Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Human Health and Diseases
Human Health and Diseases
2. DISEASES
3.1.2 INFLUENZA
• It is commonly known as “Flu” and is highly infectious.
• It causes fever and pain all over the body and affects the nose, throat and air passages as in
common cold.
• The disease is caused by various types of influenza viruses (e.g., Myxovirus influenzae).
• It starts with fever, headache, sore throat, cold with sneezing and pain all over the body with
restlessness.
• In neglected cases, complications like pneumonia, bronchitis and ear infections may develop
3.2.2 TYPHOID
• It is an infectious disease caused by Gram negative bacterium called Salmonella typhi which is a
nonspore forming bacillus.
• Typhoid germs are contracted from food or drink contaminated with excreta from carriers or
patients.
• The spread is facilitated by poor environmental hygiene.
• The infection is usually localised in the small intestine and colon.
• The incubation period is usually 1272 hours but may be up to 2 weeks.
• Symptoms are Nausea, vomiting and an early chill are common initially followed by colicky
abdominal pain and diarrhoea of watery, green, offensive stools.
• Blood mixed with stool and high fever may occur if there is involvement of colon. Symptoms may
subside within a week or two.
• There is clinical syndrome characterised by fever, headache, cough, splenomegaly and leucopenia.
• This is called enteric fever.
• The fever is continuous in type which rises in a stepwise manner.
• Diagnosis is done by Widal test which determines the agglutinins against the antigen.
• The test is usually positive in the 2nd week of the disease.
• A classical example of typhoid carrier recorded in history was Mary Mallon who was a cook.
3.2.3 PNEUMONIA
• This disease is caused by Diplococcus pneumoniae.
• Pneumonia is a serious disease of the lungs.
• Lymph and mucus collect in the alveoli and bronchioles of the lungs so that the lungs do not get
3.3.2 AMOEBIASIS
• Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of human which causes
amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery).
• Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess
mucous and blood clots.
• Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of infected
person to food and food products, thereby contaminating them. Drinking water and food contami
nated by the faecal matter are the main source of infection.
• The trophozoites of the parasite make their way deep by eating through mucosa of the intestinal
wall. Here they multiply by binary fission and spread rapidly outward to form flaskshaped ulcers
containing cellular debris, lymphocytes, blood corpuscles and bacteria. This causes the formation
of abscesses in the intestinal wall.
• Diagnosis, consists of microscopical detection of trophozoites or cysts in faecal smears.
• Treatment of amoebic dysentery is not very difficult but the permanent cure is sometimes hard to
achieve as relapses do occur.
• The most significant advance in the treatment of amoebiasis has been the use of Metronidazole
and Tinidiazole as an amoebicide.
3.4 Diseases Caused by Helminthis
3.4.2 FILARIASIS
• Inflammation in one of the lower limbs due to Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi),
• The filarial worms cause a slowly elephantiasis developing chronic inflammation of the organs in
which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs and the disease is
called elephantiasis or filariasis.
• The genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross deformities
• Pathogens are transmitted to a healthy person through the bite by the female Culex mosquito
vectors.
ZPRACTICE 1
Q1. Name two disease whose spread can be controlled by eradication of ades mosquito (2018)
Q2. Why is Gambusia introduced into drains and ponds? (2014)
Q3. Explain what causes chill in humans during malarial attack. Name the causative organism of
malignant malaria. (2012)
Q4. Name the causative organism, two symptoms and mode of transmission of amoebiasis(2012)
Q5. Name the causative organism, two symptoms and mode of transmission in ascariasis. (2015)
Q6. Define the term ‘health’. Mention any two ways of maintaining it. (2011)
Q7. List the specific symptoms of typhoid. Name its causative agent. (2016)
Q8. At what stage does Plasmodium gain entry into the human body? Write the different stages
of its life cycle in the human body. (2015)
Q9. Write the scientific name of the pathogen that causes amoebic dysentery. Enumerate four
symptoms of the disease. How is the disease transmitted?
Q10. A ten year old boy had chicken pox. He is not expected to have the same disease for the rest
of his life. Why?
Q11. Why is Mary Mallon famous?
