Survey F4-7

I. INTRODUCTION
In order to demarcate the boundaries of a plot by cadastral surveyor, the
coordinates and the orientation of the boundary lines should be determined. This
orientation of the boundaries line with respect to a particular direction or north is
known as bearing. The track or pattern followed by the boundaries of the plot is
known as traverse.
II. Coordinates
These are references used in the positioning and location of station points
within a traverse.
II. 1) Type of traverse coordinates used in survey
There exist two type of traverse coordinates; there are: the plane
rectangular coordinate and the polar inverted coordinate.
II. 1 a) plane rectangular coordinates
Normally, plane rectangular coordinate system is a system having x-axis
in the east-west direction and y-axis in the north-south direction. The y-
axis is taken as the reference axis and, it can be the true north, magnetic
north, National Grid north, or a chosen arbitrary direction. The distances
within y and x coordinates could be defined as latitude (L) and departure
(D) respectively. Its sign follows the quadrant at which it falls. The
coordinate at each station point along y and x axis, is known as the
northing and easting respectively.

y N
∆XAB = DAB = XB - XA
∆XBA B(x,y) ∆YAB = LAB = YB - YA

∆YBA
E
A(x,y) x

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Survey F4-7

II. 1 b) polar inverted coordinates

Normally, in polar invert coordinate the angles are considered as acute
angles taken with respect to the y-axis following north or south direction.
The y-axis is taken as the reference axis as it is for quadrant bearings.

y N
∆XBA ∆XAB = DAB = AB. sinμ
B (r, μ)
∆YAB = LAB = AB. cosμ
μ ∆YBA ∆𝑿𝑨𝑩
μ = tan-1( )
∆𝒀𝑨𝑩

A
x
Conclusion: Generally, the origin of the coordinate system is placed such
that the entire traverse falls in the first quadrant of the coordinate
system and all the traverse stations have positive coordinates

III. Meridian
This is an imaginary line facing the north or arbitrary north where all bearings
take their references.
III. 1) Type of meridians or North
There exist four type of meridians namely: (a) astronomical or true north, (b)
magnetic north, (c) Grid north, or (d) a chosen arbitrary direction

a) Astronomical or true north

This is a plane passing through a point on the earth and containing the
earth’s axis of rotation. Astronomical meridians are determined by
observing the position of the sun or a star at a particular time. The true
meridian remains unchanged.

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Survey F4-7

b) magnetic north or meridian

The magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the
earth. The earth acts very much like a magnetic bar with a north magnetic
pole located considerably south of the north pole defined by the earth’s
rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather changes
its position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle defines the
magnetic meridian at a particular point of time as magnetic north changes.

c) grid meridian or north

This type of meridian is mostly used in plane surveys, a central line is fixed to
coincides with a true meridian and all other lines or meridians are made to be
parallel to this central line. The methods of plane surveying, assume that all
measurements are projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians are
parallel straight lines. These are known as grid meridians.

d) Assumed Meridians
An assumed meridian is an arbitrary direction assigned to some line in
the survey from which all other lines are referenced. This could be a
line between two properties, the centreline of a roadway, or builder
line.

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Survey F4-7

IV. Bearings
Bearing is defined as the direction of any line with respect to a given meridian
(north – south direction or purely north direction)
IV. 1) Types of bearings
There exist two main type of bearings namely:
a) Quadrant bearing or reduced bearing
b) Azimuth or grid bearing or whole circle bearing
IV. 1 a) Quadrant bearing
This is the acute angle between a line and the nearest north south
meridian. It is characterised with an angle varying between 0 to 90° or
0 to 100grades and it is represented in all four quadrants namely:
North east (NE), south east (SE), south west (SW) and North west
(NW) quadrant as first, second, third and fourth quadrant respectively.

IV. 1 b) Azimuth bearing or grid bearing or whole circle bearing

This is the angle measured between north meridian and a line
rotating while rotating in a clockwise direction. It is characterised with
an angle varying between 0 to 360° or 0 to 400grades. A Line drawn,
could be defined with two type of whole circle bearings namely:
forward bearing and backward bearing.
Backward bearing (θ) = forward bearing + 180°(θ’); but if the backward
bearing is greater than 360° then subtract 360° from the backward
bearing or subtract 180° from forward bearing.

