Unit-14 - Communications Technology

Objectives
1. Networks
2. Components in a network
3. Network servers
4. Cloud computing
5. Data transmission across networks
6. Routing data in networks
7. Network protocols
8. The management of network traffic
9. Data transmission methods
10. Wireless technology
11. Mobile communication systems
12. Network security
13. Disaster recovery management
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14.1 Networks:
LAN:
• A LAN is a network that is restricted to a small geographical area.
• LANs are usually found in homes, schools, universities and small businesses.
Ethernet:
• Physical layer of LAN technology.
• It is the number of conductors that are required for a connection, the performance
thresholds that can be expected, and provides the framework for data transmission
• A standard Ethernet network can transmit data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second
• Ethernet standard is IEEE Standard 802.3. ( Institute for Electrical and Electronic
Engineer) . This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also
specifies how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By
adhering to the standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate
efficiently.
• Fast Ethernet standard is IEEE 802.3u with a data transfer rate up to 10Mbps.
Why protocols:
• They identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit,
and how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination
• This also creates procedures for determining the type of error checking that will be used,
the data compression method, if one is needed, how the sending device will indicate
that it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device will indicate that it has
received a message, and the handling of lost or damaged transmissions or “packets”. 2
14.1 Networks:
Layer 1: Physical : This layer enables hardware to send and receive data over a cable or card
Layer 2: Data Link : data packets are encoded/decoded into bits. Errors from the physical
layer flow control and frame synchronization are corrected. This layer consists of
Media Access Control (MAC) layer - controls the how computers gain access to data
and transmit it
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer, which controls frame synchronization, flow control and
error checking.
***Data link and physical layers are together called network layers
Layer 3: Network : creates virtual circuits to transmit information from node to node and
routing, forwarding, addressing, internet working, error and congestion control, and packet
sequencing.
Layer 4: Transport: Complete data transfer making sure information is transferred
transparently between systems in this layer & end-to-end error recovery.
Layer 5: Session: connections between applications are made, managed and terminated as
needed to allow for data exchanges between applications at each end of a dialogue.
Layer 6: Presentation (Syntax) : information is translated back and forth between
application   network formats regardless of encryption and formatting.
Layer 7: Application : supports the application and end-user processes. File transfers, email,
Telnet and FTP applications, HTTP, HTTPS, are all provided within this layer. 3
14.1 Networks: OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model
To provide services to the
Application user
(HTTP, HTTPS, FTP,
TELNET) For translation,
Presentation compression and
encryption, syntax
Session To establish, manage and

terminate the sessions Reliable message delivery
from process to process
Transport
(UDP, TCP)
End-to-end or Point-to-point
Network For moving packets from
source to destination
(IP, Router, IPv6)
Data link For error free transfer of
data frames
(MAC, LLC)
Physical Physical medium through
which bits are transmitted
(Cable, NIC)
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14.1 Networks:
Client-Server Networks :
• computer networks use a dedicated computer (server) to store data, manage/provide
resources and control user access.
• The server acts as a central point on the network upon which the other computers
connect to.
• A computer that connects to the server is called a client.
• Functions include Data storage, Handling security, Hosting shared applications, Managing
an internet connection, Scheduling and running backups, Email services, Print jobs,
Domain name services, Storing usernames and passwords to control access, Assigning
levels of access to resources, Monitoring network traffic
 One client computer crashing does not effect the other computers
 Files and resources are easier to share and control from server
 Improved levels of security as files are centralized
 It’s easier to administrate the whole network using a server
 Faster performance one role for one computer
 Individual users do not have to worry about backups or security
Servers can be expensive to buy and maintain

A network technician will often be required
specialist knowledge needed to setup
Over-all set up cost is more expensive than a peer-to-peer network
Server failure will probably disrupt all computers on the network 5
14.1 Networks:
Peer-to-peer:
• A peer-to-peer network has no central server to manage the network.
• Each computer on the network shares its data and resources with all the others.
• No computer has control over another. Each computer is known as a peer.
• Each peer stores data on their own computer, may allow other users access to it or
choose to keep their data private.
• Examples: BitTorrent, Skype, Pando and Tribler
Peer-to-Peer or P2P is a network in which computers share data directly with each other
without the need of a central server.
 Easy file sharing
 Reduced costs: There is no need to invest in a separate computer for a server
 Adaptability: can extend to include new clients easily. This benefit makes these networks
more flexible than client-server networks.
 Reliability: There is no central server to crash.
 High performance: a P2P network can improve its performance when more clients join it.
This is because each client in a P2P network is also a server that contributes resources to
the network.
 Efficiency: Emerging P2P networks enable collaboration between devices that have
different resources that can benefit the whole network.
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14.1 Networks:
Virtual private networks (VPN):
1. A VPN is a network connection that enables you to create a secure connection over the
public Internet to private networks at a remote location.
2. All network traffic (data, voice, and video) goes through a secure virtual tunnel between
the host device (client) and the VPN provider’s servers, and is encrypted.
3. It uses encryption, tunneling protocols, data encapsulation, and certified connections to
provide you with a secure connection to private networks and to protect your identity.
4. SSL VPN to enable remote users to securely access company’s resources, as well as to
secure the internet sessions of users who are accessing the internet from outside the
enterprise. It provides an End-to-End Encryption mechanism for client internet sessions .
It provides higher level of compatibility with client platforms and configurations for
remote networks and firewalls, SSL VPNs provide more reliable connections.
5. A more advanced protocol has replaced SSL, which is TLS, SSL VPNs running on modern
browsers and use TLS for encrypting and authenticating data transmitted across the VPN.
6. Also uses Authentication, Authorization, Accounting and Auditing AAAA for all remote
access security approach that controls network access.
7. Generally, VPNs are set up to give individual employees secure remote access to their
company networks through the internet. By connecting to the company’s network, an
individual employee can access all the company’s resources and services as if the
employee were inside the company. Hence it provides to protect the privacy online,
secure the browsing sessions, and get unrestricted access to content or websites that are
otherwise blocked or censored 7
14.1 Networks:
Bit Torrent Protocol – It is a communication protocol for peer-to-peer file sharing , that
enables users to distribute data and files over the Internet in a decentralized manner.
No central server.
Key terms:
• Swarm –a group of people including the user that own a particular file.
• Peer- Each of the computer in the torrent file
• Torrent file acts like a table of contents that allows computers to find information
through the use of a Bit torrent client.
• Tracker is a special server that keeps track of the connected computers in a swarm. It shares their
IP addresses with other BitTorrent clients in the swarm, allowing them to connect to each other.
• Leechers/peer: Users downloading from a BitTorrent swarm
• Seeders: Users that remain connected to a BitTorrent swarm even after they are done
downloading the complete file so that they continue to give to other users to download the file.
• How does it work?
• Once connected, a BitTorrent client downloads bits of the files in the torrent in small
pieces, downloading all the data it can get.
• Once the BitTorrent client has some data, it can then begin to upload that data to other
BitTorrent clients in the swarm.
• In this way, everyone downloading a torrent is also uploading the same torrent. This
speeds up everyone’s download speed. If 10,000 people are downloading the same file,
it doesn’t put a lot of stress on a central server. Instead, each downloader contributes
upload bandwidth to other downloaders, ensuring the torrent stays fast. 8
14.2 Components of a network:
Network interface card: it is a hardware component used to connect a computer to a
network. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter or LAN adapter.
Purpose
• NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
• NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area network (LAN)
as well as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).
• NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides the necessary
hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link layer processes
can run on it.
Internal Network Cards: motherboard has a slot for

the network card where it can be inserted to a cable
to connect and obtain network access
External Network Cards : When a desktop or a laptop

that does not have an internal NIC, these are used.
They can be Wireless and USB based.
Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the
motherboard, however no network cable is required
to connect to the network. They are useful while
traveling or accessing a wireless signal.
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Repeater:
A repeater /extender is a device that gives your network
signal a boost so that the signals can travel farther.
If the total length of a single span of network cable
exceeds 100 meters, a repeater is used.
When you use a repeater like this, the repeater divides the
cable into two segments. The cable length limit still
applies to the cable on each side of the repeater.
Frame: The data in the data link layer in set in frames.

