Human Performance and Limitations

Atmosphere

Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), Carbon dioxide (0.03%) and other gases
Air concentration
8000ft - 75% 18000ft - 50% 34000ft - 25%

Laws

Boyle’s Volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at constant temperature (Otic and
Gastro intestinal Barotrauma, Aerodontalgia)
Dalton’s The total pressure is sum of the partial pressure of the various gases in an mixture (Hypoxia,
Night vision)
Henry’s The amount of gas dissolved in the liquid is equal to its pressure (DCS & Bends)
Fick’s / The higher the area , thinness & difference in the partial pressure across the tissue the greater
Diffusion will be the gas transfer across it (Diffusion of gases in lungs and tissues)
Gestalt Governs how objects are mentally arranged and perceived
Murphy /Sod If something can go wrong then sooner or later it will

Respiration

Air composition in lungs

Nitrogen (75%), Oxygen (14%), Water vapor (6%), Carbon dioxide (5%)
Where Water vapor and Carbon dioxide are waste products formed during the process of respiration

Inspire = The process in which the intercostal muscles between the rib acting with the diaphragm
expands which increases the volume of lungs to breathe
External respiration = The gas exchange in the lungs where oxygen is inhaled and carbon di oxide and
water is expelled
Internal respiration = The gas exchange in the tissues where red cells deliver oxygen and take carbon
dioxide and water back to the lungs

The level of carbon di oxide in the blood controls the breathing rate which is around 12 – 20 per min which is
controlled by the acidity of the blood, loss of C02 will make the blood alkaline

Pulmonary (Lungs) volume:-

Tidal Volume 500 ml. Normal volumes inhaled and exhaled

Inspiratory Reserve Volume 3000 ml. Extra volume that can be inhaled after the normal inhale
Expiratory Reserve Volume 1100 ml. Forceful expiration after the normal exhale
Residual Volume 1200 ml. Amount still remaining after the forceful expiration
 Hyperventilation

Abnormal loss of CO2 due to excessive rate of breathing. Can happen in a stressful, shock situation, anxiety.
It will make the blood alkaline.

Symptoms:-
Dizziness, hot and cold sensations, excessive rate of breathing, visual impairment, Unconsciousness, muscle
pain

Cure:-
Breathe normally in paper bag to restore the CO2 level in the body

Hypoxia

State of deficiency of oxygen in blood. Types:-

Hypoxic Hypoxia Insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole. Can be caused by blocked airway
(General condition) tube, drowning, no / less oxygen or its pressure in the air to breathe etc.
Hypemic / Anemic The blood is not able to absorb and transport the oxygen in the body. Can be caused
Hypoxia due to low volume of blood in body, severe bleeding, CO poisoning, smoking etc.
Stagnant Hypoxia Oxygen rich blood is not flowing to the body parts. Can happen due to shock when the
heart is not able to pump the blood, blocked artery, pulling G’s, cold temperatures etc.
Histotoxic Hypoxia Inability of the body cells to effectively use the oxygen from the blood. Can happen due
to alcohol consumption, medication, drugs, poisons etc.

Symptoms:-
Personality change, Feeling of wellness (Euphoria), Visual impairment, Blue fingernails and lips (Cyanosis),
Shortness of breath, Headache, Impaired Judgment, Drowsiness, Dizziness

Cure:-
Use supplemental oxygen if available or descent down to lower altitudes

Anoxia - Complete lack of oxygen in lungs which occurs at later stages of hypoxia and leads to death
Dysbarism - Medical conditions resulting from changes in ambient pressure

Time of useful Consciousness

Altitude FT Progressive decompression Rapid decompression Threshold Oxygen requirements

Sitting Moderate activity
18,000 40 min 30 min 20 – 25 min Air only till 10,000ft
20,000 10 min 5 min 3 min
25,000 5 min 3 min 2 min Air oxygen mixture from 10,000 -
30,000 1.5 min 45 sec 30 sec 34,000ft
35,000 45 sec 30 sec 20 sec 100% oxygen from 34,000 -
40,000 25 sec 18 sec 12 sec 40,000ft, 100% oxygen under
43,000 18 sec 12 sec 12 sec pressure above it
 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning

