HUMAN ANATOMY

CHAPTER 2
THE CELL
BY
SEELEY’S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 10TH ED
 HUMAN ANATOMY
CHAPTER 2
THE CELL
• The Cell
• The basic unit of the living structure and function
• Adult human body consists of more than 50 trillion cells
• Four elements of the cell:
• Carbon
• Oxygen
• Hydrogen
• Nitrogen
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• The Cell
• Plus much smaller amounts of several other elements such as
• Iron
• Sodium
• Potassium
• A living cell is about 60% water
• It is constantly bathed in a dilute saltwater solution called interstitial fluid
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• Cells differ in length raging from 2 micrometers to over 3 feet or
more as in nerve c ells
• Cells also differ in shape
• Disk-shaped like red blood cells
• Thread-like extensions such as nerve cells
• Toothpicks pointed to each other such as smooth muscles
• Cube-like such as epithelial cells
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• Shapes of cells
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• Cells differ in functions
• Blood cells transport gases and protect the body from foreign substances
• Some cells are involved in producing hormones to regulate metabolic
processes
• Others are involved in producing enzymes for digestion of food
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• The Cell
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• THE PARTS OF THE CELL
• The Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane or the cell membrane surrounds the cell and
separates it from the surrounding environment
• In 1972 , the fluid –mosaic model of the membrane was formulated
• According to the model, the membrane is a fluid double layer, or bilayer,
composed mainly of proteins and phospholipids
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• Cell Membrane
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• The phospholipid bilayer forms a fluid
”sea” similar in consistency to vegetable
oil in which specific proteins float like
icebergs
• Because it is fluid, the membrane is in
constant flux, shifting and changing, yet at
the same time retaining its basic structure
and properties
• The word mosaic refers to the many
different proteins embedded on or within
the phospholipid layer
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• The specialized functions of the membrane are due to the presence of
proteins scattered in lipid bilayer
• Some proteins are enzymes, many are receptors or binding sites for
hormones or other chemical messengers
• Most proteins are involved in transport functions
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• Specializations of the plasma
membranes include
• Microvilli
• The epithelia cells that form the
linings of the hollow body organs
such as small intestines display
microvilli
• These are fingerlike projections
that greatly increase the cell’s
surface area for absorption so
that the process occur more quickly
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• Specializations of the plasma
membranes include
• Membrane junctions
• These include tight junctions,
desmosomes and gap junctions