An Ethernet frame starts with a header, which contains the source and destination MAC
addresses, among other data. The middle part of the frame is the actual data. The frame
ends with a field called Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
Graphical representation of an Ethernet frame and a description of each field in the frame:
• Preamble – informs the receiving system that a frame is starting and enables
synchronization.
• SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
• FCS (Frame Check Sequence) – detection of corrupted data
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An IP address is a 32-bit number assigned to each device on a network.
Each device that wants to communicate with other devices on a TCP/IP network needs to
have an IP address configured.
TCP/IP model provides general guidelines for designing and implementing network protocols.
Data packet
A data packet is a unit of data made into a single package that travels along a given network
path. Data packets are used in Internet Protocol (IP) transmissions for data that navigates the
Web, and in other kinds of networks.
They have headers that carry certain types of metadata, along with routing information.
What does header contain??

• IP address of source and destination .
• The version of the protocol whether it is IPv4 or IPv6. It is needed to identify how to
interpret other details depend on the IP version.
• Header Length specifies entire IP header . If HL is 5, then the is 5x32=160 bits.
• Type-of-service - to identify audio/picture/text
• Total Length to specify the entire length of the datagram including the header in bytes.
• Time to live – the time that a packet can be in the transit to pass through
• Protocol - helps to pass the data through different protocols :– TCP-6 or UDP -17
• Checksum – helps to detect errors in header. Checksum helps the packet to quickly move
out of the router during transfer of data.
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• Data/Payload – the data carrying capacity.
Hub:
• It serves as a connection point for all devices in a LAN. It is a multiple-port repeater
because it repeats an electrical signal that comes in one port out all other ports.
• Works with broadcasting and shared bandwidth.
• Works at the physical layer of the OSI model(Layer1)
• Packet collisions occur mostly inside a hub
• Supports half duplex transmission mode.
• It has 1 broadcast domain and 1 collision domain
• Uses electrical signal orbits
• They are used for creating small home networks & It is used for network monitoring.
But..
• Does not offer dedicated bandwidth and limited network size
• There is no mechanism of any kind to reduce network traffic.
***
• A broadcast domain where all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link
layer
• A collision domain is a network segment connected by a shared medium or through
repeaters where simultaneous data transmissions collide with one another. 12
Switch:
• It manages the flow of data across a network by inspecting the incoming frame’s
destination MAC address and forwarding the frame only to the host for which the message
was intended. Each switch has a dynamic table, called the MAC address table, that maps
MAC addresses to ports. With this information, a switch can identify which system is
sitting on which port and where to send the received frame.
• It is Data link layer device (Layer 2) & It works with fixed bandwidth
• Allows you to create virtual LAN, Uses frame & packet
• A switch can transfer data to any of the other devices, either using half-duplex mode or
full-duplex mode. (both parties can communicate at the same time)
• It works as a multi-port bridge & mostly comes with 24 to 48 ports
***Ethernet uses MAC (Media Access

Control) addresses to uniquely identify a
host in an Ethernet environment. Every
Ethernet network interface card (NIC) has
a MAC address burned in its firmware,
which is why MAC addresses are
sometimes known as hardware addresses.
They are 6 Bytes (48 bits) long.
Ex: D3-85-EA-1B-EE.
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Bridge:
• A network bridge is a device that divides a network into
segments.
• A bridge works at the Data link layer
• It inspects incoming traffic and decide whether to forward
it or filter it. Each incoming Ethernet frame is inspected for
destination MAC address. If the bridge determines that
the destination host is on another segment of the
network, it forwards the frame to that segment.
Wireless Access Point (WAP)
A device that creates a wireless local area network. It uses radio waves at a frequency of
2.4Ghz to 5GHz to transmit data. It is connected to a switch by a cable.
A device connected to WAP, transmits data to WAP, which is then sent to a switch or another
wireless enabled device using the same WAP.
Wireless access points are most commonly thought of in the context of the 802 series of
wireless standards, commonly known as Wi-Fi. While there are other wireless standards, the
vast majority of the time the terms Wi-Fi hotspot and WAP are synonymous.
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Router :
• A router is a network device that connects different computer networks by routing
packets from one network to the other.
• This device connects two or more different networks.
• When a data packet comes to a router port, the router reads the address information in
the packet to determine out which port the packet will be sent.
• It is considered a Layer 3 device because forwarding decision is based on the information
of the OSI Layer 3, the destination IP address
• It can also called as a default gateway
• Example: We have a network of three computers on a different network. Host A wants to
communicate with Host B and sends a packet with Host B’s IP address (10.0.0.20) to the
router. The router receives the packet, compares the packet’s destination IP address to
the entries in its routing table and finds a match. It then sends the packet out the
interface associated with that network. Only Host B will receive the packet. In fact, Host C
will not even be aware that the communication took place.
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Router : (continued)
It also transfers data from one network to another in an intelligent way. It has the task of
forwarding data packets to their destination by the most efficient route.
The router has a micro computer inside it. This holds a table in memory that contains a list
of all the networks it is connected to, along with the latest information on how busy each
path in the network is, at that moment. This is called the 'routing table'.
When a data packet arrives, the router does the following:-
• Reads the data packet's destination address
• Looks up all the paths it has available to get to that address
• Checks on how busy each path is at the moment
• Sends the packet along the least congested (fastest) path
• Exchanges protocol information across networks
• Filter traffic - helps prevent unauthorized intrusion by malware(firewall)
• It stores the addresses of all devices connected to it.
• At home, a router also combines a switch and a WAP.
Gateway:
A gateway is a node /router in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way
to or from other networks. It is possible to communicate and send data back and forth. The
Internet wouldn’t be any use to us without gateways . A gateway is often associated with a
router.
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Firewall:
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic
and permits or blocks data packets based on a set of security rules.
Its purpose is to establish a barrier between your internal network and incoming traffic from
external sources in order to block malicious traffic like viruses and hackers.
How does a firewall work?

Firewall carefully analyzes incoming traffic based on pre-established rules and filters traffic
coming from unsecured or suspicious sources to prevent attacks.
Firewalls guard traffic at a computer’s entry point, called ports, which is where information is
exchanged with external devices.
Only trusted source addresses are allowed to enter the destination address at all—then it’s
further filtered so that users within the network are only allowed to access certain
destination ports, depending on the level of access. The admin is allowed to any port, while
rest of the users are allowed into a certain set of specific ports.
• It is positioned at the gateway to the network and will examine all incoming data to find
out whether to allow or not.
• It also prevents certain type of data exiting from the network.
• It prevents malicious data packets from causing disruption to a computer system such as
Denial of Service (DoS) attack
• Firewall software can also be installed on individual computers in order to prevent any
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unauthorized access from within the network.
14.3 Network servers:
Proxy server:
• A proxy server provides a gateway between users and the internet.
• It is referred as an “intermediary” because it goes between end-users and the web pages
they visit online.
• When a computer connects to the internet, it uses an IP address.
• A proxy server is essentially a computer on the internet that has an IP address of its own.
• When a client makes a request from a webpage, it first goes to proxy server. It uses its
own IP address & makes your web request on your behalf, collects the response from the
web server, and forwards you the web page data so you can see the page in your browser.
Hence, the web server exactly does not know who made the request.
• It encrypts your data, so your data is unreadable in transit. It can alos block access to
certain web pages, based on IP address.
• It sits between gateway and LAN so that data cannot pass through the network without
being examined by its firewall software
• It deals with all the requests to the internet made by every device
• It stores webpages in cache which speeds up the internet search
The major difference between firewall and proxy is

if there is no firewall , all clients will use internet without any restriction
but if there is no proxy server, you cannot use internet at all.
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File server: (Generally shared drive)
It offers users a central storage place for files on internal data media, which is accessible
to all authorized clients. The server administrator defines strict rules regarding which
users have which access rights:
Web servers:
It is a computer that stores web server software and a website's component files. (for
example, HTML documents, images, CSS style sheets, and JavaScript files)
It connects to the Internet and supports physical data interchange with other devices
connected to the web.
It includes several parts that control how web users access hosted files. For example: An
HTTP server understands URLs (web addresses) and HTTP (the protocol your browser uses
to view webpages). It can be accessed through the domain names of the websites it
stores, and it delivers the content of these hosted websites to the end user's device.
How does this work?

