Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UK

IARThe Island Arc1038-48712003 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.

122June 2003
382
Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines
G. P. Yumul Jr
et al.
10.1046/j.1038-4871.2003.00382.x
Thematic Article7791BEES SGML

The Island Arc (2003) 12, 77–91

Thematic Article
Collision, subduction and accretion events in the Philippines: A synthesis
GRACIANO P. YUMUL JR,1,2,* CARLA B. DIMALANTA,1 RODOLFO A. TAMAYO JR1 AND RENE C. MAURY3
1
Rushurgent Working Group, National Institute of Geological Sciences, College of Science University of the
Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines (email: rwg@i-next.net), 2Philippine Council for Industry &
Energy Research and Development, Department of Science and Technology, Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila,
Philippines and 3UMR 6538 Domaines Oceaniques, Universite de Bretagne Occidentale, 6 Avenue le Gorgeu,
BP 809 F-29285 Brest Cedex, France

Abstract The Philippines preserves evidence of the superimposition of tectonic processes

in ancient and present-day collision and subduction zone complexes. The Baguio District
in northern Luzon, the Palawan–Central Philippine region and the Mati–Pujada area
in southeastern Mindanao resulted from events related to subduction polarity reversal
leading to trench initiation, continent-arc collision and autochthonous oceanic lithosphere
emplacement, respectively. Geological data on the Baguio District in Northern Luzon reveal
an Early Miocene trench initiation for the east-dipping Manila Trench. This followed the
Late Oligocene cessation of subduction along the west-dipping proto-East Luzon Trough.
The Manila Trench initiation, which is modeled as a consequence of the counter-clockwise
rotation of Luzon, is attributed to the collision of the Palawan microcontinental block with
the Philippine Mobile Belt. In the course of rotation, Luzon onramped the South China Sea
crust, effectively converting the shear zone that bounded them into a subduction zone.
Several collision-related accretionary complexes (e.g. Romblon, Mindoro) are present in
the Palawan–Central Philippine region. The easternmost collision zone boundary is
located east of the Romblon group of islands. The Early Miocene southwestward shift of
the collision boundary from Romblon to Mindoro started to end by the Pliocene. Continuous
interaction between the Palawan microcontinental block and the Philippine Mobile Belt is
presently taken up again along the collisional boundary east of the Romblon group of
islands. The Mati–Pujada Peninsula area, on the other hand, is underlain by the Upper
Cretaceous Pujada Ophiolite. This supra-subduction zone ophiolite is capped by chert and
pelagic limestones which suggests its derivation from a relatively deep marginal basin. The
Pujada Ophiolite could be a part of a proto-Molucca Sea plate. The re-interpretation of the
geology and tectonic settings of the three areas reaffirm the complex geodynamic evolution
of the Philippine archipelago and addresses some of its perceived geological enigmas.

Key words: accretion, collision, island arc, Luzon, Mindanao, ophiolite, Palawan, Philippines,
subduction.

INTRODUCTION varying stages of tectonic processes and their cor-

responding results can be observed. The Philip-
The Western Pacific region is a good target to pine island arc system displays tectonic features
study the causes and effects of present-day tec- which, if recognized and understood fully, contrib-
tonic processes. From Japan in the north through ute to our knowledge of how an arc system evolves.
Taiwan all the way to New Zealand in the south, The Philippines is sandwiched between two oppo-
sitely dipping subduction zones which has impor-
*Correspondence. tant effects on magmatic and amagmatic processes
Received 17 May 2002; accepted for publication 9 January 2003. operating in this island arc system. There is no
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd. active spreading center in the vicinity of the Phil-
78 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.
KM
ippines thus, the ongoing subduction processes
are responses to regional interplays of geological
events (e.g. Rangin et al. 1999a; Simons et al.
1999). The unique geological setting of the Philip-
pines and the attendant tectonic processes
resulted in vigorous magmatism that spans the full
spectrum of geochemical compositions from adak-
itic through tholeiitic and calc-alkaline to shosho-
nitic rocks (e.g. Maury et al. 1998; Yumul et al.
2000a). Oceanic bathymetric high (e.g. seamount,
submerged continental fragments), collision, arc
flipping, subduction-related rifting and emplace-
ment of ophiolite and associated mélanges also
characterize this arc system (e.g. De Jesus et al.
2000; Tamayo et al. 2001; Yumul et al. 2001a,b).
The various collision, subduction and accretion
LUZON
MINDANAO
Fig. 1 Generalized tectonic map of the Philip-
pines and the location of areas (boxed) that exhibit
geological features which represent trench initia-
tion (Baguio), continent-arc collision (Palawan–
Mindoro–Romblon–Masbate) and in situ oceanic
lithosphere emplacement (Mati–Pujada). Map
modified from Rangin et al. (1990). Inset A shows
Northern Luzon and Mindoro that rotated counter-
clockwise and several islands of Central Philip-
pines bounded by dashed lines that rotated clock-
wise due to the collision of the Palawan block with
the Philippine Mobile Belt. Inset B is a schematic
drawing showing the subduction of the South
China Sea lithosphere along the Manila Trench
resulting into the formation of the Central Cordil-
lera volcanic arc observed in Baguio. Inset C
shows the possible migration of collision zones
from east to west. The thrust fault contact between
Mindoro-Romblon and Masbate, based on this
representation, is inferred to be located offshore.
The relationship of the Mati–Pujada area with the
Philippine Fault Zone and the Philippine Trench is
shown in Inset D.
events that occurred throughout the geological
history of the Philippines have left their imprints,
together with their attendant geological dilemmas.
With the vigorous interaction of magmatic and
amagmatic processes and the transitional geologi-
cal nature of the Philippines before its accretion to
a continental mass, it is imperative that the atten-
dant geological puzzles are unraveled.
To do this, the results of work on the geology of
three areas, which exemplify arc formation pro-
cesses observed in the Philippines, are presented.
The geology of the Baguio District is used to doc-
ument the timing of arc flipping and initiation of
subduction in Northern Luzon (Fig. 1b). The
different continent-arc collision fronts in the
Palawan–Central Philippine region are evaluated

