grid
is drawn onto the acetate sheet such that the horizontal
scale is equal in length to the circumference of the
cylindrical vessel and is graduated in degrees from 0 to
180. The vertical scale is arbitrary and is graduated in
unit values of curvature or notional power. The acetate
sheet is rolled around the cylindrical vessel and is secured
to itself with adhesive tape to form a moveable cylindrical
sleeve.
To evaluate sphero-cylindrical components from three
meridional values, the points corresponding to the
meridional values are marked on the acetate sheet. The
vessel is tilted and the sleeve manipulated until the three
points are aligned along the level of the liquid. (This takes
longer to describe than to do.)
The maximum and minimum points of the obliquely
cut liquid column are located with reference to the acetate
grid. The maximum point gives the value of the sphere
component and the axis of the (negative form) cylinder
\
\
\ denoted by an arrowhead. The angular graduation at the
Maximum
Minimum
\ the meridional values at the minimum and maximum
\
\
Figure 3 Meridional values analogously applied to cylindrical geometry..
A meridional value measured longitudinally from the base (the reference
circle) defines a point. Three such points define a plane which intersects
the cylinder in an elliptical section. The highest and lowest points of
the elliptical section define the maximum and minimum points from
which the values of the represented sphero-cylindrical surface can be
evaluated
282 Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July
component directly. The value of the cylinder component
is the difference between the values of the minimum and
maximum points (the only calculation involved !).
Graphical method
The essence of this method is the representation of a
three-dimensional object, an obliquely sectioned right
circular cylinder, in two dimensions. This is accomplished
by adopting a viewpoint along the axis of the cylinder and
by rendering height variation by means of contour lines.
In this manner only a single diagram is required (unlike,
say, a plan and elevation view), involving nothing more
complex than drawing a circle and some straight lines.
This form of construction is best understood by
reference to an example. Figure 4 shows a representation
of an obliquely cut right circular cylinder, which in turn
is a representation of the sphero-cylindrical values:
+ 3.00/ -4.00 x 30 (in standard notation).
Several features of this diagram are worth explaining.
The angular graduations are in doubled degrees and the
meridional values are identified with reference to the
contour lines at the rim of the circle, e.g. C,, = +2.00,
C,,, = + 1.00, C l z o= - 1.00,etc. The mean sphere value
is identified by referring the centre of the circle to the
contour lines, i.e. R , = +1.00. The contour lines are
parallel and evenly spaced (as this, effectively, is a view
of an obliquely inclined plane surface). The greatest slope
runs perpendicular to the contour lines, therefore the
maximum and minimum points are found at the ends of
the diameter which is perpendicular to the contour lines
(shown as a dotted line, it meets the circle rim at meridian
angles of 30 and 120 degrees). The maximum point is
maximum point gives the axis of the (negative form)
cylinder component ( 0 = 30 degrees). The value of the
cylinder component is found as the difference between
points. Thus R , = ( - 1.OO) - ( + 3.00) = - 4.00.
An interesting feature of this form of representation is
that it becomes obvious that the mean value of meridian
50 40
180
120 125
130 140
Figure 4 Graphical representation of t3.001-4.00 x 30. Meridional
values are identified with reference to the contour lines at the circle
rim. The maximum point is indicated by an arrowhead
 Arbitrary meridian tri-meridional analysis: H . Burek