At the most basic level, whenever a browser needs a file that is hosted on a web server,
the browser requests the file via HTTP. When the request reaches the correct (hardware)
web server, the (software) HTTP server accepts the request, finds the requested
document, and sends it back to the browser, through HTTP. (If the server doesn't find the
requested document, it returns a 404 response instead.)
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Mail server:
They are broken down into two main categories:
 Outgoing mail servers- SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) servers.
 Incoming mail servers come in two main varieties.
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol, version 3) servers which stores, sends and receives
messages on PCs’ local hard drives.
 IMAP, (Internet Message Access Protocol,) servers always store copies of messages
on web servers.
How a message is sent/received??
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Application server: It is a special type of server that allows both web apps development
and server environment for running them. Main tasks involve:
• running web applications (teams)
• hosting a hypervisor (software that can run more than one virtual machine) that
manages virtual machines (secure unified communications server used by teams)
• distributing and monitoring software updates
• processing data sent from another server
An application server is designed to install, operate and host applications and associated
services for end users, IT services and organizations and facilitates the hosting and delivery
of high-end consumer or business applications.
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Print server: It can process print-related jobs on a network of computers.
Print servers are connected to a computer network in order to serve the need for printing
jobs in a network that may contain more than one printer.
A print server usually allows users in a computer network to perform a printing job
without having to move files to the computer connected directly to the printer.
Virtual server: shares software and hardware resources with other operating systems (OS).
They are common because they can provide more efficient resource control and are cost-
effective through server virtualization.
Examples: Windows Virtual PC, Parallels Desktop for Mac, Oracle VM Server
FTP server: It is a network protocol used to
transfer files between machines on a TCP/IP
network. Files are either uploaded or
downloaded to the FTP server. Here, the user
must have a FTP client program and a username
and password. Then the client can transfer files
from and to the FTP server using the graphical
interface. When you’re uploading files, the files
are transferred from a personal computer to the
server. When you’re downloaded files, the files
are transferred from the server to your personal
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computer.
Operations of servers in a network : - Request-response method of communication
between server and client :
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is the basis for data communication on the internet.
As a request-response protocol, HTTP gives users a way to interact with web resources such
as HTML files by transmitting hypertext messages between clients and servers.
HTTP clients generally use Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections to communicate
with servers.
HTTP utilizes specific request methods in order to perform various tasks. All HTTP servers
use the GET and HEAD methods, but not all support the rest of these request methods:
• GET requests a specific resource in its entirety
• HEAD requests a specific resource without the body content
• POST adds content, messages, or data to a new page under an existing web resource
• PUT directly modifies an existing web resource or creates a new URI if need be
• DELETE gets rid of a specified resource
• TRACE shows users any changes or additions made to a web resource
• OPTIONS shows users which HTTP methods are available for a specific URL
• CONNECT converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel
• PATCH partially modifies a web resource
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Operations of servers in a network – Server farms:
A Server Farm / a server cluster, is a collection of computer servers generally maintained
by an enterprise and hosting provider to accomplish server needs far beyond the capability
of one machine.
A Web server farm can be either (1) a Web site that has more than one server, or (2) an
Internet service provider (ISP) that provides Web hosting services using multiple servers.
1. Server farms often have backup servers for redundancy in the event of a primary server
failure.
2. Server farms are typically collocated with the network switches and routers, driving
efficient communication among different parts of the cluster as well as multiple users.
3. The computers, routers, power supplies and related electronics are typically mounted
on 19-inch racks in a server room or data center.
Uses:
1. Web hosting is a common use of a server farm; such a system is sometimes collectively
referred to as a web server farm.
2. Scientific simulations and the rendering of 3D computer-generated imagery (pictures).
***Advantages and disadvantages of each type of server for a given scenario

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14.4 Cloud computing:
Characteristics of cloud computing:
1. Resources Pooling- It is a multi-client strategy that can be applied to data storage
services, processing services, and bandwidth provided services
2. On-demand Self-service - It enables the client to constantly monitor the server uptime,
abilities, and allotted network storage.
3. Easy Maintenance - Cloud Computing powered resources undergo several updates
frequently to optimize their capabilities and potential quick performance time
4. Economical - the client needs to pay the administration for the space they have used.
There is no covered up or additional charge which needs to be paid.
5. Security- Cloud services create a copy of the data that is stored to prevent any form of data
loss. If one server loses the data by any chance, the copy version is restored from the other
server. This is useful when several users work on a the same file in real-time and a file
suddenly gets corrupted.
6. Automation- it is the process of making the most of technology and reducing manual
effort. It requires the installation and deployment of virtual machines, servers, and large
storage. Along with deployment constant maintenance is needed .
7. Resilience – the ability of the service to quickly recover from any disruption. Availability is
another major characteristic of cloud computing. Since cloud services can be accessed
remotely, there is no geographic restriction or limitation when it comes to utilizing cloud
resources.
8. Large Network Access- The client can access the cloud data or transfer the data to the
cloud from any place just with a device and internet connection. 25
14.4 Cloud computing:
Uses of cloud computing:
1. File storage - files can be stored, accessed, shared and edited with ease just with an
internet connection.
2. Big data analytics - pay-as-you-go pricing strategy where you will pay for only used time
and when you need them.
3. Data backups and archiving- you can backup or archive your sensitive files to cloud-based
storage systems with maximum security
4. Disaster recovery-you create a replica of your production site and constantly replicate data
and configuration settings. In the event of a disaster at your production site, it is fast and y
simple to launch your applications and data services in the cloud and get your business
back up and running in no time.
5. Software testing and development- Cloud computing providers offer many tools for
continuous integration and continuous delivery that make development and testing faster,
less complex and cheaper.
6. Infrastructure as a service and Platform as a service- All hardware can be made to run on
virtual servers and upload your code to the cloud service, everything is taken care of for
you to launch and manage your application in the cloud.
7. Communication- calendars, emails, messaging and calling apps are built on cloud
infrastructure. These messages can be accessed from any where since they are stored in
the cloud.
8. Social Networking- Consumer driven usage of cloud services in the form of sharing
pictures, messages & chats. 26
***Advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing for a given scenario
14.5 Data transmission across networks
Speed of transmission:
What is bandwidth?
• The bandwidth of a signal refers to the range of frequencies which represent that signal.
• The bandwidth of a channel determines how much capacity is available on that channel to
send or receive information .
• The required capacity for a certain channel is dependent on the amount of data being
transmitted (upload) or received (download).
• Any information-carrying signal is transmitted over a range of frequencies where the
difference between the higher and the lower frequencies within this range determines the
bandwidth.
• The bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).
• When any information signal is transmitted, it uses a frequency channel which has a
specific frequency assigned to it. The receiver can then use that frequency to receive that
signal.
• For example, if you are streaming a video on YouTube you will end up consuming a lot more
data than say updating a post on Facebook. As a result, the required capacity and
bandwidth for video streaming would be a lot higher than those for updating a post.
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Speed of transmission:
What is bit rate?
• The quantity of data being transferred from one location to the other in a certain amount
of time.
• The data is measured in bits per seconds. commonly it is Mega-bits per second (Mbps).
• In the mobile telecom industry at this point in time, it is a common practice to measure the
• The bit rate is the upload and download speed you get when using the internet.
Examples:
32 Mbps fibre optic internet connection -> 32 Mega bits per second or 4 Mega bytes per sec
100 Mbps speed is 12.5 Mega bytes per second.
Type Speed Cable
Fast Ethernet 10/100 Mbps Cat5
Gigabit Ethernet 10/100/1000 Mbps Cat5e/Cat6a
Internet Even upto 2000Mpbs Fibre Optic
Wireless 2.4 GHz (802.11n) 300 Mpbs Real world 150 Mbps
Wireless 5 GHz (802.11ac) 433 Mbps - 1.7 Gbps Real world 210 Mbps - 1 G
Mobile 3G (1.8 - 2.5 GHz) Up to 2Mbps
Mobile 4G (2 - 8 GHz) Up to 20 Mbps or more
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Data streaming:
What is Streaming Data?
It is the continuous flow of data generated by various sources and in various formats. Using
stream processing technology, data streams can be processed, stored, analyzed, and acted
upon as it's generated in real-time.
Applications working with data streams will always require storage and processing. Storage
must be able to record large streams of data in a way that is sequential and consistent.
Processing must be able to interact with storage, consume, analyze and run computation on
the data.
Benefits of Streaming Data