(Fig. 1c). It is argued that the Palawan–Central
Philippine collision event was related to the sub-
duction polarity reversal in Northern Luzon.
Lastly, the Pujada Ophiolite in the Mati–Pujada
Peninsula, Davao Oriental in southeastern Mind-
anao, is discussed in the context of it representing
a single terrane that originated from a proto-
Molucca Sea (Fig. 1d). The synthesis forwarded
here and the corresponding implications hopefully
contribute to our understanding of how the Philip-
pines evolved.
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The Philippines is characterized on both sides by
trench systems and a major strike–slip fault zone,
which are responsible for accommodating the
stresses generated by the subduction of the sur-
rounding marginal basins (e.g. Rangin 1991)
(Fig. 1). The island arc system is bounded on the
west by the east-dipping Early Miocene Manila
Trench, Middle Miocene Negros Trench, Early
Miocene to Pliocene Sulu and Cotabato trenches
(e.g. Yumul 1994; Rangin et al. 1999b). The Early
Oligocene to Early Miocene South China Sea sub-
ducts along the Manila Trench, the Early to Mid-
dle Miocene Sulu Sea basin dives beneath the
Negros and Sulu Trenches, while the Eocene
Celebes basin goes down along the Cotabato
Trench (Fig. 2). The eastern boundary of the archi-
pelago is defined by the west-dipping East Luzon
Trough-Philippine Trench along which the Eocene
West Philippine Basin is subducting (e.g. Cardwell
et al. 1980). Any stress not accommodated by the
trench systems surrounding the archipelago is
accommodated by the major northwest–southeast
OCEAN BASINS
TRENCHES
FAULTS
Fig. 2 Summary of the ages of ocean basins,
trenches and faults. See text for discussion. E,
early; M, middle; L, late.
Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 79
trending, left-lateral strike–slip fault, the Philip-
pine Fault Zone, which traverses the whole length
of the archipelago (e.g. Allen 1962; Quebral et al.
1996; Aurelio 2000; and references therein; Beavan
et al. 2001) (Fig. 1). The present-day East Luzon
Trough is a rejuvenation of a proto-East Luzon
Trough. The Pliocene Philippine Trench and the
Philippine Fault Zone are coupled and considered
to decrease in age southward (e.g. Fitch 1972;
Roeder 1977). The Philippine island arc system is a
composite terrane that is made up of two major
blocks: the Palawan microcontinental block and
the seismically active Philippine Mobile Belt (e.g.
Gervasio 1971; McCabe et al. 1985).
Three areas exemplify the complexities involved
in the geological evolution of the Philippines. Evi-
dence of arc polarity reversal and trench initiation
is found in the Baguio District, Northern Luzon.
The presence of several collision sites and the sub-
sequent results from such events are recognized in
the Palawan–Central Philippines area. Questions
of how many terranes make up an ophiolite and
which oceanic basin it came from are encompass-
ing issues for the different oceanic lithospheres in
the Philippines. The Pujada Ophiolite in southeast-
ern Mindanao is used here as an example in dis-
cussing this. A brief geological background for
each area, based on the geological surveys we con-
ducted, is presented. From these, new interpreta-
tions are forwarded which are more consistent
with the most recent available information.
BAGUIO DISTRICT, NORTHERN LUZON
The subduction of the South China Sea oceanic
lithosphere along the Manila Trench resulted into
Eocene Oligocene Miocene Pliocene Pleistocene Holocene
E M L
South China Sea
Southeast Sulu Sea
Celebes Sea
West Philippine Basin
Manila
Negros
Sulu
Cotabato
Philippine
East Luzon
Philippine Fault
East Luzon Trough
Philippine Trench
Transform Fault
80 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.