4. IMMUNITY
5. INNATE IMMUNITY
Innate immunity is nonspecific type of defence, that is present at the time of birth. This is accom
plished by providing different types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents into our body.
6. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
LYMPHOCYTES
• Lymphocytes (a type of WBCS) are the main cells of immune system of the body. Lymphocytes,
meant for immune system, are of two types: Tcells and Bcells.
• Both types of cells develop from the stem cells found in the liver of the foetus and in the bone
Antigens
• The antigens are foreign ‘molecules’ that invade the body of an organism.
• The word ‘antigen’ is a shortened form of‘antibody generating’ because they stimulate the
production of antibodies in response to infection. Antigens are generally large molecules.
• The majority of them are made of proteins or polysaccharides found on the cell walls of bacteria
and other cells or on the coats of viruses. All antigens are not the parts of microorganism.
• Other structures like pollen grains, white of an egg, shell fish, certain fruits and vegetables,
chicken, feathers of birds, blood cells from other persons or animals, drugs, chemicals, etc. can
also induce the immune system to produce antibodies.
Antibodies
• Antibodies are an army of proteins produced by plasma cells
• Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two longer
called heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as H2L2. Different types of antibodies are
produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them.
• In the regions concerned with antigen binding, these regions are extremely variable, whereas in
other regions of the molecule, they are relatively constant. Thus each heavy and each light chain
possesses a variable and a constant region. The isotype of an Ig is determined by the constant
region.
• Lchains are linked from Hchains by disulphide (SS) links. Intrachain SS links divide H and L
chains into domains which are separately folded.
• Antibodies are synthesized by B lymphocytes and exist in 2 forms either membrane bound or
secreted.
• Antigens have determinants called epitopes. Epitopes are molecular shapes recognized by anti
bodies, which recognise the epitope rather than whole antigen.
• Antigens may be proteins, lipids or carbohydrates, and an antigen may consist of many different
epitopes, and/or may have many repeated epitopes.
7. ALLERGY
• The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment
is called allergy & substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type. Common examples of allergens are mites in
dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in
breathing.
• Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. For
determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of
possible allergens, and the reactions studied.
• The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy. Somehow, modern day life style has resulted in lowering of immunity and more sensitivity
to allergens more and more children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma due
to sensitivity to the environment. This could be because of the protected environment provided
early in life.
9. LYMPHOID ORGANS
Lymphoid organs are those organs where the maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes take
place. There are two types of lymphoid organs:
SPLEEN
• The spleen is an immunologic filter of the blood. It contains B cells, T cells, macrophages, natural
killer cells and red blood cells.
• In addition to capturing foreign materials (antigens) from the blood that passes through the
spleen, migratory macrophages bring antigens to the spleen via the bloodstream.
LYMPH NODES
• The lymph nodes function as an immunologic filter for the body fluid known as lymph. Lymph
nodes are found throughout the body.
• It is composed mostly of T cells, B cells, and macrophages, the nodes drain fluid from most of our
tissues.
• Antigens are filtered out of the lymph in the lymph node before returning the lymph to the
circulation.
• In a similar fashion as the spleen, the macrophages that capture antigens present these foreign
materials to T and B cells, consequently initiating an immune response
ZPRACTICE 2
• The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. This means deficiency of
immune system, acquired during the lifetime of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital
disease. ‘Syndrome’ means a group of symptoms.
• AIDS was first reported in 1981 and in the last twentyfive years or so, it has spread all over the
world killing more than 25 million persons.
• AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called
retrovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
• Transmission of HIVinfection generally occurs by
(a) sexual contact with infected person.
(b) by transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
(c) by sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers
(d) from infected mother to her child through placenta.
• It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads
only through body fluids. It is, hence, imperative, for the physical and psychological wellbeing,
that the HIV/AIDS infected persons are not isolated from family and society.
• There is always a timelag between the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms. This period
may vary from a few months to many years (usually 510 years).
• After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome
of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This
viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce virus
particles.
• The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV factory. Simultaneously,
HIV enters into helper Tlymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce progeny viruses.\
10.2 Treatment
• To date, four drugs with similar action are used to inhibit HIV replication and slow the progression
of AIDS.