• Streaming data, applications evolve to integrate data, process, filter, analyze, and react to
that data in real-time, as it's received which can support real-time fraud detection .
• Recommendations or a seamless shopping experience across multiple devices that updates
as you shop
On-demand streaming refers to streaming where the data streams have been prepared and
are available for users who wish to play a specific song or video at a specific time.
A video streaming service : The delivery of a movie, TV program or sports event to a TV set
when the customer requests it. It comprises free and paid programs from satellite TV,
telephone and cable companies, as well as streaming services on the Internet. 29
Data streaming:
Impact of bit rate and bandwidth on the streaming of audio and video data:
A live video as a collection of data instead of the final video we see on screen.
The rate at which this data is transferred over the internet within a certain period of time,
involves various factors:
• internet speed
• the quality of your live video stream
• the speed of your network
• the speed of the network of the viewer of the live stream.
When you are live streaming a video,

• you are taking a video feed
• putting it through an encoder to compress the data as much as possible
• send that data over the internet.
Your bitrate determines how quickly the data is sent over the internet to your viewers.
Bitrate has a large impact on the viewing experience of the stream as it determines how
quickly and effectively your data is transferred.
The bitrate in video streaming depends primarily on the uploading capacity of your network
and the downloading capacity of the people viewing the stream.
30
14.6 Routing data in networks
Methods of sending data over the network
Packet switching
31
Methods of sending data over the network - Packet switching
1. Each packet has a header that includes the source IP address, the destination IP address,
sequence number, the number of packets in the entire data file, data itself & and error
control bit.
2. Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various networks, for more
efficient transfer.
3. A switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller
pieces(packets), and they are sent individually.
4. Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest less congested path possible.
5. When the network node receives the packet, it will route to the next node, and then next
until it reaches to the designated device.
6. All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order using sequence
number. If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
packet other wise an acknowledgment message will be sent.
Connection mode  Frame relay : a data link layer, packet switching protocol.
It is designed for cost efficient data transmission for irregular traffic between LAN and WAN. It
puts data into variable sized packets. This does not include error correction.
Each frame contains all the information necessary to route it to the correct destination. So in
effect, each endpoint can communicate with many destinations over one access link to the
network.
32
Methods of sending data over the network - Packet switching
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP):
• Each packet has two parts, control information and content intended for the recipient,
commonly referred to as the payload.
• Control information, contains instructions for the network to deliver user data.
• Communication cannot take place between two or more electronic devices unless they
agree on a protocol.
• Using TCP/IP a handshake is created to deliver each payload/packet successfully.
Examples: Any upload or download of files
Connectionless datagram/ User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

• A connectionless protocol describes the communication between two network end points
where a message is sent from one end point to another without a prior arrangement.
• At one end, the device transmits data to the other without ensuring that the device on the
other end is ready to use.
• They simply send the information, ideally ensuring there is adequate speed and minimal
interference.
Examples : radio or walkie talkie, VOIP, live events of sport or concerts
33
Methods of sending data over the network - Circuit switching
• A switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver. Once
the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the
connection is terminated. It operates in a similar way as the telephone works. A complete
end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• When any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver
then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
• It is used in public telephone network & for voice transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
• A physical network path from the sender to the receiver before any communication starts.
Once the transmission is complete, the path is released for other data transmissions.
• All the data is then transmitted using this single path.
• When the circuit is open, no other devices can transmit data using that path.
Example : traditional telephone line.
34
Methods of sending data over the network - Message switching
• A switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded
• The data is sent to one network node at a time and it is temporarily stored there before
being passed to the next node. (Store and forward)
• There is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This
type of network is known as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Example: Email and instant message are common applications for message switching
35
The purpose and use of network addressing systems:
Communication begins with a message: The first element is the message source, The second
element is the destination, The third element is the channel  transmission media.
Consider, for example, communicating a message using words, pictures and sounds. They get
converted as bits. The bits are then encoded into a signal that are transmitted over a medium.
It can be a cable, or wifi. The message source (computer, mobile, tablet) transmits this
message using a transmitter and a receiver (mobile, computer, tablet) receives from the
transmission media.
The transmission media can be either guided (coaxial cable , twisted pair or fibre optic)
or unguided (Wifi, Cellular, Satellite).
Consider the IPv4 address: 192.168.10.10 where “192.168.10” is the network and “.10” is
the host. It is 32 bit binary addressing.
36
The purpose and use of network addressing systems:
1. IPv4 is 32-Bit IP address whereas IPv6 is a 128-Bit IP address.

2. IPv4 is a numeric addressing method whereas Ipv6 is an
alphanumeric addressing method.
3. IPv4 uses ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to map to MAC address whereas IPv6 uses
NDP (Neighbour Discovery Protocol) to map to MAC address.
37
14.7 network protocols
Networking protocol:
• An established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between different
devices in the same network.
• It allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of any differences
in their internal processes, structure or design.
1) TCP/IP :
 IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that each unit of data is individually
addressed and routed from the source device to the target device, and the target does
not send an acknowledgement back to the source.
 TCP is used in conjunction with IP in order to maintain a connection between the
sender and the target and to ensure packet order.
2) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
It is a communication protocol used for discovering physical address associated with given
network address. ARP is a network layer to data link layer mapping process, which is used
to discover MAC address for given Internet Protocol Address of the destination device.
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (InARP)
This MAC address to find IP address. This is enabled by default in Asynchronous Transfer
Mode networks to find Layer-3 address from Layer-2 address. It dynamically maps local
Data link Connection Identifier to remote IP addresses when you configure Frame Relay.
When using this, we know the DLCI of remote router but don’t know its IP address. It sends
a request to obtain that IP address and map it to the Layer-2 frame-relay DLCI. 38
3) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 The purpose of ICMP is for error reporting. When two devices connect over the
Internet, it generates errors to share with the sending device in the event that any of
the data did not get to its intended destination.
 It also performs perform network diagnostics. The trace route utility is used to display
is the actual physical path of connected routers that a request must pass through
before it reaches its destination. The journey between one router and another is
known as a ‘hop,’ and a tracer oute also reports the time required for each hop along
the way. This can be useful for determining sources of network delay. The ping utility
is a simplified version of trace route. A ping will test the speed of the connection
between two devices and report exactly how long it takes a packet of data to reach its
destination and come back to the sender’s device.
The ICMP echo-request and echo-reply messages are commonly used for the purpose of
performing a ping.
39
4) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• It is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with
its IP address and other related configuration information.
• Every device on a TCP/IP-based network must have a unique unicast IP address to access
the network and its resources. When IP addresses for new computers that are moved from
one subnet to another needs manual configuration, which is difficult.
• The DHCP server maintains a pool of IP addresses and leases an address to any DHCP-
enabled client when it starts up on the network. Because the IP addresses are dynamic
(leased) rather than static (permanently assigned), addresses no longer in use are
automatically returned to the pool for reallocation.
Benefits:
• Reliable IP address configuration. DHCP minimizes configuration errors caused by manual
IP address configuration.
• Reduced network administration like it has Centralized and automated TCP/IP
configuration, The ability to define TCP/IP configurations from a central location & the
efficient handling of IP address changes for clients that must be updated frequently, such as
those for portable devices that move to different locations on a wireless network.
40
5) User Datagram protocol (UDP) - slide 32
6) Hypertext Transfer Protocols (HTTP and HTTPS)