Fig. 3 (Continued)
 Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 81

Fig. 3 (a) Geological map of Baguio City and its immediate vicinity. The change during the Miocene from the Zigzag Formation to the Klondyke Formation
represents the transition from a marginal basin to an island arc setting for the area. Mapping was done by the University of the Philippines—National Insti-
tute of Geological Sciences 1991 Geology 170 and 215 classes. See text for details. (b) Geological cross sections showing the presence of Zigzag Formation
clasts in the Atake Creek Basalt. This magmatism is attributed to subduction along the Manila Trench (Section A-A¢). (c) Section B-B¢ shows the relationship
of the Zigzag Formation, Kennon Limestone and Klondyke Formation. This highlights the change from a marginal basin to an island arc setting for the
Baguio District. (d) The basement Pugo Metavolcanics and Dalupirip Schist are intruded by gabbroic to dioritic intrusive bodies (Section C-C¢) generated
by subduction along the Manila Trench. (e) Stratigraphy of Baguio City and vicinity. See text for details.

the intrusion of silicic batholiths and extrusion of
basaltic lavas in Northern Luzon. This is well
exposed in the Baguio District, which is floored
by an ophiolitic complex, the Pugo Metavolca-
nics (Yumul & Manjoorsa 1994) (Fig. 3a–c). The
geochemistry of the Eocene Pugo Metavolcanics
volcanic-hypabyssal rocks suggests generation in
a subduction-related marginal basin other than
the Oligo-Miocene South China Sea basin (e.g.
Yumul 1995; Bellon & Yumul 2000). The silicic
rocks, which host the Middle Miocene to Plio-
Pleistocene gold–copper mineralization in the
district, display island arc geochemical composi-
tion. The Pugo Metavolcanics is unconformably
overlain by the Lower Oligocene Zigzag Forma-
tion. The Zigzag Formation was deposited in a
deep marine environment. It includes a monomic-
tic conglomerate member whose clasts were
82 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.
derived from the Pugo Metavolcanics. The Early
to Middle Miocene saw the deposition of the ree-
fal Kennon Limestone. Voluminous intrusions of
calc-alkaline batholitic rocks due to subduction
along the Manila Trench were emplaced by the
Middle to Late Miocene (e.g. Yumul et al. 1995;
Bellon & Yumul 2000). This was accompanied by
the deposition of the Klondyke Formation, which
has a polymictic conglomerate member whose
clasts are dioritic in composition. These clasts
represent the eroded materials from the island
arc. The change of clast composition from the
Zigzag Formation to the Klondyke Formation
coincided with the change in the tectonic setting
from a subduction-related marginal basin to an
island arc system (Fig. 4). 40K–40Ar isotopic dat-
ings of extrusive and intrusive rocks, together
with paleontological datings of the different sedi-
mentary rock formations in the Baguio District,
constrain the initiation of subduction of the South
China Sea along the Manila Trench during the
Early Miocene (ca 22 Ma) (Bellon & Yumul 2000).
In essence, the combined sedimentological,
Age (Ma) 0 5 10
Formations
Mirador Klondyke
& Pico
Mineralization
Intrusive Manila Trench-related
bodies
Early
Miocene
Significance
Setting Island arc
Fig. 4 Summary of events in the Baguio District. The Early Miocene is an important period in the evolution of Northern Luzon.
geochemical and isotopic age data, made avail-
able by recent studies in the area, allow the
reconstruction of the geological evolution of the
Baguio District with more confidence.
PALAWAN–CENTRAL PHILIPPINES COLLISION ZONE
The Philippines is made up of two major
blocks: the aseismic Palawan microcontinental
block and the seismically active Philippine
Mobile Belt. The Palawan microcontinental block,
which was rifted from Mainland Asia (e.g. Hollo-
way 1982), started to collide with the Philippine
Mobile Belt during the Early to Middle Miocene
(e.g. Karig 1983; Marchadier & Rangin 1990).
This collision resulted in the closure of a part of
the South China Sea leading to the emplacement
of an ophiolite suite in Mindoro and the rotation
of islands within the vicinity of the indentation
(e.g. McCabe et al. 1985; Rangin et al. 1985;
Jumawan et al. 1994) (Fig. 1a). With the exist-
ence of several ancient collision sites in the Cen-
tral Philippines, their relationships with each
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Pugo Metavolcanics
Zigzag
Kennon
Proto-East Luzon Trough-related
Waning stage – Proto East Luzon Trough
Cessation of spreading – south China Sea
Age of metamorphism – Dalupirip
Change from strike–slip to trench feature
arc polarity reversal
Transition Marginal Basin
 Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 83
other are still not fully understood. Numerous
studies consider Mindoro as the site of collision
between the Palawan microcontinental block and
the Philippine Mobile Belt. Southwest Mindoro is
mapped to be of continental affinity, whereas
northeast Mindoro is of island arc affinity
(Fig. 5a). The boundary between the two blocks
is taken to be either a subduction-related fore-
land thrust belt or a region of large-scale strike–
slip fault zone (Karig 1983; Sarewitz & Karig
1986). The metamorphic rocks exposed in the
Romblon group of islands define a metamor-
phic belt, along with that of Mindoro and Buru-
anga Peninsula in Panay (e.g. Bureau of Mines &
Geosciences 1982; Faure et al. 1989; Rangin et al.
1991) (Fig. 5b). The ophiolitic and metamorphic
rocks in the Romblon group of islands, which are
overlain by a pre-Eocene mélange complex, were
interpreted to have formed in a subduction-
related accretionary complex (Faure et al. 1989).
For that matter, another ancient collision zone is
exposed in the Busuanga group of islands where
Permian–Triassic rocks are exposed (e.g. Zamo-
ras & Matsuoka 2001). The leading edge of the
collision zone could actually be located east of the
Romblon group of islands and not in Mindoro
Island. All of the above information, especially
the existence of different accretionary com-