The colorless, odorless CO gas which combines readily with the blood which tends decreases the oxygen
carrying capacity. Can be encountered when the CO gas in exhaust system enters the cabin via cabin heat,
cigarette smoking etc. It is 210 times more soluble in blood than oxygen triggering hypoxia

Symptoms:-
Headache – tightness in forehead, smell of exhaust fumes, dizziness, Blurred vision, Loss of muscular power

Cure:-
Turn off cabin heat use supplementary oxygen, open up air vents, stop smoking and land ASAP. Seek advice
from an aviation doctor as it takes 48 hrs. for the CO to get out of the body

Decompression sickness

Scuba diving:-
Inert gases mainly nitrogen dissolved in the blood under high pressure of the water tries to
bubble out in the form of solution when trying to go to higher altitudes while flying in unpressurized aircraft

High altitude Decompression sickness:-

Inert gases mainly nitrogen dissolved in the blood tries to bubble
out in the form of solution when trying to go to higher altitudes under unpressurized aircraft

Symptoms:-
Bends: - Nitrogen bubbles tries to escape from the joints of the body causing severe pain in the process.
Creeps: - The felling of ants crawling under the skin
The Chokes: - Nitrogen bubbles trapped in the lungs which block the blood flow causing breathlessness
The staggers: - Nitrogen bubbles may cause a loss of mental functions due to block in blood flow to brain

Cure:-
Switch to 100% oxygen if in flight and land ASAP. After Diving wait 12 hrs for altitudes till 8000ft and 24hrs for
more than 8000ft.Use of control ascend and decompression chamber after diving to get adjusted to the
normal pressure before flying .
Circulation of blood

Pulmonary Circulatory system (The circulation of blood between heart and the lungs)
Systemic Circulatory system (The circulation of blood between heart and body parts)

Blood contains mostly plasma which is mainly 90% water and the contents are salts, glucose, hormones, fats,
carbohydrates, proteins, gases and blood cells

Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood around the body via arteries and right ventricle pumps deoxygenated
blood to the lungs via Pulmonary artery.

Coronary arteries carry blood to the heart muscles Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood
 Blood cells Function
Platelets / Thrombocytes Which help blood to clot
Red blood cells Carry oxygen with hemoglobin to various parts of the body
White blood cells / The functions is to fight with various infections and created in
Leukocytes larger quantities during infection

Oxyhemoglobin = The process by which the oxygen combines chemically to the hemoglobin in the
red cells of the blood which are then transported to various parts of body

Cardiac Output - The heart beats about 70 times a minute with 5.0 to 5.5 liters of blood being pumped at rest

Blood pressure Systolic (Pressure exerted by the Diastolic (Permanent pressure in

heart when it pumps blood)mm the arterial system) mm
High blood pressure (Hypertension) 160 or over 95 or over
Normal blood pressure 120 80
Low blood pressure (Hypotension) 90 or less 60 or less

Zeitgebers is the ability of the body to maintain circadian rhythms which is sense of timing due to external
cues from environment which is 24hrs, but if no external cues are given a free run will set for about 25 hrs.

Angina (Heart / Myocardial infarct) is a symptom in which the oxygen supply to the heart is reduces due to
narrowing of Coronary artery

Hypoglycaemia = Low blood sugar levels in blood

Hypoglycemic = High blood sugar levels in blood
Anaemia = Insufficient hemoglobin or red blood cells
Hydrostatic variation = The difference in blood pressure between various parts of the body under the
influence of G forces

Nervous system

In the Nerve Impulse electrical signals are carried to the Neurons which are connected by Synapse which
inturn release the chemicals to carry the electrical signal to the next neuron and the cycle continues so thus
the message send by the nervous system are thus electro-chemical signal