HTTP helps web users retrieve web pages.
 HTTPS functions so that unauthorized users cannot access information they are not
supposed to have by emphasizing secure search.
 HTTPS with its secure information transfer, is important for sites where sensitive
information is sent, such as ecommerce sites where users submit payment information
like billing addresses, phone numbers and credit card data.
 HTTPS works with the protocol known as Transport Layer Security (TLS) or previously
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), to encrypt sensitive data, prevent the alteration or
corruption of data during transfer, and authenticate certain users to communicate with
the website.
7) File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 It is a set of rules that computers follow for the transferring of files from one system to
another over the internet.
 It may be used by a business to transfer files from one computer system to another, or
websites may use FTP to upload or download files from a website's server.
 In order to use FTP, a user must first download an FTP client software that will allow
you to transfer files and a secure username and password.
 Once you have accessed the FTP server through your FTP client, you can now transfer41
files up or down.
8) Tunneling protocol, e.g. L2TP
 Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is a computer networking protocol used by Internet
service providers (ISPs) to enable virtual private network (VPN) operations.
 Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) connections, which are also called virtual lines, provide
cost-effective access for remote users by allowing a corporate network systems to manage
the IP addresses assigned to its remote users.
 L2TP connections provide secure access to your system or network when you use them in
conjunction with IP Security
9) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

 It is used to send and receive email.
 It may be paired with IMAP or POP3 which handles the retrieval of messages.
 It is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP
connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection.
 The end to end model is used to communicate between different organizations
whereas the store and forward method are used within an organization.
 A SMTP client who wants to send the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP
directly in order to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will keep the
mail to itself until it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
42
10) Post Office Protocols (e.g. POP3)
 defines the rules for email client software and retrieve emails.
 This is applied when you configure a particular computer to an email (Eg: Microsoft
Outlook)
 It connects to an email server, downloads all messages, stores them on the client
computer, deletes the messages from the server, supports encrypted transmission of
emails.
 It is a part of the application layer
But..
 Emails cannot be accessed from other machines
 Exporting the local mail folder to another email client or physical machine can be
difficult.
 Email folders can become corrupted, potentially losing the entire mailbox at once.
11) Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
 Email client software to retrieve emails.(application layer)
 Instead of downloading the email and then deleting from the server, it keeps the
original email on the server and a copy gets downloaded.
 Emails can be still be accessed from any remote location.
 Allows multiple folders on a server
43
12) Telnet (Teletype Network)
 is a protocol that provides a command line interface for communication with a remote
device or server
 It is also employed for remote management and for initial device setup like network
hardware.
 It provides users with a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication system
utilizing a virtual terminal connection over 8 byte.
 The user connects to the server by using the Telnet protocol, and hence entering
Telnet into a command prompt by following this syntax: telnet hostname port. The
user then executes commands on the server by using specific Telnet commands into
the Telnet prompt. To end a session and log off, the user ends a Telnet command with
Telnet.
13) Secure Shell (SSH)
 It is a network communication protocol that enables two computers to communicate
and share data
 The communication between the two computers is encrypted meaning that it is
suitable for use on insecure networks.
 SSH is often used to "login" and perform operations on remote computers but it may
also be used for transferring data.
 SSH enables us to provide a service with encrypted access for the widest range of
operating systems (Windows XP-10, Max OS X and Linux). 44
14) Transport Layer Security / Secure Socket Layer (TLS/SSL)
 SSL is the standard technology for keeping an internet connection secure and to
safeguard sensitive data that is being sent between two systems, preventing criminals
from reading and modifying any information transferred, including potential personal
details.
 It uses encryption algorithms to scramble data in transit, preventing hackers from
reading it as it is sent over the connection.
 TLS (Transport Layer Security) is just an updated, more secure, version of SSL.
 TLS encryption can help protect web applications from data breaches and other
attacks. Three components of TLS are :
 Encryption: hides the data being transferred from third parties.
 Authentication: ensures that the parties exchanging information are who they
claim to be.
 Integrity: verifies that the data has not been forged or tampered with.
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14.8 The management of network traffic
Routing is one of the most essential procedures in data communication. It ensures that data
travels from one network to another with optimal speed and minimal delay, and that its
integrity is maintained in the process.
Static routing
1. It performs routing decisions with preconfigured routes in the routing table, which can be
changed manually only by administrators.
2. These routes are implemented in those situations where the choices in route selection are
limited, or there is only a single default route available.
3. It is used if there are few devices for route configuration and there is no need for route
change in the future.
4. Static routing is considered the simplest form of routing.
5. It is known as non-adaptive routing which doesn’t change routing table unless the network
administrator changes
Dynamic routing
1. It continuously updates its routing table with paths and their cost/metric, while making
optimal routing decisions based on changing network operating environments.
2. It is called adaptive routing which change routing table according to the change in
topology.
3. When the network change occurs, it sends the message to router to ensure that changes
then the routes are recalculated for sending updated routing information. 46
S.NO Static Routing Dynamic Routing
In static routing routes are user In dynamic routing, routes are
1.
defined. updated according to topology.
Static routing does not use complex Dynamic routing uses complex
2.
routing algorithms. routing algorithms.
Static routing provides high or more Dynamic routing provides less

3.
security. security.
4. Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.
Static routing is implemented in small Dynamic routing is implemented in

5.
networks. large networks.
In static routing, additional resources In dynamic routing, additional

6.
are not required. resources are required.
In static routing, failure of link disrupts In dynamic routing, failure of link

7.
the rerouting. does not interrupt the rerouting
47
Autonomous System (AS)
1. The Internet is a network of networks; it’s broken up into hundreds of thousands of smaller
networks known as autonomous systems.
2. Each of these networks is essentially a large pool of routers run by a single organization.
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP)
1. It is a dynamic route update protocol used between routers that run on TCP/IP hosts within
a single autonomous system.
2. The routers use this protocol to exchange information about IP routes.
3. The protocol ensures that every router has routing tables updated with the best available
path.
4. It avoids routing loops by updating itself with the changes occurring over the network and
by error management.
5. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) uses a distance vector algorithm to calculate the best
path to a destination based on the number of hops in the path.
****
Hop count  Number of
routers a piece of data
passes through.
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Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP)
1. It is a protocol for exchanging routing information between two neighbor gateway hosts,
each with its own router, in a network of autonomous systems.
2. It is used between hosts on the Internet to exchange routing table information.
3. The routing table contains a list of known routers, the addresses they can reach, and a cost
metric associated with the path to each router so that the best available route is chosen.
4. Each router polls its neighbor at intervals between 120 to 480 seconds and the neighbor
responds by sending its complete routing table.
5. EGP-2 is the latest version of EGP.
Border Gateway Protocols: (BGP)