Early Middle
–

Late Eocene–
Early Oligocene
Early–late Foreland
Eocene thrust belt

Fig. 5 (a) Geological map of western Mind-

oro as modified from Jumawan et al. (1994).
The reported foreland thrust belt (BMG 1982)
and Mindoro Suture Zone as mapped by Sare-
witz & Karig (1986) are also shown. See text for
details. AOC = Middle Oligocene Amnay Ophi-
olitic Complex. (b) The suture zone between
Sundaland, as exemplified by Palawan and the
Zamboanga Peninsula, and the Philippine
Mobile Belt passes through Mindoro, the Rom-
blon group of islands, Panay and continues all
the way to Zamboanga Peninsula. The metamor-
phic rocks of Mindoro, Romblon group of
islands and Buruanga, Panay define a metamor-
phic belt almost coincident with the suture zone
in those areas.
84 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.
plexes, reveals the complexities involved in the
collision between a microcontinental block and an
island arc in Central Philippines.
PUJADA OPHIOLITE COMPLEX, DAVAO ORIENTAL,
MINDANAO
The Pujada Ophiolite Complex is a complete oce-
anic crust–mantle sequence made up of pillow
lavas, dyke complex, isotropic to layered gabbros,
troctolites and norites, sparse clinopyroxenites,
dunites and harzburgites. Pillow lavas are exposed
together with sheet flows in Mati, whereas the
whole sequence of the oceanic lithosphere is exten-
Late MioCene–
Early Eocene–
Middle Miocene
0 100 Mapped
km
sively exposed in the Pujada Peninsula (Fig. 6a,b).
Cherts, limestones and red pelagic mudstones,
belonging to the Iba Formation, cap the pillow
lavas exposed in Mati. Paleontological dating on a
limestone sample (MA-25-2-6) (M. de Leon, ana-
lyst) gave a Late Cretaceous age based on the
presence of Globotruncana sp. The sample also
contains a deep marine faunal assemblage. This is
consistent with the Late Cretaceous (Cenoma-
nian–Campanian) age determined as by Quebral
et al. (1996) based on radiolarians found in the cap-
ping chert.
Most of the mafic cumulate rocks from the
Pujada Ophiolite are fresh. The crystallization
order for the gabbros is olivine–plagioclase–
km
Strike–slip fault
Late Cretaceous–
Early Cretaceous
Fig. 6 (a) Geological map of Mati–Pujada,
Davao Oriental, Mindanao. Inset shows the loca-
tion of the Pacific Cordillera, Agusan-Davao
Trough, Central Cordillera and the Sindangan–
Cotabato–Daguma Lineament. Mapping was
done by the University of the Philippines—
National Institute of Geological Sciences 1998
Geology 170 and 215 classes.
 Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 85

b
Holocene

Quat.
Quaternary
deposits
Pleistocene

Monserat
Pliocene Conglomerate
Sigaboy

Cenozoic
Formation
Late La Union
Sandstone

Tertiary
Miocene
Middle
Early
Oligocene
Taganilao
Late Limestone
Middle Sanghay
Formation
Eocene Early Sudlon
Sandstone