• All are nucleoside analogs, substances that are similar to the naturally occurring nucleosides in
RNA and DNA. They block conversion of retroviral RNA into DNA.
• The first and still most commonly used drug to treat AIDS is AZT (azidothymidine) or Retrovir.
Among patients taking AZT, there is a slowing in the progression of symptoms.
11. CANCER
1. Carcinomas : Cancers of this type arise from epithelial tissues, such as skin or the epithelial lining
of internal organs or glands (about 85 per cent of all tumours).
2. Melanomas : These are cancerous growths of melanocytes (a type of skin cells).
3. Sarcomas : These are derived from tissues of mesodermal origin, e.g., bone, fat and cartilage.
They are rare in humans (about 1 per cent of all tumours).
4. Leukemias and lymphomas : These are tumours of the hematopoietic cells.
(i) Agents that can cause alterations in the genetic material (DNA), resulting in oncogenic
transformation that can lead to cancer, e.g., various types of radiations, and chemicals.
(ii) Agents that promote the proliferation of cells, which have already undergone genetic alterations
responsible for oncogenic transformation. These agents are called tumour promoters, e.g., some
growth factors and hormones.
(iii) Cancer causing DNA and RNA viruses (tumour viruses) have been shown to be associated with
oncogenic transformation.
• Ionising radiations like Xrays and gamma rays and nonionizing radiations like UV cause DNA
damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
• The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung
cancer.
• Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes. Furthermore,
several genes called cellular oncogenes (conc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal
cells which, when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic transformation of
the cells.
11.5.1 SURGERY
• Surgical manipulation/excision of tumour mass is one of the easiest approaches in the treatment
of cancer. However, surgery does not ensure that all the cancer cells have been removed.
• Moreover, not all tumours are accessible for surgical manipulation. Surgical reduction of tumour
load is also considered advantageous prior to initiation of other therapeutic approaches.
11.5.3 CHEMOTHERAPY
Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used in this strategy to kill tumour cells. Some such drugs can
specifically kill tumour cells. However, majority of them have a number of side effects.
ZPRACTICE 3
Q1. Name any two techniques that are useful in detecting cancers of internal organs. (2020)
Q2. Why sharing of injection needles between two individuals is not recommended? (2019)
Q3. Retroviruses have no DNA. However, the DNA of the infected host cell does possess viral
DNA. How is it possible? (2015)
Q4. Name the two types of cells in which the HIV multiplies aer gaining entry into human body.
Q5. Name the cells HIV attacks first when it gains entry into a human body. How does this virus
replicate further to cause immuno deficiency in the body?
Q6. A person in your colony has recently been diagnosed with AIDS. People/residents in the
colony want him to leave the colony for the fear of spread of AIDS.
(a) Write your view on the situation, giving reasons.
(b) List the possible preventive measures that you would suggest to the residents of your
locality in a meeting organised by you so that they understand the situation.
(c) Write the symptoms and the causative agent of AIDS. (2018)
Q7. Indiscriminate diagnostic practices using Xrays etc., should be avoided. Give one reason.
Q8. Differentiate between benign and malignant tumors. (2015)
Q9. Why are the tumors cells dangerous? (2010)
Q10. Why do normal cells not show cancerous growth? (2012)
Q11. How do benign tumors turn malignant? How does the latter harm the human body? (2013)
12. DRUGS
The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids. Majority of
these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
• A person who is habitual user if abstains from a drug (abstinence), his body reacts i.e., ceases to
function normally. It is called ‘physical dependence’.
• The symptoms appearing in the body are withdrawal symptoms and range from mild tremors to
convulsions, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, muscle cramps, all depending upon the type of drug
abused.
• In many cases the withdrawal symptoms may be life threatening and needs medical supervision
12.1 SedativeHypnotics
• Sedatives are the drugs that reduce excitement, assuage pain and lower the physiological or
functional activity leading to drowsiness or sleep.
• Hypnotics are also the drugs that induce sleep.
• Sedativehypnotics are more or less general CNS depressants and they include Barbiturates and
Benzodiazepines.