1. It is an Exterior Gateway Protocol designed to distribute routing information between ASs.
2. It is the postal service of the Internet. When someone drops a letter into a mailbox, the
postal service processes that piece of mail and chooses a fast, efficient route to deliver that
letter to its recipient.
3. Similarly, when someone submits data across the Internet, it is responsible for looking at
all of the available paths that data could travel and picking the best route, which usually
means hopping between autonomous systems.
4. It is the protocol that makes the Internet work. It does this by enabling data routing on the
Internet.
Example: When a user in Singapore loads a website with origin servers in Argentina, BGP is
the protocol that enables that communication to happen quickly and efficiently. 49
Uses of protocol layering:
1. It is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing them into functional
layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task.
2. For example, it is common to separate the functions of data delivery and connection
management into separate layers, and therefore separate protocols.
3. Layering promotes greater interoperability between devices from different manufacturers
and even between different generations of the same type of device from the same
manufacturer.
4. It allows greater compatibility between devices, systems and networks that this delivers.
5. Devices from different technology generations can co-exist thus the older units do not get
discarded immediately newer technologies are adopted.
6. Greater mobility is more readily delivered whenever we adopt the layered and segmented
strategies into our architectural design
7. It is far easier to incorporate and implement value added features into products or services
when the entire system has been built on the use of a layered philosophy
8. Layering facilitates a more streamlined and simplified standardization and certification
process.
9. Layered networking protocols are much easier to port from one system or architecture to
another.
50
14.9 Data transmission methods
Fibre optic: Optical fiber is a flexible but extremely thin transparent strand of very
pure glass (silica) not much bigger than a human hair. Each of these strands is
surrounded by a layer of cladding which may be of plastic or glass but constructed
at a different density to the main inner strand. Bits are encoded on the fiber as
pulses of light. The fiber-optic cable acts as a light pipe to transmit light between
the two ends with minimal loss of signal.
 Support of higher bandwidth capacities. They cannot be tapped. So, data transfer is
secure.
 Light can travel further without needing as much of a signal boost.
 They are less susceptible to interference, such as electromagnetic interference.
 They can be submerged in water- fiber optics are used in more at-risk environments like
undersea cables.
 Large number of strands are fitted into small space. Hence, lot of data is transmitted at
once
 Fiber optic cables are also stronger, thinner and lighter than copper wire cables
 They do not need to be maintained or replaced as frequently
But..
Copper wire is cheaper than fiber optics
Glass fiber also requires more protection within an outer cable than copper.
They are more costly and cannot be easily repaired.
Installing new cabling is labor-intensive. Fiber optic cables are often more fragile.
For example, the fibers can be broken or a signal can be lost if the cable is bent or curved 51
around a radius of a few centimeters.
Twisted pair cables / Ethernet cable:
1. Most common copper cable used in LAN
2. The cable consists of 4 twisted pair solid copper wires and
are protected by plastic tubes
3. There is no earth wire, which can result in loss of data at high
frequencies.
4. Helps to connect distances up to 100m
5. When higher bandwidths are required shielded twisted pair
(STP) cables are used which has metal shield around each
twisted pair and an earth wire.
Benefits:
1. It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.
2. It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.
3. It is the least expensive media of transmission for short
distances.
4. If portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged it does not
effect the entire network
52
Coaxial cable
1. Use to transfer data and it is designed with two parallel copper
conductors. It has a solid central copper conductor that transmits signal
and is coated with a protective cover to reduce electromagnetic
interference.
2. Coaxial cable is found in different gauges at affordable prices and is easier
to work with.
3. They are easy to install and can support up to 10Mps capacity with
medium attenuation.
But.. the entire network is always affected with a single cable failure.
Benefits:
1. Due to skin effect, coaxial cable is used in high frequency applications
2. The cost of coaxial cable is less.
3. It is less susceptible to noise or interference (EMI or RFI) compare to twisted pair cable.
4. It supports high bandwidth signal transmission compare to twisted pair.
5. It is easy to wire and easy to expand due to flexibility.
It allows high transfer rates with coaxial cable having better shielding materials.
Drawbacks:
1. It is bulky & expensive to install for longer distances due to its thickness and stiffness.
2. As single cable is used for signal transmission across the entire network, in case of failure
in one cable the entire network will be down.
3. It is easy to tap the coaxial cable by breaking it. Hence security is a greater concern. 53
Laser : This method uses high power laser beams to transmit light signals. It is sometimes
called a 'free-space' laser system because the beams travel directly through the air. For
example, setting up a high bandwidth data link between two line-of-sight buildings can
make use of a free-space laser system.
 It can be set up very quickly, and easily, making it ideal for setting up a video feed to
cover outdoor events at a sports arena.
 In space the beams remain strong and highly focused offering speeds of up to 10 Gbps.
 An intense beam of light that is used to transmit data in a line of sight between the
buildings of LAN. They are quick to setup and portable which is most suitable for live
events like sports and music concerts.
 The military uses lasers to transmit live video from aircraft . These beams are fast, narrow
and aimed directly from sender to receiver.
 Wide bandwidth compared to infrared
 Laser communication is also used to exchange data between satellites.
But..
It is affected by the weather. Fog or haze can block the beams & requires line of site to work.
Uses:
• Campus wide communication, Emergency data links
• Outdoor events requiring high speed data feeds
• Building - to - Building communication
• Satellite - to - Satellite communication
• Backup network in case main cabled network fails 54
14.10 Wireless Technology
Wi-Fi:
• It operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5GHz frequencies. Wi-Fi standards are 802.11 followed by a
letter. 802.11ac supports a speed up to 1.3Gbps, 5GHz wireless spectrum .
• 802.11 or IEEE 802.11, is a set of protocols that specify the sort of communications that
can occur on a Wi-Fi network on various wireless frequencies.
• 11n and 11ac are latest standards deliver fast data connection rates e.g. 300 Mbps and
higher.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
1. It is the most widely used Wi-Fi security protocol in the world.
2. it appears first in the protocol selection menus in many router control panels.
3. It is used in 802.11 standard. They use same key for encryption.
4. Is intention to provide data confidentiality compared to traditional wired network
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
1. It is a security protocol designed to create secure wireless networks.
2. It implements Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) for authorizing users. Instead of
authorizing computers based on their MAC address, WPA can use several other methods
to verify each computer's identity. This makes it more difficult for unauthorized systems to
gain access to the wireless network.
3. WPA3 will protect users, even with weaker passwords, from brute-force dictionary attacks
(attacks that attempt to guess passwords over and over again).
4. WPA3 has stronger 192-bit encryption to the standard which improves the level of
55
security.
Wi-Fi:
Benefits:
1. Devices can be connected to LAN without the need of cables
2. Device can use any location where Wi-Fi access is available
3. No line of sight and any compatible device can connect.
4. A number of devices can be connected at the same time. is easy to add or move wifi
clients .
5. range of a standard Wi-Fi network can reach up to 100 meters in the open air.
6. Installation is very quick and easy. It does not require technical knowledge of wifi
7. Access to the wifi network can be availed from anywhere within the wifi Access point
coverage range.
8. WiFi enabled USB dongles are available at very affordable rates from TP-Link, D-Link, Tenda
etc.
Drawbacks:
Data transfer rate decreases (to individual computer) when number of clients or computers
connected with wifi network increases.
Full security is difficult to achieve due to wifi connection being wireless in nature. It
requires proper security authentication protocols and configurations.
In case wifi connection does not work, minimal trouble shootings are needed. This requires
one to understand basics of wifi device from user manual provided by the manufacturer.
56
Bluetooth: Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves around 2.5 Ghz frequency.
They use 79 different frequency channels. Hence they don’t don't interfere with one another
If two devices want to talk, they pick a channel randomly and, if that's already taken, randomly
switch to one of the others(a technique known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping)
Benefits:
1. It creates connection immediately without any wires. Connection establishment is very
quick.
2. User only needs to pair the bluetooth PAN connection between two devices.
3. It has low power consumption & can pass through walls.
4. It has a range better than Infrared communication.
5. It is used for voice and data transfer. Bluetooth devices are available at very cheap cost.
6. The technology is adopted in many products such as head set, in car system, printer, web
cam, GPS system, keyboard and mouse.
7. Due to the availability of bluetooth headphones, calls can be taken on phone even while
driving and doing some other activity simultaneously. This hands free operation relieves
great strain.
Drawbacks:
1. It operates on Radio frequency and hence can penetrate through walls. It is advisable not
to use it for critical business or personal data transfer.
2. As Home RF technology operates on same frequency, it has interference from it.
3. The bandwidth is lower compare to WiFi.
4. Battery usage is more compared to the condition when bluetooth is powered OFF. 57
Infrared:
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible
light, but shorter than that of microwaves. The wavelength varies from about 750 nanometres
to 1 millimetre. Frequencies range from about 300 GHz to 400 THz. Infrared transmission
systems are widely used for short-range communications.
Example remote control devices
Benefits:
1. Cheap to produce and simple to transmit standard messages and commands.
2. Wireless features in consumer devices that already allow transmission and receiving
3. Low power consumption and simple to set up
4. It works by transmitting electromagnetic radiation which extends from the nominal red
edge of the visible light spectrum which cannot be seen by human eye.
5. It does not penetrate walls which improves the security of data transmitted
Drawbacks:
1. Very limited bandwidth, hence only suitable to transmit small amounts of data.
2. It can be affected by sunlight.
3. It requires line of sight between sending and receiving devices, cannot bend around
corners.
4. It only works for short distances.
58
Radio Frequency identification: (RFID)
1. It refers to the rate of oscillation of electromagnetic radio waves in the range of 3 kHz to 300
GHz, as well as the alternating currents carrying the radio signals.
2. The frequency band is being divided into different parts, which are then assigned to different
technology industries. This is known as the radio spectrum.
3. For example, the VHF (very high frequency) band, which ranges from 30-300 MHz, is being used
for FM radio, TV broadcasts, and amateur radio and its counterparts.
4. For a lot of electronic communication devices, the ultra-high frequency (UHF) band is being
used. This is the space used by mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, and TV and land radio.
Benefits:
• It does not require line of sight & does not require to scan the tag.
• RFID readers can read multiple RFID tags simultaneously, offering increases in efficiency.
• RFID reader can scan a tag as long as it is within frequency range. It does not have any line-
of-sight limitations
• FID readers can scan tags in milliseconds and work automatically.
Examples:
• It is used to track location of parcels for distribution.
• Wireless key cards to unlock doors.
• A system used in ski resorts where skiers keep their lift pass in their pocket and just move
their pocket toward RFID reader. (Near Field Communication)
• It is used in mobile phones to match a NFC tag on a credit or a debit card to make
contactless payments. Here, card has to be next to the reader to avoid accidental
payments. 59
Microwave:
1. Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high
frequency beams of radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections that can send
and receive voice, video, and data information.
2. They have small wavelength which allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in
narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby
microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other.
3. Microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum
Example uses:
1. Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication systems
on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio
communications.
2. Microwave radio band are also used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems,
and radio astronomy.
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14.11 Mobile Communication Systems:
Cellular Network:
1. It is formed of some cells, cell covers a geographical region, has a base station analogous
to 802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to network and there is an air-interface of
physical and link layer protocol between mobile and base station.
2. All these base stations are connected to Mobile Switching Center which connects cells to
wide area net, manages call setup and handles mobility.
3. There is certain radio spectrum that is allocated to base station and to a particular region
and that now needs to be shared
4. Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
5. Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
6. Communication is always between mobile and base station
7. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic
area called a cell.
8. Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
9. Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
10. Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
11. Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
61
Cellular Network:
Third Generation (3G) : The 3G standard utilizes Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) as its core network architecture.
1. 3G network uses digital signals, better quality voice calls and faster data rate.
2. It used packet switching which allowed speed up to 2 Mbps.
3. It used Wide Band Wireless Network that increased clarity.
4. It operated at a range of 2100MHz and had a bandwidth of 15-20MHz.
5. Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates
6. Send/receive large email messages
7. Large capacities and broadband capabilities
Fourth Generation (4G)