Dawan
Paleocene Clastic Rocks

Iba Bitanagon

Bitaogan Metamorphics
Formation Limestone
Late
Lampasan
Chert
Mesozoic Cretaceous Pillow
Basalt
Pujada Gabbro
Fig. 6 (Continued) (b) Stratigraphic column for the Mati–Pujada area, Early Ophiolite
Davao Oriental, Mindanao. The Pujada Ophiolite is dated at least Upper Cre-
taceous based on paleontological analyses of the overlying Iba Formation. Peridotite
See text for details. Quat., Quaternary.

clinopyroxene and the norites exhibit olivine–
orthopyroxene–clinopyroxene–plagioclase order.
Some of the gabbros are altered to amphibolites.
The dunites and harzburgites exhibit varying
stages of serpentinization. Hob-nail texture is very
apparent among the serpentinized harzburgites.
Anorthosite dykes interacting with dunite resulted
in the formation of troctolites. The petrography
and our whole rock and mineral chemistry data are
consistent with the conclusion of Hawkins et al.
(1985) that the Pujada Ophiolite is a supra-
subduction zone ophiolite.
The volcanic sequence of the ophiolite displays
either island arc or back-arc basin geochemical
affinity (Hawkins et al. 1985). Hawkins et al. (1985)
concluded that the Pujada Ophiolite is the north-
ern extension of Halmahera and that the Agusan–
Davao Trough is the site of suturing between the
Pacific (Eastern Mindanao) and the Central Cor-
dilleras (Central Mindanao). In contrast, other
studies showed that there is no collision zone in the
Agusan-Davao Trough since areas on both sides of
the basin show similar stratigraphies (Pubellier
et al. 1996; Quebral et al. 1996). They further noted
that the collision zone in Mindanao is defined by
the northwest–southeast trending Saranggani–
Cotabato–Daguma Lineament (Fig. 6a) and that
the ophiolitic rocks exposed in the Pujada Penin-
sula is not correlatable with the volcanic rocks
exposed in Mati. Lallemand et al. (1998), using
available focal mechanism solutions in southeast-
ern Mindanao, also concluded that the Halmahera
terrane does not continue to eastern Mindanao.
Evidence will be presented later showing that the
ophiolite actually defines a single terrane which
could have originated from a proto-Molucca Sea.
DISCUSSION
PALAWAN–CENTRAL PHILIPPINES COLLISION AND
MANILA TRENCH INITIATION
The Palawan microcontinental block rifted from
the Asian Mainland during the opening of the
Early Oligocene to Early Miocene South China
Sea basin. The rifting was immediately followed by
the collision between the Palawan microcontinen-
tal block and the Philippine Mobile Belt. This col-
lision resulted in the rotation of islands north
(counter-clockwise) and south (clockwise) of the
Palawan indenter (e.g. McCabe et al. 1982) (Fig. 1
a). The difference in the morphological trends of
the Central Philippine islands (northeast-trending
Panay, Cebu, Bohol, Negros vis-à-vis northwest-
trending Leyte and Samar) is attributed to this
collision event (Yumul et al. 2000b). Paleomagnetic
study of Marinduque Island, north of the collision
zone, registered a counter-clockwise rotation (e.g.
86 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.
McCabe et al. 1987). The whole of Luzon Island is
also reported to have rotated at least 20∞ counter-
clockwise during the Miocene consistent with the
collision event. The Philippines was translated
north-northwestward from the south along large-
scale, bounding shear zones (e.g. Rangin et al.
1990; Hall 1996, 2002; Sibuet et al. 2002). In the
course of the translation, the Central Philippine
portion collided with the Palawan microcontinental
block during the Early Miocene. The collision
resulted in a dramatic and far-reaching effect in
Northern Luzon in terms of arc flipping, trench
initiation and magmatism.
The Paleogene magmatism in Northern Luzon
is exemplified by the Sierra Madre magmatic arc,
which is exposed along the eastern side of the
island (Fig. 1). This Paleogene magmatic arc is
believed to have formed due to the subduction of
the Philippine Sea Plate along the proto-East
Luzon Trough. This is consistent with the exist-
ence of a well-developed ancient accretionary
prism which cannot be attributed to the rejuve-
nated, present-day East Luzon Trough. The Late
Oligocene saw the waning stage of magmatism
related to the proto-East Luzon Trough (Bellon &
Yumul 2000). Several models, mostly involving col-
lision of Luzon with an oceanic bathymetric high
coming from the east (Benham Rise) or southeast
(Bicol Arc), were proposed to explain the change in
subduction polarity from east to west. However,
these models cannot explain all the temporal and
spatial constraints provided by the available geo-
logical data.
On the other hand, arc flipping can be
explained by the collision of Palawan with Cen-
