ROLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY IN ANTENNA DESIGN

Course: EEE 313

Ndenu Faith - EU170306-1292

Omoseibi Gbadebo - Victor EU170303-1271
Bakare Boluwatife - EU170303-1262

21/01/2020
 Abstract
In this work we summarize the electromagnetic theory (EMT) and its applications precisely
on receiving and transmitting antennas. Highlighting the engineering perspective by
providing a framework of details of electromagnetic field in the antenna region.

Introduction
Antenna research has dominate our everyday life, it is used in our mobile devices, in TV
broadcasting and home Wi-Fi network, they are found in tablets, global positioning systems
(GPS) in cars, highway toll devices and the security tag attached to merchandise.
An antenna is merely a piece of metallic rod or dish that captures radio waves and
converts them into electrical signals, feeding into some system such as a radio, television or
a mobile network. When an antenna functions like this, its called receivers. A transmitter
turns electrical signals into radio wave so that they can travel long distances around the
earth or even into space and back to carry information. The transmitted and received waves
are partly electrical and partly magnetic.

CONCEPT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Electromagnetic theory is the study of electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction
that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is carried by
electromagnetic fields composed of electric field and magnetic field, and it is responsible for
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) refers to the wave of the electromagnetic field
radiating through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy which includes radio wave,
microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays. Classically,
electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic (EMW) are
waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic
field, in other words electromagnetic waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and
electric field.
A synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed
of light which in a vacuum is commonly denoted c. in homogeneous isotropic media, the
oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave. The wave front of
electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source (e.g light bulb) is a sphere. The position
of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by
either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different
frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effect on
matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength they are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration
and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles exerting force on
them. Electromagnetic waves also carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away
from their source particle and can impact those quantities to matter with which they
interact.

THE CONCEPT OF ANTENNA DESIGN

An antenna is a device that is used to transfer guided electromagnetic waves (signals) to
radiating waves in an unbounded medium, usually free space and vice versa ( i.e in either
the transmitting or receiving mode of operation). Antenna are frequently dependent
devices, each antenna is designed for a certain frequency band, beyond the operating band,
the antenna rejects the signal.
Transmission antenna – the basic source of radio frequency (RF) radiation
A transmission antenna is the basic element of radio technology. This type of antenna is
composed of a conductor that carries an electric current whose intensity fluctuates over
time and converts it into radio frequency radiation that propagates in space. 
Receiving antenna - a device for reception of radio frequency (RF)
A receiving antenna performs the reverse of the process performed by the transmission
antenna.  It receives radio frequency radiation and converts it into electric currents in an
electric circuit connected to the antenna. TV and radio broadcasting stations, use
transmission antennas to transmit specific types of signals that propagate through the air.
These signals are detected by receiving antennas which convert them into signals, and are
received by the appropriate device (e.g., TV, radio, mobile phone). Cellular communication
installations (e.g. base stations, repeaters) and mobile phones are equipped with
designated transmission and receiving antennas that emit radio frequency radiation and
serve the cellular communication network, in accordance with communication network
technologies.
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTENNA
Radiation pattern
Radiation patterns are graphical representations of the electromagnetic power distribution
in free space. Also, these patterns can be considered to be representative of the relative
field strengths of the field radiated by the antenna. The fields are measured in the spherical
coordinate system in the figure below in θ and Ø directions. For the isotropic antenna, this
would be a sphere. For a typical dipole, this would be a torrid. The radiation pattern of
antenna is typically represented by a three dimensional graph.