4G is the predetermined standard for mobile network connections.
4G LTE (Long Term Evolution) is the term given to the path which has to be followed to achieve
those predefined standards.
Supports interactive multimedia, voice, video.
High speed, high capacity and low cost per bit (Speeds of up to 20 Mbps or more.)
Global and scalable mobile networks.
Ad hoc and multi-hop (larger coverage area) networks.
** An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and
communicate with each other. (hotspot) 62
Cellular Network:
Fifth Generation (5G) :
1. 5G uses radio millimeter bands in the 30 GHz to 300 GHz range.
2. Testing of 5G range in mmWave has produced results approximately 500 meters from the
tower.
3. Much better improved coverage area
4. It has Low latency as low as one millisecond and max to 10 seconds (very little delay
between a user's action and a web application's response to that action)
5. 5G is estimated to be 60 to 120 times faster than the average 4G latency.
6. Will provide better connections and enhanced user experience.
7. 5G networks clubbed with network slicing architecture enables telecom operators to offer
on-demand tailored connectivity to their users that is adhered to Service Level Agreement
(SLA). Such customised network capabilities comprise latency, data speed, latency,
reliability, quality, services, and security.
63
Satellite Communication systems
The construction:
1. A satellite is basically a self-contained communications system with the ability to receive
signals from Earth and to retransmit those signals back with the use of a transponder—
an integrated receiver and transmitter of radio signals.
2. Satellites are small and made of lightweight and durable materials. They operate at a very
high reliability of more than 99.9 percent in the vacuum of space with no prospect of
maintenance or repair.
3. The main components of a satellite consist of the communications system, which includes
the antennas and transponders that receive and retransmit signals, the power system,
which includes the solar panels that provide power, and the propulsion system, which
includes the rockets that propel the satellite.
4. A satellite needs its own propulsion(momentum) system to get itself to the right orbital
location and to make occasional corrections to that position.
5. A satellite in geostationary orbit can deviate up to a degree every year from north to south
or east to west of its location because of the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun.
6. A satellite in orbit has to operate continuously over its entire life span. It needs internal
power to be able to operate its electronic systems and communications payload. The main
source of power is sunlight, which is bound by the satellite’s solar panels. A satellite also
has batteries on board to provide power when the Sun is blocked by Earth. The batteries
are recharged by the excess current generated by the solar panels when there is sunlight.
64
Satellite Communication systems - How satellites are used in GPS:
• GPS receivers use a mathematical process called trilateration. In order to make this
calculation, every GPS receiver must know the location of at least four GPS satellites above
it, the distance between the receiver and each of those GPS satellites.
• The GPS receiver analyses radio signals transmitted from the GPS satellites and timing how
long it takes for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. (1 satellite =
anywhere on the surface of a sphere, 2 satellites = anywhere on a circle, 3 satellites = two
possible locations, 4 satellites = elimination of the second possible location).
Procedure:
1. The GPS receiver gets a signal from each GPS satellite. The satellites transmit the exact
time from its atomic clock, the signals are sent.
2. By subtracting the time the signal was transmitted from the time it was received, the GPS
can tell how far it is from each satellite.
3. The GPS receiver also knows the exact position in the sky of the satellites, at the moment
they sent their signals. So given the travel time of the GPS signals from three satellites and
their exact position in the sky, the GPS receiver can determine your position in three
dimensions - east, north and altitude
65
Satellite Communication systems- Global mapping systems:
• Online mapping is the compilation and publication of Web sites that provide exhaustive
graphical and text information in the form of maps and databases.
• Several Internet companies, have come online with mapping services.
• In addition to interactive maps with zooming and re-centering functions, some services
offer topographical maps, satellite images, weather and climate maps, demographic maps,
and traffic information.
• Some devices require a user to download and install maps. The device will then use those
downloaded maps to translate coordinates into addresses. Other devices, like cell phones,
will connect to a mapping system on the Internet, transmit the coordinates they receive to
a mapping program, and get addresses back. Downloaded maps allow for quicker response
times and usage in areas with poor cellular coverage. Internet mapping provides more up-
to-date information and decreases the likelihood of outdated maps.
• How does phone tracking system work?
• All cell phones constantly broadcast a radio signal, even when not on a call. The cell phone
companies estimate the location of a cell phone using triangulation information from the
towers receiving the signal.
• The location of anyone carrying a GPS enabled smartphone & App and the base station to
which the phone is linked at that point of time is used to track one another.
• Advanced systems determine the sector in which the mobile phone resides and roughly
estimate also the distance to the base station.
66
Satellite Communication systems - in surveillance:
• GPS stands for Global Positioning System. The system is made up of at least 24 satellites
orbiting the Earth. The satellites communicate with specialized receivers on the ground,
providing the exact position of the receivers.
• GPS satellites are constantly transmitting a signal toward the Earth, which includes their
exact position and the precise time as measured by an atomic clock. Receivers pick up
these transmissions, calculate how long it took the signal to reach them, and measure that
against their own internal clock. By picking up a signal from at least 3 satellites, the device
can then figure out exactly where it is using a process called trilateration.
• GPS tracking devices transmit their data to a server over the Internet. That server hosts a
platform that users can access to view the device's current and past locations, and even
speed. Most devices transmit their data using a local cellular network to mitigate costs, but
some send out a satellite signal, allowing for use anywhere in the world. Surveyors
frequently use the GPS system to measure altitude of features they would otherwise be
unable to reach.
• The network your cellular phone is connected to receives its time from the Global
Positioning System, allowing everyone to keep precisely the same time. Scientists in remote
laboratories use GPS timekeeping in experiments where precise.
67
Satellite Communication systems - in Television:
• A satellite television installation allows you to receive television and radio services through
a satellite dish.
• The services are transmitted from an earth station to a set of geostationary satellites.
• The signals are then returned to earth where they are picked up by the satellite dish.
• You need a set-top box or satellite-enabled television to decode the signals.
1. Programming sources the channels that
provide programming for broadcast. it pays
other companies for the right to broadcast
their content via satellite.
2. Broadcast center -the TV provider receives
signals from various programming sources and
beams a broadcast signal to satellites in
geosynchronous orbit.
3. The satellites receive the signals from the
broadcast station and rebroadcast them to
Earth.
4. The viewer's dish picks up the signal from the
satellite and passes it on to the receiver in the
viewer's house.
5. The receiver processes the signal and passes it
on to a standard TV. 68
Satellite Communication systems - in Telephone:
• Sat-phone-A phone that works by connecting to a telecommunications satellite in space.
• The transmitted and received signals pass through satellites placed in orbit around the
earth.
• The distance between Earth’s satellites depends on the position of the satellites in low
orbit or geostationary.
Advantages:
• Operating at sea and in the most isolated regions such as mountainous areas, forests and
deserts, and polar poles.
• Robust and reliable devices that withstand extreme temperatures, shocks and in general
extreme conditions.
• Most of the most efficient devices allow you to send SMS, transmit data and access the
Internet from anywhere in the world
• Can be used worldwide to send an SOS, send and receive calls, and send short SMS
messages
• It does not depend on terrestrial GSM antennas to operate
69
14.12 Network Security
Botnet and attack systems:
1. A botnet is a collection of internet-connected devices infected by malware that allow
hackers to control them. Cyber criminals use botnets to instigate botnet attacks, which