tral Philippines during the Early Miocene. As a
result of this indentation, Luzon underwent an
Early to Middle Miocene 20∞ counter-clockwise
rotation (McCabe et al. 1987). This counter-
clockwise rotation led to the onramping of Luzon
atop the South China Sea Plate, as well as the
conversion of the bounding shear zone west of
Luzon into a subduction zone, the Manila Trench.
The Early Miocene Manila Trench initiation is in
agreement with the Late Oligocene cessation of
magmatism attributed to the waning of the
proto-East Luzon Trough. The implication of this
model is that the Palawan–Central Philippines
collision event is actually the cause of the initia-
tion and formation of the Manila Trench. This is
in contrast to previous models, which suggest
that the collision event was an accompanying
result due to the subduction of the South China
Sea along the Manila Trench.
ANATOMY OF AN ‘ACCORDION-TYPE’ COLLISION ZONE
The Palawan–Central Philippines collision zone
has been the subject of several studies and specu-
lations since there is no general agreement on
where and how the collision occurred (e.g. Pineda
& Aurelio 1992). The reported foreland thrust belt
in southwest Mindoro is believed to correspond to
the suture zone between the Palawan microconti-
nental block and the Philippine Mobile Belt (e.g.
Karig 1983; Rangin et al. 1985) (Fig. 5a). This fore-
land thrust belt is also taken as the onshore exten-
sion of the Manila Trench (e.g. Marchadier &
Rangin 1990). Karig’s (1983) model also calls for
the oceanic leading edge of the Palawan microcon-
tinental block to have subducted beneath north-
east Mindoro until the actual continent-arc
collision. However, a detailed structural and strati-
graphic study of the island found no foreland
thrust belt in southwest Mindoro (Sarewitz &
Karig 1986). Instead, the juxtapositioning of the
continental and island arc blocks in Mindoro was
interpreted to be related to large-scale transpres-
sional faults. Sarewitz & Karig (1986) concluded
that the whole of southern Mindoro is part of the
Palawan microcontinental block. On the other
hand, other workers opined that the site of colli-
sion might actually be located offshore east of Min-
doro island (e.g. Bird et al. 1993). Interpretation of
gravity and magnetic data suggests that the colli-
sion boundary is located east of the Romblon
group of islands (Pineda & Aurelio 1992).
Our work in Mindoro dealt with the mapping
of the different ophiolite complexes and their
associated metamorphic rocks and mélange
units. Three suites of ultramafic-mafic com-
plexes, possibly representing different suture
zones, were recognized (Yumul et al. 1997)
(Fig. 7a). In Puerto Galera, northeast Mindoro,
harzburgites on top of amphibolites were
mapped as part of a collision zone (Fig. 7a,
Suture 1). These rocks are also associated with a
broken formation made up of harzburgite clasts
enclosed in serpentinized matrix. The amphibo-
lites are interpreted as part of the metamorphic
sole formed due to the emplacement of the
harzburgites in a subduction-related setting. In
Bongabong, Central Mindoro, harzburgites
onramped on top of an amphibolite, which grades
into greenschist and phyllites and ultimately into
the sedimentary and volcanic rock protoliths,
have been encountered. This sequence is consid-
ered part of the Lower Cretaceous Mangyan
Ophiolite (Hashimoto 1981) and is believed to
 Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 87
a collision zone shows the presence of several accre-
km
Ancient
b
Middle Miocene–Pliocene
Fig. 7 (a) Map showing the different suture zones involved in the col-
lision of the Palawan-Philippine Mobile Belt. Ancient accretionary com-
plexes (Romblon, Bongabong, Busuanga) are also shown. (b) Inset shows
the migration of the collision fronts. At T1 (Early Miocene), the Puerto Gal-
era ultramafic rocks—broken formation together with the Romblon
ancient accretionary complex were emplaced during the suturing with
Central Philippines (i.e. Masbate). Southwestward migration (T2) resulted
into the emplacement of the Amnay Ophiolitic Complex during the Middle
Miocene. This suturing event was completed by the Pliocene. Continuous
interaction (T3) between Palawan and the Philippine Mobile Belt resulted
in a limited southwestward migration of the collision front. Ultimately, the
excess stress will be accommodated east of Romblon marking the shift in
the locus of collision front. All sections are drawn on a northeast–south-
west reference line based on present geographic setting.
represent an ancient collision zone not related to
the collision event in Central Philippines. In
southwest Mindoro, the Middle Oligocene Amnay
Ophiolitic Complex was interpreted to be part of