• ‘Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines’ are substituted derivatives of barbituric acid (a combination of
melonic acid and urea; called malonyl urea) which are general depressants of all excitable cells
but CNS is most sensitive to them.
• They reduce anxiety and induce sleep. Repeated use of this causes to addiction.
• It results in permanent damage to brain, headache, coma and muscular twitching.
(i) Morphine : It is the main opium alkaloid, which is a strong analgesic and also has sedative and
calming effect. Morphine depresses respiratory centre and contributes to the fall in SP.
(ii) Codeine : A derivative of opium (methylmorphine) which occurs naturally in opium and is partly
converted in the body to morphine. It is mild analgesic; which do not cause addiction. It is an ingre
dient of many medicines and cough syrups. Its prominent side effect is constipation.
(iii) Heroin [Diamorphine or Diacetylmorphine] : Heroin also called as smack and is semisynthetic
opiate which is addictive most dangerous of all the opiates. It is about 3 times more potent than
morphine.
12.3 Stimulants
• Drugs which stimulate the nervous system; make a person more wakeful, alert and active; and
cause excitement.
• However, addiction is psychological and withdrawal of stimulant is followed by depression,
anxiety and restlessness. e.g., caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines etc.
(I) CAFFEINE
It is bitter alkaloid; obtained from the leaves of tea plant, (Thea sinensis)seeds of coffee plant,
(Coftea arabica)seeds of cocoa plant, (Theobroma cacao)It is mild stimulant and taken as bever
agestea, coffee, cocoa and cola drinks.
(II) COCAINE
• It is a natural alkaloid obtained from leaves of coca plantErythroxylum coca (Erythroxylaceae).
• It is bitter, white, crystalline powder with vasoconstrictor properties and hence, it is a good local
anaesthetic.
12.4 Hallucingens
• Drugs which changes ones mood and behaviourthought percetion in a manner like that of seen in
psychosis.
• The hallucinating agents generally produce a dream like state with disorientation and loss of
contact with reality
(i) LSD : It is the most powerful psychdelic drugs. it causes dreams emotional outburst and severe
damage to CNS
(ii) Product of hemp plant cannabinoids : it contain tetrahydrocannabinol and bhang and ganja
along with marijuana belong to this category
(i) Alcoholic Fatty Liver : The liver becomes enlarged, yellow, greasy and firm. Hepatocytes (cells of
liver) are distended by large fat globules which push the hepatocyte nucleus against the cell
membrane. There is increase in the fat synthesis in the liver
(ii) Alcoholic Hepatitis : It is characterised by degeneration of hepatocytes. The damaged
(degenerated) hepatocytes are surrounded by polymorphonuclear leucocytes.
ZPRACTICE 4
Q1. How does smoking tobacco in humans lead to oxygen deficiency in their body?
Q2. What is ‘withdrawal syndrome’? List any two symptoms it is characterised by.
Q3. Write the scientific name of the source plant of the drugs, marijuana and hashish and
mention their effect on the human body.
Q4. Name the plant source of the drug popularly called ‘smack’. How does it affect the body of
the abuser?
Q5. Name the plant source of ganja. How does it affect the body of the abuser? (2012)
Q6. Why is using tobacco in any form injurious to the health? Explain.
Q7. Why do sports persons often fall a victim to cocaine addiction? (2013)
Q8. Do you support ‘Dope’ test being conducted on sportspersons participating in a prestigious
athletic meet? Give three reasons in support of your answer. (2014)
Q9. Prevention is better than cure” is an apt slogan to safeguard adolescents from drug abuse.
List any 6 steps that could be taken in this regard. (2013)
Q10 “Bhang, Charas and Ganja” are resinous materials of Cannabis indica and are Psychotrophic in
toxicating drugs. These drugs are used for what effect?
Q11. ‘Bhang’ and ‘Hemp’ are obtained from which plant?
Q12. “Heroin” is obtained from the plant of which family?
A number of milk products viz cheese, yoghurt, curd, milk powder, cream, butter etc. are produced
from milk. Milk is prevented from spoilage by Pasteurisation. It is a high temperature treatment
followed by rapid cooling. Some important milk product are as follows:
(a)Bacteria: (a) Rodshaped, magnified 1500X; (b) Spherical shaped, magnified 1500X;
1.2 Curd
• Indian curd is prepared by inoculating skimmed and cream milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus at a
temperature of about 40°C or less.
