Physical Oceanography Lecture #1

Equation of motion

Yuji Kashino
At the equator
 Newton’s second law:
du
F  mα  m
dt
Where F is force, m is mass, α is acceleration vector,
u is velocity vector, and t is time.

Lagrange description of fluid

The observer observes the fluid moving with fluid.

Euler description of fluid

The observer observes the fluid at the fixed point.
Consider a function, f , characterizing a fluid (e.g., velocity).
f  f ( x, y , z , t )
df
For Lagrange description, its time derivative is .
dt
For Euler description, function f should be differentiated for x, y, z and t.
Its small change is written as

f  f ( x  x, y  y, z  z, t  t)  f ( x, y, z, t)

f f f f
 ut  vt  wt  t  O((t ) 2 )
x y z t
because x  ut , y  vt and z  wt.

Divide by Δt and take its zero-limit as follows:

df f f f f f
 lim  u v w
dt t 0 t t x y z
For the case of fluid of unit volume,

du  u u u u 
F     u v  w 
dt  t x y z 
Lagrange derivative Euler derivative

Where  is density, and u  u , v, w.

There are following forces (F):

1. Pressure
2. Viscosity (friction)
3. Gravity (  g )
4. Coriolis Force
5. Others
Pressure
Consider one-dimensional case:

Pressure difference is
P(x-Δx/2) P(x+Δx/2)

 x x 
P    P ( x  )  P ( x  )  x
 2 2 
du
 x
dt
Because x x 
P( x  )  P( x )  P ( x )  O ( x 2 )
2 2 x

du P du 1 P
Then, x   x ∴ 
dt x dt  x

For the three dimensional case,

du 1  P P P 
 i j k 
dt   x y z 

1 → Pressure gradient
 P

  
where,    , ,  ・・・・ nabla operator
 x y z 
Viscosity (friction, resistance of fluid)
Molecular viscosity is written as  u .
2

where ν is kinematic molecular viscosity,

 2
 2
 2
and  2  2  2  2 . (Laplacian)
x y z

Because spatial scale of

motion in the ocean is quite
larger than molecular scale,
viscosity in the ocean is not
molecular viscosity.

Turbulence (eddies) plays a

role in viscosity (eddy
viscosity) in the ocean. (Open Univ., 1989)
Because mechanism of eddy viscosity is not fully understood,
and horizontal and vertical scales of ocean turbulence differ,
eddy viscosity is often written as same as the molecular
viscosity:
 2
u
Ahh u  Av 2
2

z

where Ah A(v ) are horizontal (vertical) eddy viscosity

coefficient, and 2 2
 
h 2  
x 2 y 2

Typical values of Ah and Av are as follows:

Ah  10～105 m 2 s 1 、 Av  10 5 ～10 1 m 2 s 1

(Molecular viscosity coefficient of water:   10 6 m 2 s 1 )

 Coriolis effect
Consider the pitcher on the disc at the North Pole.

The observer will find that the ball curves to the right
direction because he rotates anti-clockwise.
 Coriolis Force
We must consider motion of fluid on the rotating coordinate.

• （Gustave Gaspard Coriolis ）

• 21 May 1792 – 19 September 1843

Coriolis force Fc is written as

Fc  2mΩ  u
(from wikipedia)

where m is mass, Ω is angular velocity vector of

the Earth, and u is velocity vector.
 
On the rotating sphere
N.P.
 0  u 
   
Ω   cos   and u   v  .
 sin    w
   

Then  v sin   w cos  

Equator
 
Fc  2Ω  u  2  u sin  
 u cos   S.P.
 