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Survey F4-7

IV. 1 c) conversion of quadrant bearing to whole circle bearing

N = +y
NW= 360° - μ° NE =μ°
-μ° μ°

W = +x E = +x

SW = 180° + μ° μ° -μ°
SE = 180° - μ°
S = -y
(Coordinate) Whole circle
Whole circle
Quadrant Latitude Quadrant bearing in
Quadrant bearing in
number & bearing (grade)
(degree)
Departure
∆x ∆𝑥
1st NE tan(∆𝑦) = μ° μ° μ
∆y
∆x ∆𝑥
2nd SE tan(−∆𝑦) = - μ° 180° - μ° 200 - μ
-∆y
-∆x −∆𝑥
3rd SW tan(
−∆𝑦
) = μ° 180° + μ° 200 + μ
-∆y
-∆x −∆𝑥
4th NW tan(
∆𝑦
) = - μ° 360° - μ° 400 - μ
∆y
V. Transmission of bearings
This a method used for the determination and transmission of consecutive
bearing along a traverse. it purpose is to transmit bearings from a known
bench bearing to unknown consecutive points or station points.
V. 1) Angles used for bearing transmission
The angles used for bearing transmission are internal or interior angle, external
or exterior angle and deflection angle.
a) Interior angle: they are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two
adjacent lines on the inside of a closed polygon.

 Using clockwise movement along the traverse (by author)

Current Forward bearing = pervious forward bearing + 180° - interior angle
Current Forward bearing = backward bearing - interior angle

 Using anti - clockwise movement along the traverse (by author)

Current Forward bearing = pervious forward bearing - 180° + interior angle
NB: if the current forward bearing has a negative value then add 360o or 400 grade
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Survey F4-7

b) Exterior angle: they are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between

two adjacent lines on the outside of a closed polygon figure

 Using clockwise movement along the traverse (by author)

Current Forward bearing = pervious forward bearing + exterior angle - 180°

 Using anti - clockwise movement along the traverse (by author)

Current Forward bearing = pervious forward bearing - exterior angle + 180°
c) Deflection angle: they classified under right or left and are measured from an
extension of the preceding course and the ahead line. It must be noted
when the deflection is right (R) or left (L).

Current forward bearing = previous forward bearing + right deflection

Current forward bearing = previous forward bearing - left deflection
± Deflection angle = current forward bearing – previous forward bearings
VI. APPLICATION EXERCISE
A. Calculate the azimuth bearing for the following diagram

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Survey F4-7

Quadrant bearings Whole circle

Serial number Quadrant
(degree) bearing in (degree)
1 N54°E 54° 54°
2 S47°E 47° 180° - 47° = 133°
3 S31°W 31° 180° + 31° = 211°
4 N26°W 26° 360° - 26°= 334°

B. Calculate the backward bearing for the following case

Backward bearing (BA) = forward bearing (AB) + 180°

Backward bearing (BA) = 60° + 180° = 240°
NB:

 If an initial bearing is added to 180o to obtain the backward bearing, but that
backward bearing is greater than 360o; subtracted 360o from that backward bearing
to obtain the real backward bearing or subtract 180o from the initial bearing to
obtain the real backward bearings.
Example: Backward bearing (BA) = 200° + 180° = 380°
Real backward bearing = 380° - 360° = 20°
or Real backward bearing = 200° - 180° = 20°

 if you are having a negative bearing add 360o to obtain the real bearing
Example: Backward bearing (BA) = - 20°
Real backward bearing = -20° + 360° = 340°
VII. Traverse
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines of known length relating or
linking one another by known angles between the lines. The points limiting the
traverse lines are called the traverse stations
VII. 1) Types of traverse
There are two main types of traverse, namely the open traverse and the closed
traverse.
VII. 1 a) An open traverse: this is a traverse that start on a bench mark or known
point and terminates at a point of unknown position.

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Survey F4-7

VII. 1 b) A close traverse: this traverse is divided into two traverses namely
close loop traverse and connecting traverse
i. Close loop traverse: this a traverse that start on a bench mark or known point
and terminates on the same bench mark.
ii. Connecting traverse: this is a traverse that start on a bench mark or known
point and end on another known.

VIII. Angular misclosure of a traverse

a) Angular misclosure for a close loop traverse
 For interior angle (α); a misclosure tolerance of a polygon with n sides could
be given as MT = 1.5°√𝑛 and when balance ∑ 𝛼𝑖 = 180°( n – 2), if not the exist
an error Mci = 180°( n – 2) - ∑ 𝜶𝒊 . The correction of this type of misclosure is
𝑴𝒄𝒊
given as ci = – ( 𝒏
).
For adjusted angle or compensated angle the formula is given as 𝜶𝒄𝒊 = 𝜶𝒊 + c
 For exterior angle (β); the misclosure tolerance for a polygon is given as Mce =
∑ 𝜷𝒊 - 180°( n + 2) = 0
𝑴𝒄𝒆
For adjustment or compensation of angle the formula is given as ce = – ( 𝒏
).