• Curd is more nutritious than milk as it contains a number of organic acids and vitamins including
B12. LAB present in curd also checks growth of disease causing microbes in stomach and other parts
of digestive tract. This action of LAB is called as “Probiotic”.
• Curd is eaten as such, salted or sweetened. Curd is churned to prepare lassi/ butter milk & butter.
1.3 Yoghurt
• It is fermented milk. It is made from milk, skimmed milk or flavoured milk. The fermentation is
carried out by Streptococcus salivarius sub spp thermophilus and Lactobacillus dulbruckii sub spp
bulgaricus together at a level of 2% by volume.
1.4 Cheese
• It is partially degraded concentrate of milk fat and casein, manufactured by activity of micro
organisms. Cheese consists of milk curd that has separated from whey or liquid part.
• There are several hundred varieties of cheese which are prepared by selected types of micro
organisms. The quality and characteristic taste of cheese is determined by the biochemical activi
ties of specific microorganisms.
• Cheese is of three types soft (5080% water), semihard(about 45% water) and hard (less than 40%
water). The method of preparing cheese with the help of microbes was known in Asia and Europe
long before Christ.
• Large holed Swiss cheese is ripened with the help of CO2 producing bacterium called Propionibac
terium sharmanii. Roquefort cheese or blue cheese uses Penicillium roquefortii, while Camembert
cheese employs Penicillium camembertii for ripening.
1.5 Bread
• Bread is prepared with the help of Baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• The dough which is used for making breads is allowed to ferment for 10 12 hours with yeast. The
sugar present in dough is rapidly fermented by the yeast with the production of CO2 and alcohol.
This process is known as ‘leavening of breads’.
• Leavening is caused by secretion of three types of enzymes by yeast. They are amylase, maltase
and zymase.The leavened dough is baked. Both carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol evaporates,
making the bread porous and soft.
Microbes are used to synthesise a number of industrial products for human use. Industrial scale
production requires very large vessels called fermentors or bioreactors to grow microbes. Alcoholic
beverages and antibiotics are two common industrial products obtained by microbes.
2.3.1 PECTINASES
• They are obtained from fungi grown on pectin containing medium. Examples are Aspergillus niget,
Byssochlamys fulvo.
• Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus and Penicillium species are used for pectinase production.
• Pectinases are used to clarify fruit juices and grapes, must for the maceration of vegetables and
fruits besides extraction of oil.
2.3.2 PROTEASES
• The protein hydrolyzing enzymes are known as ‘proteases’.
• Proteases are obtained from Mortierella renispora, Aspergillus and Bacillus species, used in
detergents to remove proteinaceous spots. Bottled juices are also clarified using proteases and
pectinase
2.3.4 AMYLASES
These are starch degrading enzymes. Amylases are used for the removal of starch from woven cloth.
• Amylases, glucoamylases and glucoisomerases converts corn starch in to fructose rich corn syrup.
• Rennet is an extract from the stomach of calf that contains enzyme rennin. The enzyme is used in
cheese making.
• The enzyme called Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA) is used to dissolve blood clots especially in
heart attack victims.
1. Acetic Acid
It is prepared from fermented alcohols with the help of acetic acid bacteria, Acetobacter aceti.
Alcoholic fermentation by yeast is anaerobic process, but the conversion of alcohol to acetic acid is
aerobic one. It is used for the prepration of vinegar. It is also used in pharmaceuticals, colouring
agents, insecticides and plastic industries.
2. Citric Acid
It is obtained through the fermentation carried out by fungi Aspergillus niger and Mucor species on
sugary syrups. Yeast Candida lipolytica can also be employed, provided its nutrient medium is made
deficient of iron and manganese. Citric acid is employed in dyeing, engraving, medicines, inks,
flavouring and preservation of food and candies.
3. Gluconic Acid
The acid is prepared by the activity of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chtysogenum. Gluconate is
used widely as a source of calcium for infants, cows and lactating mothers.