Spherical coordinate

Polarization

The polarization of a wave is the direction of the electric field. We handle all polarization
problems by using vector operations on a two-dimensional space using the far-field radial
vector as the normal to the plane. This method is systematic and reduces chance of error.
The spherical wave in the far field has only θ and φ components of the electric field: E = Eθ
θˆ + Eφφˆ. Eθ and Eφ are phasor components in the direction of the unit vectors θˆ and φˆ.
We can also express the direction of the electric field in terms of a plane wave propagating
along the z-axis: E = Ex xˆ + Ey yˆ. The direction of propagation confines the electric field to a
plane. Polarization is concerned with methods of describing this two-dimensional space.
Both of the above are linear polarization expansions. We can rewrite them as

E = Eθ ( θˆ + ˆρLφˆ) ρˆL = EφEθ

E = Ex (xˆ + ˆρLyˆ) ρˆL = EyEx

where ρˆL is the linear polarization ratio, a complex constant.

The two circular polarization also span the two-dimensional space of polarization. The right-
and left-handed orthogonal unit vectors defined in terms of linear components are

Rˆ = 1√2(θˆ − jφˆ) or Rˆ = 1√2(xˆ − jyˆ)

Lˆ = 1√2(θˆ + jφˆ) or Lˆ = 1√2(xˆ + jyˆ)

The electric field in the polarization plane can be expressed in terms of these new unit
vectors: E = ELLˆ + ERR

Gain

Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation

pattern. A high-gain antenna will radiate most of its power in a particular direction, while a
low-gain antenna will radiate over a wide angle. The antenna gain, or power gain of an
antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface area)  radiated by the
antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the
intensity radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna which radiates
equal power in all directions.

 Antenna effective area

The effective area or effective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the
power of a passing electromagnetic wave which the antenna delivers to its terminals, Since
the receiving antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the
effective area is a function of the direction to the source. the gain of an antenna used for
transmitting must be proportional to its effective area when used for receiving.

 Antenna efficiency

Efficiency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated (in all directions)
to the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna
terminals which is not radiated is converted into heat. This is usually through  loss
resistance in the antenna's conductors, or loss between the reflector and feed horn of a
parabolic antenna.

Band width

The bandwidth is the antenna operating frequency band within which the antenna performs
as desired. The bandwidth could be related to the antenna matching band if its radiation
patterns do not change within this band. In fact, this is the case for small antennas where a
fundamental limit relates bandwidth, size, and efficiency. The bandwidth of other antennas
might be affected by the radiation pattern’s characteristics, and the radiation characteristics
might change although the matching of the antenna is acceptable. The width of a range of
frequencies at which the antenna transmits its maximal radiation and intensity.

Beam Width

The beam width of the antenna is usually considered to be the angular width of the half
power radiated within a certain cut through the main beam of the antenna where most of
the power is radiating. From the peak radiation intensity of the radiation pattern, which is
the peak of the main beam,

Antenna array
A systematic deployment of antennas that operate together.  The individual antennas in an
array are usually of the same type, and are situated in close proximity and at a fixed distance
from one another. An antenna array enables increasing the directionality and control of the
main radiation beams and the lateral beams.

BASIC TYPES OF ANTENNAS

Dipole antenna - consists of two wires (or rods), usually metallic, placed in a straight line, so
that an alternating current flows through the center of the antenna.
 
Monopole antenna (Marconi) – a single straight wire or rod (metallic), mounted
perpendicularly over an infinite conductive surface (called a ground plane). In practice, a
smaller plane is sufficient.
 
Yagi antenna – consists of an active antenna and a number of passive antennas, serving as
directors or reflectors.  This type of antenna is used mainly for transmission and reception of
FM radio and TV broadcasting.  In the past this type of antenna was also used in radar
systems.

Horn antenna – a funnel-shaped wave-guiding antenna.  This type of antenna is used mainly
for frequencies greater than 1 GHz.
 
Printed antenna – an antenna that is composed of a conductive layer etched on an
insulating substrate.  The back of the substrate is covered by a conductor and serves as the
ground plane. This method enables creating a large number of antennas on a single
substrate, thus achieving great enhancement.  The printed antenna has come into use
during the last decades for example in mobile phones

ROLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY IN ANTENNA DESIGN

It is known that wave excite currents on conductors, and the current radiate and produce
electromagnetic waves.the study of electromagnetic gives insight into the mathematics
describing antenna radiation. It is important to realize that antenna radiates from currents.
The design consists of controlling currents to produce the desired radiation distribution
called pattern.