(Nagata, 1981)

Where  is earth angular velocity

2 Because u, v>>w in the
 ocean, this term is often
Period of the Earth rotation (  86164 sec) omitted.
 Ω
Coriolis force is u
perpendicular to
velocity vector and
directs to its right (left)
in the northern Fc
(southern) hemisphere.
(In the case of northern hemisphere)

Coriolis parameter, f  2 sin 

2
In Bali, f  2   sin  8.37  2.1  105 (/s)
86164
2
In Yamaguchi, f  2   sin 34.18   8.2  105 (/s)
86164
Thus, motion of equation for fluid (Navier – Stokes equation)
is given as follows:

du u u u u
 u v w
dt t x y z

Lagrange Time
derivative derivative Advection

1  2
u
 2Ω  u  g  P  Ahh u  Av 2
2

 z
Coriolis Pressure Horizontal Vertical eddy
Gravity
Force gradient eddy viscosity viscosity
For vertical (z) direction:

dw 1 P  2
w
 2 cos u  g   Ahh w  Av 2
2

dt  z z

Because pressure gradient and gravity terms are

usually much larger than other terms,

1 P
g 0
 z

・・・・・・・・ hydrostatic approximation

Consider mass balance in the small
volume:
(    )(u  u )yz
uyz
For x-direction,
z
uyz  (    )(u  u )yz y
x
 ( u  u )yz  O ((yz ) 2 )

Consider as for y and z-directions:


xyz  ( u  u )yz
t
 ( v  v )xz  ( w  w )xy
Divide xyz and take zero-limit for x・y・z

 u  v  w 
 (   u )  (  v )  ( w )
t x x y y z z

 div( u)


∴  div( u)  0 ・・・ Equation of continuity
t

When ρ=constant (incompressible fluid),

u v w
div u    0
x y z
Geostrophic balance:
Consider the case that pressure gradient and Coriolis
force are balanced in x and y direction.

That is, 1 P 1 P
0  fv  and 0   fu 
 x  y

where f  2 sin 

Pressure
Low pressure
gradient
Isobar
u

High pressure
Coriolis force (Northern hemisphere)
Inertial motion
Case of particle motion only by Coriolis force:

du
  2Ω  u
dt

Solution of above equation indicates

circular motion with following period
(T) and radius (r):

2 v0
T r
f f

where v 0 is initial velocity of the particle.

(Gustafson and Kullenberg, 1936)

Ekman drift flow
F.Nansen found that direction of
ice motion did not agree with
wind direction during 1893-1896
explorations by the Fram in the
arctic ocean.

Wind

20-40°
Ice

V.W.Ekman discussed above

phenomenon and established
Drifting course of Fram
the theory of flow with friction.
Ekman assumed that vertical Wind Surface flow
friction balances Coriolis force in
the ocean with infinite depth:

i.e,  2u Ekman
ｘ： fv  Av 2  0 layer
z thickness

 2v
y：  fu  Av 2  0
z
Solution of above equations Total transport

indicates spiral structure (Ekman

spiral) of near surface current. (Sekine, 2003)

Surface current flows 45 degrees to the right of wind direction

and the angle of deviation increasing with depth in the
northern hemisphere.
 Av  2 u Av  2 v
Because v   and u  ,
f z 2
f z 2

vertical integrated transport is

0 0 Av  2 v  Av v   Av v  y
U   udz   dz      
  f z
 f z  0  f z   f
 2

0 0 Av  u
2
 Av u   Av u  x
V   vdz    dz       
   f z 2
 f z  0  f z   f
 u v 
where τ  (x,y )  Av ,  ・・・・ wind stress
 z z  z 0
 U ,V   (x,y )
Total transport turns to the right (left) of 90 degree to the wind
direction in the northern (southern) hemisphere (Ekman
transport).
For incompressible fluid,
w  u v 
   
z  x y 

Integrate from surface to infinite depth,

0 w 0  u v 
 z dz     x y dz
 

Left side  w(0)  w( )   w( )

 U V  1  y x 
Right side         
 x y  f  x y 
 1 y x
∴ w()  curlτ Where curlτ  
f x y
Ｙ

This result indicates that τx

wind with cyclonic rotation τy
induces upward velocity in
X
the ocean (upwelling).

・・・ Ekman pumping

Coastal upwelling (southern hemisphere)

Southerly
Offshore wind
Land
Ekman
transport

Warm
water

Cold Thermocline
water upwelling