pairs of 90 degrees disparity (e.g. 180 and 90 degrees or
75 and 165 degrees) is always equal to the mean sphere
value. Furthermore, the mean value of meridian triplets
of 60 degrees disparity (e.g. 30, 90 and 150 degrees or
180,60 and 120 degrees) is also equal to the mean sphere
value.
The use of this form of construction allows the evaluation
of sphero-cylindrical components from three meridional
values. The process basically involves constructing the
contour lines from the given information and then
locating the maximum and minimum points.
An example will illustrate the method. The three
meridional values are:
C18, = +6.00
C,, = +8.00
c,,, = +2.00
Thus the three meridional angles to be considered are
180, 75 and 135 degrees. A circle is drawn and these
meridional angles are located as points on the circle rim.
A full circle protractor is ideal for this purpose, but it
must be remembered that the meridional angles will be
represented by actual angles of twice the values, i.e. 360,
150 and 270 degrees. Straight lines are drawn to connect
the three points in a triangle, the vertices of the triangle
are labelled with the appropriate meridional values
(Figure 5). Each side of the triangle is divided into unit
values intermediate to the vertex values and labelled
accordingly. For example, the side of the triangle that
spans the values 2-6 is divided into four equal parts and
the intermediate divisions are labelled 3, 4 and 5. The
points of equal value on the perimeter of the triangle are
joined by drawing straight lines, this establishes the
contour lines (these can, of course, be produced past the
triangle’s edges). The diameter perpendicular to the
contour lines is drawn (shown as a dotted line). To
establish the meridional values at the minimum and,
value of the minimum point is + 2.00 and the meridional
angle at the maximum point is 45 degrees (which would
be measured as 90 degrees on a conventional protractor).
Thus the sphero-cylindrical components are found to be,
in standard notation, + 10.00/ -8.00 x 45. (This result
can be confirmed by substitution of the evaluated results
into Equation ( 1 ).)
Algebraic solution
The following system of equations furnishes a solution
to the evaluation of sphero-cylindrical components of
curvature from the curvature values of any set of three
distinct meridians. These equations may be extended to
any of the previously mentioned applications of tri-
meridional analysis.
Essentially, the solution falls into two stages. The first
stage transforms the meridional values and angles into a
pair of coordinates. The second stage transforms those
coordinates into the required sphero-cylindrical values.
Stage I
Let the three meridians be a, band y. Let the corresponding
curvature values along those meridians be C, C , and
C,,, and let:
4=p-a (2)
p=y-a (3)
H = Cp - C,
v=c,-c,
H . sin’p - V . sin2+
X=
sin p . sin 4 . sin(p - 4 )
V ’ sin 4 . cos 4 - H sin p . cos p
’= sin y.sin + . s i n ( p - 4 )
(7)

Stage 2
particularly in this case, the maximum point, the
intersections of the contour lines with the perpendicular The cylinder component is found from:
diameter are extended to the edge of the circle.
R,= -JFTj7 (8)
It can be seen from the example illustrated in Figure 5
that the value of the maximum point is +10.00, the The sphere component is found from:
50 40 R,=- L’-R,+C, (9)
60 ’,’\ 45
I
2
The axis of the cylinder component is found from:
t = 0.5 arc C O S ( ~ / R , ) (10)
if x > O then Q = t + a (11)
if x = < O then O = I X O - ( t + a ) (12)

90 __ Fixed meridians
Certain combinations of fixed meridians allow considerable
simplification of stage 1. In each of the following examples,
the two equations shown replace the six equations of
stage 1 entirely (with the proviso that a = 180 or 0 degrees
for the purposes of the stage 2 equations).
Example I
120 125 / lA5 \ 145 150
The 180, 45 and 90 degrees set:
130 140 x c,, c,,,
= 2c,, - - (13a)
Figure 5 Worked example of the graphical method (see text) Y = c9, c,,, - (13b)

Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July 283

 Arbitrary meridian tri-meridional analysis: H . Burek

Example 2 Acknowledgement
The 180, 90 and 135 degrees set:
I thank Dr W. A. Douthwaite of the University of
x=c90+c180-2c135 (14a) Bradford for his encouragement.
Y = c90 - C180 (14b)
Example 3
Appendix: derivation of equations
The 180, 45 and 135 degrees set:
A convenient method of graphically representing cylinder
x = c45 - c 1 3 5 power (R,) and cylinder axis (8) is by means of polar
Y = c 4 5 + c 1 3 5 - 2c180 coordinates, whereby the distance of a point to the origin
is proportional to the value of R, and its angular
Example 4
displacement from a designated axis is proportional to
The 180, 60 and 120 degrees set: the value of 8.
C60 -C120 The benefit of representing R, and 8 in this manner is
that it allows conversion of these quantities to and from
x= Jo75 x, y coordinates.
c60 + c120 - 2cl 80 The scaling of the x and y axes is such that 1 unit
Y= (16b) represents - 1.00 DC (the negative cylinder form will be
1.5
applied exclusively). The angle of a point’s location is
Computer program gauged anti-clockwise from the negative y axis (this is
purely arbitrary) such that an actual angle of 28 degrees
Figure 6 shows a listing of a BASIC computer program
corresponds to a negative cylinder axis of 8 degrees (this
that evaluates sphero-cylindrical components from three
ensures that values of 8 cannot exceed 180 degrees). For
meridional values. The program was written for the
example, the values R, = - 2.00 and 8 = 45 degrees would
TSR-80 pocket computer model PC-4 but should translate be represented by the point (2, 0). Conversely, the point
to other implementations of BASIC with little modification. (0, 4) represents R, = -4.00, 8= 90 degrees.
The first step in using the program is to enter the angles In algebraic terms, the conversion of R, and 8 into
of the three meridians. The second step is to enter the
x, y coordinates is:
corresponding meridional values in the same order. The
program then displays the results R,, R, and 8. For X= -R,.sin 28
example, if the three meridional values are:
y = R, ‘ cos 28
C105 = -0.75
Now, consider two arbitrary meridians ( 4 and p ) and
C30 = + 0.50 one fixed meridian (180 degrees). The following equations,
C135 = + 1.75 derived from Equation ( 1), describe the relationship
between the meridional values of curvature of those
then, in response to the promt, “Mer. ANGLES ?”, the meridians and the sphero-cylindrical components of
numbers 105, 30 and 135 are entered. In response to the curvature :
promt, “Mer. VALUES ?”, the numbers -0.75, 0.5 and
1.75 are entered. The computer then displays: C180 = R, + R, . sin28
SPH 3 C,=R,+R,.sin2(8-4)
CYL -5 C,=R,+R,.sin2(8-p)
AXIS 165 Now, if:
10 G = (ATN 1)/45
20 PRINT “Mer. ANGLES”;: INPUT A, B, C
30 PRINT “Mer. VALUES”;: INPUT D, E, F
40P=B-A:M=C-A
50 P = P*G: M = M*G
60H = E - D : V = F-D
70J = S I N M * S I N P * S I N ( M - P ) H = R, . sin 4 . sin( 4 - 28)
80 X = (H*SIN M * SIN M - V*SIN P * SIN P ) / I
90 Y = (V*COS P * SIN P - H*COS M * SIN M)/J V = R,.sin y.sin(p-28)
100 K = -SQR(X*X + Y*Y)
110s = (Y-K)/2 + D From the obliquely sectioned right circular cylinder
120 T = (.5/G)*ACS (Y/K) analogue, it can be found that the mean sphere value,
130 W = T + A
140IFX = < O;W=180-T+A R,, can be given as:
150 I F W > 180; W = W - 180
160 PRINT “SPH ”; S C, 8o . sin( 2p - 24) - C, . sin 2p - C, sin
+ 24
R, =
170 PRINT “CYL ”; K 4 . sin p . sin 4 . sin(@- 4 )
180 PRINT “AXIS ”; W
190 STOP

The variable, G, (in lines 10, 50 and 120) automatically compensates At this stage we have equations derived from three
for whatever angular mode (degrees, radians or g a d s ) the computer is sources; the next step is to unify them. The denominator
set to. of Equation (26) furnishes the clue to accomplishing this
Figure 6 Computer program in BASIC task.

284 Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July

 Arbitrary meridian tri-meridional analysis: H . Burek

Both sides of Equations (17) and (18) are multiplied Substituting Equation (33) into Equation (32) gives:
by sin p * sin 4 . sin(p - 4). After expansion and rearrange-
ment, we find: (34)
L
R, . sin2p. sin 4 . sin( - 28)
- R, . sin24.sin p . sin(p - 28)
At this stage we have formulae for a specific solution
X= (27) using two arbitrary meridians ( 4 and p) and one fixed
sin p . sin 4 . sin(p - 4 ) meridian ( 180 degrees).
R, . sin 4 . sin p . cos 4 . sin(p - 20) The same formulae are applied to the case of three
- R, . sin 4 . sin p . cos p . sin( 4 - 28)
a
arbitrary meridians ( a , and y ) by rotating the angular
Y= (28) frame of reference by angle a (Equations (2)-(5)). This
sin p . sin 4 * sin(p - 4 ) rotation does not affect the calculated values of R, and
Then, by substituting Equations (24) and (25) into R,, but angle a must be added to the axis result (Equations
Equations (27) and (28): (11) and (12)) to compensate for it.
H . sin2p - I/. sin24
X=
sin p . sin 4 * sin(p - 4 ) (29) References
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Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., 1990, Vol. 10, July 285