an emplaced South China Sea oceanic crust (e.g.
Rangin et al. 1985; Jumawan et al. 1994) (Fig. 7a,
Suture 2). Continuous interaction between Pala-
wan and Central Philippines led to the south-
westward migration of the collision front (Fig. 7a,
Present suture).
The geology of the Palawan–Central Philippines
tionary complexes. Aside from what is observed in
Mindoro, the collision zone in the Busuanga group
of islands exposes Permian to Triassic sediments
and has been extensively studied (e.g. Tumanda
1994; Zamoras & Matsuoka 2001). The rock for-
mations in the Romblon group of islands are also
associated with collision-related accretionary pro-
cesses. The disposition of the ultramafic and meta-
morphic rocks in the Romblon group of islands
resulted from a southward thrusting event related
to subduction along the Southeast China margin
during the pre-Eocene times (Faure et al. 1989).
These metamorphic rocks (e.g. marbles, metased-
iments), together with the metamorphic rocks of
Mindoro and Buruanga Peninsula in Panay, define
the easternmost zone of the Palawan–Central
Philippine collision zone (Fig. 5b). The geological
setting suggests a collisional boundary farther
east of Mindoro which, based on geophysical
results, must be between the Romblon group of
islands and the Philippine Mobile Belt. Such a set-
ting highlights two things. First, there are several
collision zones involving various fragments of oce-
anic lithospheres and metamorphic rocks within
the Palawan–Central Philippines. Second,
although the temporal and spatial relationships of
the various collision zones are not yet fully known
and understood, there appears to be an initial
southwestward migration of collision from Rom-
blon towards southwest Mindoro. The collision in
Mindoro (Fig. 7a, Suture 2) was completed during
the Pliocene due to the consumption of the leading
oceanic plate and arrival of the Palawan microcon-
tinental block (Karig 1983). Limited southwest-
ward migration of the collision front followed the
suturing event that emplaced the Amnay Ophi-
olitic Complex (Fig. 7a, Present suture). Nonethe-
less, with the continuous compressional regime
due to the northwestward motion of the Philippine
Sea Plate, the excess stress in the Palawan–
Philippine Mobile Belt collision front is now actu-
ally being accommodated along the structural
boundary (Fig. 7a,b, Suture 1) east of the Rom-
blon group of islands. The Early Miocene
southwest migration of the Palawan—Central
Philippine collision zone, through the Pliocene ter-
mination in Mindoro, all the way to the proposed
present-day northeastward shift and accommoda-
tion of stress east of Romblon mimics the long-
term retreat and forward motion (‘accordion-
type’) of a subduction-related collision zone
complex (Fig. 7b).
88 G. P. Yumul Jr et al.
PUJADA OPHIOLITE COMPLEX: AN AUTOCHTHONOUS,
SINGLE TERRANE OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE
Previous works concluded that the exposed Pujada
Ophiolite in the Pujada Peninsula is not related to
the volcanic–sedimentary rock sequence exposed
in Mati (Fig. 6a,b). Hawkins et al. (1985) reported
the presence of juxtaposed volcanic rocks of island
arc tholeiite compositions, exposed in the Mati
area, and back-arc basin basalts in the Pujada
Peninsula. Structural data also revealed that the
Peninsula is characterized by east-verging thrust
faults, whereas deposits in the Mati area record
west-verging thrust faults (Quebral et al. 1996).
Unpublished works by the regional office of the
Philippine Bureau of Mines and Geosciences con-
sidered the Pujada Ophiolite as Eocene. The
Upper Cretaceous Iba Formation, which is exten-
sively exposed in the Mati area, was not consid-
ered as the corresponding carapace of the ophiolite
sequence (Fig. 6b). Lastly, the perceived difference
in the overlying sediment formations (i.e. Sigaboy
Formation) of the Pujada Ophiolite exposed in the
Peninsula and those sediments (i.e. Sanghay For-
mation) capping the volcanic rocks exposed in the
Mati area can give the impression that the two
areas (Pujada Peninsula and Mati) are not geolog-
ically related to each other and that they might
define two distinct terranes.
By contrast, our field mapping shows that the
Pujada Ophiolite is a single terrane that encom-
passes both the rocks exposed in Mati and the
Pujada Peninsula. The presence of norite within
the mafic cumulate sequence exposed in the Pen-
insula, which shows pyroxene crystallizing ahead
of plagioclase, is indicative of an arc environment.
This arc-related mafic cumulate sequence occurs
together with back-arc basin basalts. On the other
hand, the volcanic rocks in Mati show both island
arc and ocean-floor basalt whole rock geochemical
characteristics. The whole Pujada Ophiolite, as