o The misclosure of a close loop traverse is given as 𝑨𝒊 - 𝑨𝒇 + ∑𝜶𝑹𝒊 - ∑𝜶𝑳𝒊 = 360°

o
b) Angular misclosure for deflection angles in open and connecting traverse

o The misclosure of a connecting traverse is given as 𝑨𝒊 - 𝑨𝒇 + ∑𝜶𝑹𝒊 - 180°( n – 1) = 0°

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Survey F4-7

IX. Linear misclosure of a traverse

In a closed traverse the following conditions must be satisfied:
𝑫𝒙𝒊 - 𝑫𝒙𝒇 + ∑D = 0, if this equation is different from zero implies there exist an error ED
along the departure ( x axis or easting)
Where : 𝑫𝒙𝒊 = initial departure coordinate, 𝑫𝒙𝒇 = final departure coordinate

𝑳𝒚𝒊 - 𝑳𝒚𝒇 + ∑L = 0, if the equation does not satisfy this condition, this implies there is an
error EL along the latitude ( y axis or northing)
Where : 𝑳𝒚𝒊 = initial latitude coordinate, 𝑳𝒚𝒇 = final latitude coordinate

 Length of misclosure or error : e = √𝑬𝟐𝑫 + 𝑬𝟐𝑳

The quadrant bearing taken by the misclosure is given as

𝑬
μ = tan-1 ( 𝑬𝑫 )
𝑳

 Tolerance misclosure
𝒆
𝒎𝑻 ≥ ±
𝑳
Nature of works Misclosure tolerance mT
Engineering works 1/5000
Large project 1/10000
Control and long term monitoring 1/20000
 correction of misclosure
the correct for the latitude and departure with respect to y and x coordinate is given
by Bowditch’s method
𝑬
CD = - ( ∑𝑫𝑳 )
𝑬
CL = - ( ∑ 𝑳𝑳 )
Where ∑ 𝑳 = total length of traverse, EL = error at latitude, ED = error at departure
 compensation of latitude and departure using Bowditch’s method
Dci = Di + Ti x CD
Lci = Li + Ti x CL
 Transit rule: when the angular measurements are more precise than the linear
measurements. By transit rule, we have
𝑬
CD = - ( ‖𝑫𝑫‖ )
𝑻
𝑬𝑳
CL = - ( ‖𝑳𝑻 ‖
)
 compensation of latitude and departure using Transit rule
Dci = Di + CD x‖𝑫𝒊 ‖
Lci = Li + CL x‖𝑳𝒊 ‖
Where: Dci & Lci = elementary compensated departure and latitude, Di & Li = elementary
departure and latitude, CD & CL = correction value of departure and latitude, Ti = elementary

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 Survey F4-7

length of traverse between two points. DT & LT= total departure and latitude considering all
elementary values are positive or absolute values.

DISTANCE
PILLARS X Y ∆X ∆Y COM. ∆X COM. ∆Y X Y
(m)
A 3000 4000 500 1500 553,27 1633,17 3000 4000 -
B 3500 5500 1000 -1000 1047,64 -880,89 3553,27 5633,17 1581,14
C 4500 4500 -500 -1500 -446,73 -1366,83 4600,91 4752,27 1414,21
D 4000 3000 -500 0 -483,16 42,11 4154,18 3385,44 1581,14
E 3500 3000 -700 500 -671,02 572,45 3671,02 3427,55 500,00
A 2800 3500 - - - - 3000,00 4000,00 860,23
ENGINEE
1,53 x
RING 0,0002 -200 -500 0 0 ∑ 5936,72
10 -5
SURVEY
OK 538,52 0,09

PLOT
6000 3553.27, 5633.17
5750
5500
5250
5000
4750 4600.91, 4752.27
4500
4250 3000, 4000
PLOT
4000
3750 3000, 4000
3500
3250
4154.18, 3385.44
3000 3671.02, 3427.55
2750
2500
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

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Survey F4-7

X. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE AREA OF POLYGON USING HERON’S FORMULA OF

TRIANGLE
Heron’s formula is used to calculate the area of a triangular polygon when the
lengths of all the sides are known.