include malicious activities such as credentials leaks, unauthorized access, data theft and
DDoS attacks.
2. Botnet owners can have access to several thousand computers at a time and can
command them to carry out malicious activities. Cybercriminals initially gain access to
these devices by using special Trojan viruses to attack the computers’ security systems,
before implementing command and control software to enable them to carry out
malicious activities on a large scale. These activities can be automated to encourage as
many simultaneous attacks as possible
3. Examples:
• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks that cause unplanned application
downtime- it is a malicious cyber-attacks that hackers make an online service and
configure so that network resource will be unavailable to its intended users on the
Internet. The Targets are flooded with thousands requests, crushing the machine and
its supporting resources. DDoS attacks are different from conventional Denial of
Service incidents in that they originate from multiple sources or IP addresses.
• Validating lists of leaked credentials (credential-stuffing attacks) leading to account
takeovers
• Web application attacks to steal data
• Providing an attacker access to a device and its connection to a network 70
Buffer overflow attacks :
• An attack type in which a memory buffer overflow can cause a machine to consume all
available hard disk space, memory, or CPU time.
• This form of exploit often results in inactive behavior, system crashes, or other harmful
server behaviors, resulting in denial-of-service.
Flood attacks : By saturating a targeted server with an overwhelming amount of packets, a
malicious actor is able to oversaturate server capacity, resulting in denial-of-service. In order
for most DoS flood attacks to be successful, the malicious actor must have more available
bandwidth than the target.
Hacktivism: A method of activism and protest developed over the internet. People share
information, participate in different events and show their dissatisfaction as protest
through internet and websites.
Spyware: Spyware is a type of malicious software / malware which is installed on a
computing device without the end user's knowledge. It invades the device, steals sensitive
information and internet usage data, and relays it to advertisers, data firms or external users.
Any software can be classified as spyware if it is downloaded without the user's authorization.
Adware: Comes through free software. It is advertising supported software that displays
unwanted advertisements on your computer. They will tend to serve you pop-up ads, can
change your browser’s homepage, add spyware and just bombard your device with
advertisements. It collects information about you for the purpose of making advertising
71
money. It might slow down your machine and or even make it more prone to crashing.
Software methods in Prevention of spyware:
Biometric:
1. User Experience – Convenient and fast to access the device
2. High security and assurance , Non-transferrable – Unique identity to verify
3. Spoof-proof – Biometrics are hard to fake or steal
Anti-malware:
• Protection against the viruses, Trojans , worms , spyware , adware , rootkits and key
loggers.
• When antimalware program detects an infected file, it can delete it on the spot or move it
to a special "quarantine" folder. When your anti-malware quarantines a file, it prevents it
from interacting with the rest of the computer.
• Protects against sensitive information when it protects from all botnet or other type of
attacks
Securing with Access Rights:
1. Only intended user will be able to access the system keeping a log of the time in and out.
2. Can incorporate multiple functions on one access card and is standardized across the
network.
3. Since only authorized users access the network, sensitive data is kept secure as each user
has a level of accountability to the data usage.
72
14.13 Disaster recovery management:
Identification of threats and risks:
Risk Analysis – IT world : Cyber security risk assessment is the process of identifying and
evaluating risks for assets that could be affected by cyber attacks.
• Threat-any event that could harm an organization’s people or assets.
• Vulnerability- any potential weak point that could allow a threat to cause damage.
• Impact -is the total damage the organization would incur if a vulnerability were exploited
by a threat
• Likelihood — This is the probability that a threat will occur. It is usually not a specific
number but a range.
Key concerns:
1. Organization’s critical information technology assets — that is, the data whose loss or
exposure would have a major impact on your business operations
2. Key business processes that utilize or require this information
3. The threats which could affect the ability of those business functions to operate
Importance of regular IT security assessments:
• Theft of sensitive or regulated information
• Hardware damage and subsequent data loss
• Malware and viruses
• Compromised credentials
• Company website failure
• Natural disasters that could damage servers
• Backup process and status 73
Identification of threats and risks:
Perpetrator analysis-threats and risks
1. Cyber attacks can include a wide range of criminal activities like stealing passwords to gain
access to bank accounts, to corporate and government spying to obtain sensitive
information.
2. It is hard to pinpoint with hackers using multiple computers and a wide range of people in
different locations to carry out attacks.
3. Attack toolkits, or bundles of malicious code, have become so simple that they can be
deployed by people with relatively little technical expertise.
4. Theft of intellectual property is growing with the defense, pharmaceuticals, car and even
software sectors. It is often difficult to identify the perpetrators where corporate IP theft is
involved. In some cases it is a rival company looking for sensitive data. In others it could be
organized gangs looking to sell information to rivals.
Risk Testing:
Impact of risk: Loss of revenue(income), penalty fees, damage to origination's image, etc
Depending on the impact activities can be categorized as
• Must continue
• Could be scaled down
• Could be suspended
The overall risk to an organization of each risk can be measured as Risk = Likelihood x impact
Here, we can sort which risks are the most important to guard against and the best recovery
74
plans to overcome the risk when the incidence has occurred.
Identification of threats and risks: quantifying the risk
Securing the risk:
• There are many measures to guard against the risks like access rights, passwords, biometric, firewalls,
backups, encryption etc.
• The most important loss is the loss of personnel (death / suddenly ill/ leaves the job. The organization
loses all the knowledge which has not been documented. It is necessary to document the tasks which
key personnel does as well as at least two people who know the main system and write down in a
sealed envelop in a safe that has limited access
Recovery management: Procedures need to be put in place: Restoring backups, Replacing hardware,
Reinstalling software, Emergency replacement of key personnel & Emergency Office accommodation
Plan after disaster
• Recovery Point Objective (RPO) must be identified- point in time, prior to the disruption, to
which data must be recovered
• Time taken for each recovery process
• Maximum Tolerance Downtime(MTD)- maximum time which can be managed without having
access to the essential system functionality
• Recovery Time Objective(RTO)- Maximum time that the organization has to recover its systems
and start operations.
Recovery testing: It is necessary to test the following:
• Disaster recovery plan
• Restoring data and systems
• Testing backed up data
• Full system restoration and testing their working success.
75

Unit-14 - Communications Technology

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Unit-14 - Communications Technology

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Objectives

Session To establish, manage and

Servers can be expensive to buy and maintain

Internal Network Cards: motherboard has a slot for

External Network Cards : When a desktop or a laptop

Frame: The data in the data link layer in set in frames.

What does header contain??

***Ethernet uses MAC (Media Access

How does a firewall work?

The major difference between firewall and proxy is

How does this work?

***Advantages and disadvantages of each type of server for a given scenario

Benefits of Streaming Data

When you are live streaming a video,

Connectionless datagram/ User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

1. IPv4 is 32-Bit IP address whereas IPv6 is a 128-Bit IP address.

6) Hypertext Transfer Protocols (HTTP and HTTPS)

9) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Static routing provides high or more Dynamic routing provides less

4. Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.

Static routing is implemented in small Dynamic routing is implemented in

In static routing, additional resources In dynamic routing, additional

In static routing, failure of link disrupts In dynamic routing, failure of link

Border Gateway Protocols: (BGP)

Fourth Generation (4G)

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