Central Nervous system (CNS) Network which consists spinal cord and brain
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) Network in which information is passed from CNS to body parts , muscles
Autonomic (Vegetative) Nervous Network which automatically manages vital system of body like breathing,
system (ANS) blood pressure, sweat glands etc

There are five senses organs namely sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch

Proprioceptors = The pressure sensitive cells within the muscles that can detect it position and
sense of gravity and the pilot using this sense to fly is called flying by the “seat of
of the pants”

Homoeostasis = The ability of the body to maintain physiological equilibrium

 Eyes

Cornea A clear window in front of the eyeball where light enters the eye
Iris & Pupil The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by iris which is controlling the size of the Pupil
The lens Allows the final focusing on fovea (The lens is controlled by Ciliary muscle)
Retina The inner light sensitive lining of the eyeball (Electrical signal is passed to brain)
Fovea The center of retina which holds most of the cones
Cones (Photopic vision – Central vision) Mainly used for direct vision in good light and are color sensitive
to provide detail. Takes 7 min to adapt to dark
Rods (Scotopic (Night) vision - Peripheral vision ) Mainly used in low light which can detect only black
and white. Sensitive to any movement. Takes 30 min to adapt to dark (Visual Purple / Rhodopsin)

Visual defects:-

Hypermetropia (Long / far sightedness) Shorter than normal eyeball where the image is formed behind the
retina. Close objects will look blurred. Use of a convex lens is recommended
Myopia (Short / near sightedness) Longer than normal eyeball where the image is formed in front of
the retina. Distant objects will look blurred. Use of concave lens is recommended
Presbyopia The ability of the lens to focus is lost due to the loss of elasticity. This happens due to the age
Astigmatism Caused by accident or oblong cornea where objects will appear irregular
Cataracts Lens becomes cloudy due to age or diseases
Glaucoma The pressure of liquid (Vitreous humor) increases due to blockages in the shutter which
controls the pressure. If untreated can damage the optic nerve and cause blindness

Red out Grey out Black out

Prolonged negative G +3 to +4G +5G and above
Illusions:-

Oculogyral illusion:-
The pilot may falsely perceive the object moving in an opposite direction in this illusion when under the
influence of an Somatogyral Illusion

Oculogravic illusion:-
The pilot will get a false impression of the instrument panel moving up or down when under the influence of
Somatogravic Illusion

Empty field myopia:-

In the absence of anything to focus on (Empty Field) the natural focus point of the eye is at a distance of
between just under 1 meter and 1.5 meters

False horizons:-
A pilot may perceive the false horizon as a real horizon due to sloping terrain, sloping cloud cover etc., surface
lights cab be confused to be as stars.

Autokinesis:-
Staring at a stationary light when other visual references are absent, will make the pilot sense that the light
source is moving

Black hole:-
When flying at an isolated runway at night with no other light source than that of the runway will make the
pilot to perceive that he is high resulting him to fly the approach shallower

Rain:-
Raindrops collecting on the windscreen can make the pilot think he is high and might tend to make a shallower
approach whereas rain drops at night make the runway bloom perceiving that the runway is closer than actual

Fog & low visibility:-

The pilot might perceive that the runway is farther than it is in actual

Sloping runways:-
The upsloping runway may give an illusion that you are high and the pilot tends to go low on approach where
as for the downsloping runway it is opposite

Width of runway:-
A narrow runway may give an illusion that you are high and the pilot tends to flair low on approach where as
for a wider runway it is opposite
 Ears

Outer ear Pinna directs sound through auditory canal (Meatus) to ear drum
Middle ear Starts from the ear drum (Tympanum) which connects to Ossicles (auditory ossicles) which are
three air filled smallest bones in the human body. They are contained within the middle ear
space and serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea)
Inner ear Fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea) contains fine membrane holding thin hair like cells whose
movement will depend on the volume and pitch of then sound, this amount will be detected by
the auditory nerve and send to brain.
Vestibular apparatus
Three semicircular canals 90° to each other which detect the angular acceleration.
The Otoliths in the utriculus and sacculus are affected by the gravity and linear acceleration
Young person hearing range is between 20hz to 20khz