Where:

 S: half the perimeter of triangle

 P: perimeter of triangle
 a, b, c are sides of triangle
P=a+b+c
𝑷 𝐚+𝐛+𝐜
S=𝟐 = 𝟐

Number of triangles (Nt) = n – 2, where: n = number of polygon’s sides

Example: (Nt) = 5 – 2 => (Nt) = 3
DISTANCE QUADRANT FORE BACK INTERIOR EXTERIOR
PILLARS X Y ∆x ∆y PONITS PONITS PONITS
(m) BEARING BEARING BEARINGS ANGLES ANGLES
A 3000 4000 135.000 225.000 A
500 1500 1581.14 18.435 A-B 18.435 B-A 198.435
B 3500 5500 63.435 296.565 B
1000 -1000 1414.21 -45.000 B-C 135.000 C-B 315.000
C 4500 4500 116.565 243.435 C
-500 -1500 1581.14 18.435 C-D 198.435 D-C 18.435
D 4000 3000 108.435 251.565 D
-500 0 500.00 0.000 D-E 270.000 E-D 90.000
E 3500 3000 116.565 243.435 E
-500 1000 1118.03 -26.565 E-A 333.435 A-E 153.435
A 3000 4000 - - - - - - - - - - -

ENGINEERI
0.0002 0 0 0 6194.53 OK 540 1260 OK
NG SURVEY

OK 0.00 0.00

6000
B, 3500, 5500
5500
5000
4500
a C, 4500, 4500
4000
3500
A, 3000, 4000 b
c
3000 D, 4000, 3000
E, 3500, 3000
2500
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

AC = √(𝐶𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥)2 + (𝐶𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦)2 = 1581.14 m

AD = √(𝐷𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥)2 + (𝐷𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦)2 = 1414.21 m

 Half the perimeter

𝑷 𝐚+𝐛+𝐜
 S=𝟐 = 𝟐

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Survey F4-7

𝑨𝑩+𝑩𝑪+𝑨𝑪 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏.𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟒.𝟐𝟏+ 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏.𝟏𝟒

Sa = 𝟐
= 𝟐
= 2288.25 m
𝑨𝑪+𝑪𝑫+𝑫𝑨 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏.𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏.𝟏𝟒+ 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟒.𝟐𝟏
Sb = 𝟐
= 𝟐
= 2288.25 m
𝑨𝑫+𝑫𝑬+𝑬𝑨 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟒.𝟐𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎+ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖.𝟎𝟑
Sc = 𝟐
= 𝟐
= 1516.12 m

 Area of polygon using heron’s formula of triangles

 𝐴 = √𝑆(𝑆 − 𝑎)(𝑆 − 𝑏)(𝑆 − 𝑐)

Aa = √𝑆𝑎(𝑆𝑎 − 𝐴𝐵)(𝑆𝑎 − 𝐵𝐶)(𝑆𝑎 − 𝐴𝐶)

= √2288. 𝟐𝟓(2288.25 − 1581.14 )(2288.25 − 1414.21)(2288.25 − 1581.14) = 1000000 m2

Ab = √𝑆𝑏(𝑆𝑏 − 𝐴𝐶)(𝑆𝑏 − 𝐶𝐷)(𝑆𝑏 − 𝐴𝐷)

= √2288. 𝟐𝟓(2288.25 − 1581.14 )(2288.25 − 1581.14)(2288.25 − 1414.21) = 1000000 m2

Ac = √𝑆𝑐(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐴𝐵)(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐵𝐶)(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐴𝐶)

= √1516.12 (1516.12 − 1414.21 )(1516.12 − 500.00)(1516.12 − 1118.03) = 250000 m2

A = Aa + Ab + Ac = 1000000 + 1000000 + 250000 = 2250000 m2

XI. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE AREA OF POLYGON USING COORDINATES

𝟏
The formula is given as 𝐴 =
𝟐
[∑(𝒚𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒚𝒊 ) (𝒙𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒙𝒊 )]

or
𝟏
𝐴=
𝟐
[∑(𝒚𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊+𝟏 ) (𝒙𝒊 + 𝒙𝒊+𝟏 )]

Sum in
Pillars x y xi+1 - xi yi+1 + yi
m2
A 3000 4000 500 9500 4750000
B 3500 5500 1000 10000 10000000
C 4500 4500 -500 7500 -3750000
D 4000 3000 -500 6000 -3000000
E 3500 3000 -500 7000 -3500000
𝟏
A 3000 4000 [∑(𝒚𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒚𝒊 ) (𝒙𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒙𝒊 )] 2250000
𝟐

Sum in
Pillars x y xi + xi+1 yi - yi+1 m2
A 3000 4000 6500.00 -1500 -9750000
B 3500 5500 8000.00 1000 8000000
C 4500 4500 8500.00 1500 12750000
D 4000 3000 7500.00 0 0
E 3500 3000 6500.00 -1000 -6500000
𝟏
A 3000 4000 [∑(𝒚𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊+𝟏 ) (𝒙𝒊 + 𝒙𝒊+𝟏 )] 2250000
𝟐

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