mentioned before, is classifiable as a supra-
subduction zone ophiolite. It originated from a rel-
atively deep subduction-related marginal basin
based on the capping chert and pelagic limestones.
The observed difference in the thrusting direc-
tions of the northern and southern portions of the
ophiolite could be related to postemplacement
movements. Our work shows the preponderance of
west-verging thrust faults from Mati to the Pujada
Peninsula compared to east-verging structures. In
terms of the sedimentary cover, the Sanghay For-
mation as exposed in Mati contains chert, lime-
stone, clastic rock, basalt, and gabbro clasts. The
Sigaboy Formation in the Peninsula consists of
clasts that were derived from the ultramafic rock
section of the Pujada Ophiolite. Thus, the conten-
tion that the two formations indicate the presence
of two terranes is not necessarily correct. The
Sanghay and Sigaboy Formations could represent
the results of the continuous uplift and unroofing
of the ophiolite. The difference in clast composi-
tions was a function of the provenance of the
clasts rather than on the presence of two distinct
terranes.
If the Pujada Ophiolite represents a single ter-
rane, where did it originate? Previous works have
correlated eastern Mindanao (Pacific Cordillera)
with Halmahera to the south. This suggests that
the Pujada Ophiolite is related to Halmahera. The
Upper Cretaceous Pujada Ophiolite could not be a
fragment of the present-day Philippine Sea Plate
on the basis of its geological setting (Pubellier
et al. 1996). It is possible that the Pujada Ophiolite
may represent part of a proto-Molucca Sea (Bader
et al. 1999; Pubellier et al. 1999). This makes
the Pujada Ophiolite an autochthonous oceanic
lithosphere.
CONCLUSIONS
Regional mapping of three areas in the Philippines
allowed reinterpretation of their geology. The
Early Miocene saw the collision of the Palawan
microcontinental block with the Central Philip-
pines. This event resulted in the clockwise and
counter-clockwise rotation of islands south and
north, respectively, of the collision zone. The
resulting counter-clockwise rotation of Luzon con-
verted the shear zone bounding the western side of
this island into the Manila Trench. The Manila
Trench initiation occurred during the waning stage
of subduction along the proto-East Luzon Trough.
With regards to the site of collision between the
Palawan microcontinental block and the Philippine
Mobile Belt, the geology of the region suggests
that the leading edge of the collision zone is pres-
ently located east of the Romblon group of islands.
This is consistent with the tectonic setting and dis-
tribution of metamorphic rocks in Mindoro, Rom-
blon and Buruanga Peninsula, Panay. The geology
of the region preserves evidence of an Early
Miocene southwestward shift followed by a
rebound characterized by the present-day north-
eastward migration of the collision front. For the
Pujada Ophiolite, it is a single terrane consisting of
volcanic rocks and sedimentary carapace in Mati
 Collision, subduction, accretion in the Philippines 89
and the mafic-ultramafic rock suite in the Pujada
Peninsula. This exposed autochthonous oceanic
lithosphere, of supra-subduction zone geochemical
affinity, was likely derived from a proto-Molucca
Sea. Clearly, the three areas succinctly manifest
the complex interplay of geological factors
involved in collision, trench initiation and ophiolite
accretion in an island arc setting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The results presented here are products of several
summer field camps with the undergraduate and
graduate students of the University of the Philip-
pines—National Institute of Geological Sciences
(UP-NIGS). Partial financial support came from a
UP-NIGS Research Grant (Petrology of Philippine
Ophiolites) and a Lepanto Consolidated Professo-
rial Chair in Geology grant to GPY. Additional
funding support from the UP-Office of Research
Coordination (Baguio Project) and the Depart-
ment of Science and Technology (Mindoro, Mati–
Pujada Projects) are acknowledged. GPY would
like to thank Professor Shoji Arai for the invitation
to attend and to present a paper in the interna-
tional meeting on the Tectonics of the Circum
Japan Sea and vicinity held at the Kanazawa Uni-
versity. Field traverses, laboratory works and dis-
cussions were made easy and fruitful by H. Bellon,
F. T. Jumawan, E. J. Marquez, K. L. Queaño, D. V.
Faustino, J. V. De Jesus, N. T. Ramos and other
members of the UP-NIGS Rushurgent Working
Group. Constructive comments made by Professor
Eiichi Honza and Dr Manuel Pubellier on an ear-
lier draft of this paper are very much appreciated.
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