Hearing Defects:-
Conductive deafness Damage to the eardrum or to the conductive bones (Ossicles)
Noise Induced hearing loss (NIHL) Loud noise more than 90db can damage the thin membrane in cochlea
Presbyacusis Age-related hearing loss, it is the cumulative effect of aging on hearing

Otic Barotrauma The discomfort and pain sensed in ears as the Eustachian tube is unable to equalize
(Aerotitis) pressure across the eardrum during altitude change
Sinus Barotrauma The discomfort and pain sensed in the sinus cavity above the nose in the forehead
(Aerosinusitis) where the pressure is unable to equalize through the nasal cavity during altitude change
Aerodontalgia The discomfort and pain sensed in teeth due to the gas pockets trapped inside the
(Barodontalgia) teeth fillings during altitude change
Gastro- Intestinal The discomfort and pain sensed in stomach as the air inside the small intestine expands
Barotrauma during altitude change and cannot escape
Illusions:-

The leans (Somatogyral Illusion):-

The inability of the semi-circular canals to register a shallow gradual turn after which when the turn is
decreased or levelled the pilot has a sensation of turning in opposite direction

The Graveyard spin:-

A prolonged spin might result in the semi-circular canal to be levelled and when a recovery is initiated the pilot
might think he is spinning in the opposite direction leading him to input the other way tightening his spin

Somatogravic Illusion:-
The illusion of pitching up or down as a result of the movement of the Otoliths due to linear acceleration or
deceleration.

Dehydration

It occurs when there is a critical loss of water from the body

Symptoms:-
Headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness
Cure:-
Drink water to keep the body hydrated

Heatstroke

It occurs when the body is not able to maintain temperature. Normal temperature of body is 36.1°C to 37.2°C

Symptoms:-
Dehydration, complete collapse
Cure:-
Drink water to keep the body hydrated
Flying & Health

Types of Acceleration:-

Linear Acceleration Occurs along a straight line

Radial (Centripetal) Acceleration Occurs external to the pilot during shallow turn
Angular Acceleration Involves rotating about an axis which passes through the pilot
Vertical Acceleration Occurs along the vertical axis to the pilot

Gx (Fore & aft axis in horizontal plane) Gy (Sideways in Lateral plane) Gz (up & down in vertical plane)

Body mass index (BMI) (The Quetelet Index) = Weight (Kg)

Height (Meters) ²

Anthropometry = The study of human measurements with static and dynamic range
I Illness Tends to cause degrade in performance, alertness, decision making power
M Medication Pilots are prohibited to act as a crew member under medication which affects their
abilities
S Stress Body response to mental and physical demand of a given task Acute stress (Short term)
and Chronic Stress (Long term)
A Alcohol No flying atleast 8 hrs. according to the rule, recommended 12 to 24 hrs.
depending upon the consumption and a min of 0.04% of alcohol level in blood
F Fatigue Tiredness felt due to physical and mental strain which affects the performance of the
pilot. Acute Fatigue (Short term) and Chronic Fatigue (Long term)
E Emotion/Eating Events tend to disturb the mental and physical harmony of the body which causes
degradation in pilots’ abilities.

Arousal is the measure of the person’s readiness to respond.

Arousal and Performance can be portrayed in the form of inverted U curve where deep sleep is at the left side
while extreme panic on the right

Personality/attitude types:-
Anti-authority Impulsive Invulnerable Macho Resigned
Don’t tell me We must do That can’t happen I’ll show them! Too bad, there’s nothing
what to do! something quick! to me more I can do

SHELL Conceptual model:-

Software Hardware Environment Livewire
Various programs operating inside Instruments, flight deck etc. Cockpit conditions Pilot (Human being)
hardware

Priority of tasks during flight:-

Aviate --- Navigate --- Investigate --- Communicate