Maxwell’s equations allow the derivation of properties of light. First is coulomb’s law for the
electric field which provides a means for calculating the force between two charges F =
q0/4πε0 ʃ dq/r2 ȓ

Where dq is the charge on an infinitesimal surface and ȓ is the unit vector in the direction of
the line connecting the charges q0 and dq the electric field, E = F/q0 is obtained using
coulomb’s law. Micheal Faraday viewed this field (electric field) as lines of flux, called lines of
force originating on positive charges and terminating on negative charges.

Gauss’s law states that the quantity of charge contained within a closed surface is equal to
the number of flux lines passing outward through the surface, this view of electric field leads
to ∇ · D = ρ ------------ 1, where ρ is the charge density and D is the electric displacement.
Gauss’s law for the magnetic field: Since antenna transfers electromagnetic wave, charges
at rest led to charges in motion i.e a current (i) or a current density (J) creates a magnetic
field as flux of lines, called lines of induction. We assume that the current density is a
constant so that ∇ · J = 0 which leads to ∇ · B = 0 --------- 2.

The zero is due to the fact that the magnetic equivalent of a single charge is never been
observed. The previous two equations are associated with electric and magnetic fields that
are constant with respect to time. The equation is an experimentally derived equation that
deals with a conduction moving through a static magnetic field

In terms of the concept of flux, it states that an electric field around a circuit is associated
with a change in the magnetic flux contained within the circuit. An electric charge in motion
creates a magnetic field around its path, the law of Biot Savart allows us to calculate the
magnetic field at a point located a distance R from a conductor carrying a current density J.is
given by ∇ × E + ∂B/∂t = 0.

While Ampere’s law is the inverse relationship used to calculate the current in a conductor
due to the magnetic field contained in a loop about the conductor. ∇ × E = -∂B/∂t but
neither relationship is adequate when current is a function of time.

Maxwell’s major contribution was to observe that the addition of displacement current to
Ampere’s law allowed fluctuating current to be explained, the relationship became

∇ × H = J + ∂D/∂t

The displacement current term ∂D/∂t in Ampere’s law is essential in predicting the existence
of propagating electromagnetic waves. Its role is to establish a charge conservation.

∇ × E = −∂B/∂t

∇ × H = J +∂D/∂t Maxwell’s equations

∇·D=ρ
 ∇·B=0

Where the quantities E and H are the electric and magnetic field intensities measured in
units of volt/m and Ampere/m respectively. The quantities D and B are the electric and
magnetic flux densities and are in units of coulomb/m 2 and weber/m2. D is also called the
electric displacement and B is also called magnetic induction.

The quantities ρ and J are the volume charge density and electric current density (charge
flux) of any external charges. The charge and current densities ρ and J may be thought as the
sources of the electromagnetic fields. For wave problems, these densities are localized in
space i.e they are restricted to flow on an antenna. The generated electric and magnetic
fields are radiated away from these sources and can propagate to large distances to the
receiving antennas.

Away from the sources, i.e in source-free regions of space, Maxwell’s equations take the
simpler form

∇ × E = −∂B∂t

∇ × H = ∂D∂t (source-free Maxwell’s equations)

∇·D=0

∇·B=0

Conclusion

In this paper, we started with the formulation of a comprehensive theoretical program for
the analysis of electromagnetic theory and antenna in general. Then the qualitative
mechanism by which Maxwell’s equation give rise to propagating electromagnetic fields, for
example a time varying current J on a linear antenna generates a circulating and time-
varying magnetic field H, which through Faraday’s law generates a circulating electric field E,
which through Ampere’s law generates a magnetic field, etc. The cross-linked electric and
magnetic fields propagates away from the current source.
References

1. Jackson, J.D., Clasical Electrodynamics. 3rd ed. 1998: Wiley.

2. Sophocles J. Orfanidis., Electromagnetic waves and Antenna. Rutgers University