• Tight junctions are impermeable

junctions that prevent substances
from passing through the
extracellular space between cells
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• Specializations of the plasma
membranes include
• Membrane junctions
• Tight junctions are impermeable
junctions that prevent substances from
passing through the extracellular
space between cells
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• Specializations of the plasma
membranes include
• Membrane junctions
• Desmosomes are anchoring junctions
that prevent cells subjected to
mechanical stress such as skin cells from
being pulled apart
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• Specializations of the plasma
membranes include
• Membrane junctions
• Gap junctions function basically to allow
communication, commonly seen in the
heart and between embryonic cells
• Chemical molecules such as nutrients
can pass directly from one cell to
another
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• Specializations of plasma
membrane
• Microvilli
• Membrane junctions
• Tight junctions
• Desmosomes
• Gap junctions
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• The Cytoplasm
• It is the cellular material outside the
nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane
• It is the site of most cellular activities
• It has three major elements:
• Cytosol
• Organelles
• Inclusions
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• The Cytoplasm
• The Cytosol
• Is a semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements
• The major component of c cytosol is water
• In which nutrients and other solutes are dissolved
• Organelles
• The metabolic machinery of the cell
• Each organelle carries out a specific function of the cell
• Some synthesize proteins while others package proteins
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• The Cytoplasm
• Inclusions
• They are chemical substances that may or may not be present ,
depending on the specific cell type
• Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products
• They include the droplets common in fat cells , glycogen granules,
pigments such as melanin seen in skin and hair cells, mucus and other
secretory products, and various kinds of crystals
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• The cytoplasm
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• They are specialized cellular compartments performing each own function to
maintain life of the cell
• Most organelles are bounded by membrane similar to that of plasma
membrane
• The membrane boundaries of such organelles allow them to maintain an
internal environment quite different from that of the surrounding cytosol
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Ribosomes
• Tiny round dark bodies made
of proteins and one variety
of RNA called ribosomal RNA
• They are actual sites of
protein synthesis in the cell
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Ribosomes
• Some ribosomes are attached to
membranes, some float free in
the cytoplasm
• The ribosome –membrane
combination is called rough
endoplasmic reticulum
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• A membrane-bound system of
fluid –filled cisterns (tubules or
canals)
• Serves as mini circulatory system
for the cell
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• It provides a network of channels
for carrying substances primarily
proteins from one part of the cell
to another
• Forms of ER
• Smooth ER
• Rough ER
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough ER
• Studded with ribosomes
• Essentially all of the building
materials of cellular membranes
are formed either in or on the
rough ER
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough ER
• It is abundant in cells that
export protein products
• For example pancreas cells
produce enzymes to be
delivered to the small
intestine
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Smooth ER
• Functions in cholesterol synthesis
and breakdown, fat metabolism,
and detoxification of drugs
• Liver cells are full of smooth ER
• Cells that produce steroid based
hormones like cells of the testis
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Golgi Apparatus
• A stack of flattened membranous
sacs in which lipids and proteins are
modified
• Specific modifications allow proteins
and lipids to be sorted out and
packaged in vesicles for transport
to specific locations
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Golgi Apparatus
• At the topmost Golgi membrane
vesicle form when when a portion
of the membrane bulges out and
breakaway
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Lysosomes
• They are the vesicles that bud from
Golgi membranes
• Organelles of intracellular digestions
• They contain different enzymes that
can breakdown virtually all
polysaccharide, proteins and nucleic
acid and some lipids
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Lysosomes
• Specifically abundant in white cells
that engulf bacteria and other
potentially harmful substances
because they digest and rid the
body of such foreign bodies
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Lysosomes
• The enzymes in lysosomes are
formed by ribosomes and
packaged by the Golgi apparatus
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs containing
powerful oxidase enzymes that use
molecular oxygen to detoxify a
number of harmful or poisonous
substances including alcohol and
formaldehyde
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Peroxisomes
• The most important function of
peroxisomes is to “disarm”
dangerous free radicals
• Free radicals are highly reactive
chemicals with unpaired electrons
that can scramble the structure of
proteins and and nucleic acids
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Peroxisomes
• Free radicals have devastating
effects on cells if they are allowed
to accumulate
• They will be converted hydrogen
peroxide, a function indicated in
their naming
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Peroxisomes
• The enzyme catalase then converts
the excess hydrogen peroxide to
water
• Abundant in the liver and kidney
cells which are very active in
detoxification
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Mitochondria
• Referred to as powerhouses of the
cell
• Energy that ATP molecules carry
from one reaction site to another
drives nearly all cell activities
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Mitochondria
• Store energy from breakdown
products of glucose and other
organic compounds and used to
form many ATP molecules
• Use O2 to extract energy
• When you breath in, you are
taking O2 primarily for
mitochondria
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Mitochondria
• Has two membranes
• Outer membrane faces the
cytoplasm
• Inner membrane usually folds
inward repeatedly
• Each fold has a crista
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Mitochondria
• The double membrane system
creates two compartments the
mitochondrion
• Enzymes and other proteins
associated with the inner membrane
serve as the machinery for ATP
formation and O2 keeps the
machinery running
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Mitochondria
• Active cells like the liver and muscle
cells use large amounts of ATP and
have hundreds of mitochondria
• In contrast inactive cells like
unfertilized eggs cells have few
mitochondria
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Cytoskeleton
• An interconnected system of
bundled fibers, slender threads ,
and latices that extend from the
plasm membrane and nucleus
• The system gives the cell its internal
organization overall shape and
capacity to move
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Cytoskeleton
• It is made up of:
• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments
• Microfilaments
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Cytoskeleton
• Intermediate filaments
• Help form desmosomes and
provide internal wires to resist
pulling forces on the cell
• Microfilaments such as actin and
myosin
• Most involved in cell motility and
in producing changes in cell
shapes
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules
• They are tubelike microtubules
that determine the overall
shape of a cell and the
distribution of organelles
• They are important in cell
division
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Centrioles
• Paired rod-shaped bodies lying at
right angles to each other
• Lie close to the nucleus
• Internally made up of fine
microtubules
• They direct the formation of mitotic
spindle during cell division
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Other structures
• Some cells have projections called cilia
• Whiplike extensions formed by the
centrioles that move substances
along the cell surface
• e.g. ciliated cells of the lining of
raspatory system move mucus up
and away from the lungs
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• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Other structures
• Flagella
• Long projections formed by the
centrioles
• e.g. sperm cell
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• THE NUCLEUS
• The control center of the cell
• Contains the genetic material or DNA –
deoxyribonucleic acid
• This contains the instructions needed for
building proteins
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• THE NUCLEUS
• The three distinct structures:
• Nuclear membrane
• Nucleoli
• Chromatin
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• THE NUCLEUS
• Nucleoli
• One or more dark dark-staining
round bodies in the nucleus
• Sites where ribosomes are
assembled, sites of protein synthesis
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• THE NUCLEUS
• Nuclear membrane
• Nuclear envelope a double
membrane that bounds the
nucleus
• Between the two membranes is a
fluid-filled space
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• THE NUCLEUS
• Nuclear membrane
• A selectively permeable membrane
which contains nuclear pores
• Encloses jelly-like fluid
called the
nucleoplasm, which contains the
nucleoli and chromatin
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• THE NUCLEUS
• Chromatin
• Loose network of threads
composed of DNA and protein in
a non-dividing cell
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• THE NUCLEUS
• Chromatin
• When the cell is dividing to form
two daughter cells the chromatin
threads coil and condense to
form dense rodlike bodies called
chromosomes
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 HUMAN ANATOMY
THE END OF CHAPTER 2
THE CELL
BY
SEELEY’S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 10TH ED