4. Lactic Acid
It was first acid to be produced by industrial fermentation. It is commercially produced from
fermentable carbohydrates such as corn and potato starch, molasses and whey by using the bacteria
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and L. delbrueckii.
ZPRACTICE 1
Sewage is the used and waste water consisting of human excreta, industrial and agricultural wastes
that enter the sewage.
• Sewage is collective noun used to represent municipal waste (both liquid and solid waste)
generated in cities and towns which is carried off in sewerage.
• Biogas is a mixture of gases produced from degradable organic matter by activity of various
anaerobic bacteria.
• The microorganisms involved in biogas production are mainly facultative as well as strict
anaerobic bacteria.
• The most important among them are methanogenic archaebacteria, represented by
Methanobacterium.
• The other bacteria involved are Bacillus, Cellulomonas, Clostridium and Ruminococcus.
• These bacteria are commonly found in anaerobic sludge formed during sewage treatment.
• Methanogens do occur in rumen of cattle where they act upon cellulose.
Composition of Biogas
The major component of biogas is methane (about 50 —70%) which is highly inflammable.
The other gases are carbon dioxide (30 — 40%) and 10% mixture of other gases, viz., H2, H2S etc.
Calorific value of biogas is 4429 kcal/ m3 at 50% methane content.
2. Acidogenesis :
• Monomers are changed into organic acids with the help of fermentating microbes. The most
common organic acids produced during acidogenesis is acetic acid.
• Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced as by products.
3. Methanogenesis :
• Methanogens or methane producing bacteria become active.
• They act on various components of microbial digestion and fermentation. Some important basic
reactions are :
Bioinsecticides
These are non persistent, non toxic and biodegradable. They include
6. MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
Organic farming is the raising of unpolluted crops through the use of biofertilisers that provide
optimum nutrients to crop plants.
• Organisms which can be used to improve the nutrient quality of soil through biological activity
are known as biofertilisers.
• The main sources are bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi. In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an
important biofertiliser.
(a) Symbiotic N2 fixing bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarum fixes atmospheric N2 in root
nodules of legumes.
(b) Frankia (Actinomycetes) in root nodules of nonlegume plants (e.g., Casuarina and Alnus).
(c) Symbiotic cyanobacteria (blue green algae) like Anabaena azollae fixes atmospheric N2 in leaves
of Azolla (water fern). Azolla pinnata (a pteridophyte) is used as an excellent fertilizer in rice
field.
(d) Anabaena cycadae lives in coralloid root of Cycas (a gymnosperm).
(e) Aulosira is most active, non symbiotic nitrogen fixer in rice field in India.
(f) Free living nitrogen fixer like Azospirillum and Azotobacter enrich the nitrogen content in soil.
(g) Mycorrhiza : It is symbiotic association between the fungus and roots of higher plants (seed
plants). Many members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza. The fungal partner absorbs
phosphorus from soil and passes it to the plant. Plants having mycorrhizal associations show
resistance to rootborne pathogens, tolerance to salinity and drought, and an overall increase in
growth and development. It is of two types :
(i) Ectomycorrhizae (Ectotrophic or Ectophytic) : Hyphae of fungus only form mantle on the outer
surface of the root, increasing absorption of water and minerals e.g., Pinus, oak etc. Mycorrhiza
absorb and store nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium.
(ii) Endomycorrhizae (Endotrophic or Endophytic) : Fungal hyphae penetrate into cortex and cells of
root e.g., orchids, coffee and woody plants. These are also called as vesicular arbuscular mycor
rhizae or VAM, because cortical cells swell and form vesicles or arbuscles. It has significant role in
phosphorus nutrition in plants.
7. Sustainable Agriculture
Is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and
For Example:
• Satisfy human food and fibre needs.
• Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural
economy depends.
• Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and onfarm resources and integrate,
where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls.
• Sustain the economic viability of farm operations.
• Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
8. ORGANIC FARMING
It is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost,
and biological pest control. Organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides (which include herbi
cides, insecticides and fungicides)
Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enchances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of offfarm
inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enchance ecologial harmony.
Z PRACTICE 2