1.

1 ABOUT THE COMPANY

Five7 is a Gulbarga based technology and IT consulting firm focused on delivering the best
quality and cost effective solutions to clients. The company considers IT as the backbone of a
business ecosystem and provides complete solutions to address all aspects of the business. The
company’s approach focuses on new ways of business, combining IT innovation and adoption
while also an organizations current IT assets which is the business and technology strategies in
today’s environment. The company provides highly customized application development and
integration services.

Five7 is a company with core strength in technology training and software development.
We design, build and deliver solutions to suit the business requirements; be it in application
development or training, with commitment to time, quality, cost effectiveness and integrity.
We see our success in the transformation of our client’s business requirements to best practices
in software, with high ROI (Return on Investment). Our ERP Software solutions span across
mid segment manufacturing industries to Government enterprises, educational institutions and
retail marketing. Our Java based solutions cater to developing of Products in the web / mobile
space.

1.2 SERVICES OFFERED BY THE ORGANIZATION

Project Development

We have a dedicated development team of software engineers to undertake projects in the

following areas:

Applications Group

 The team has over 100 man-years of experience

 Maintenance & Testing
 School/College Management Package
 Business Retail Application
 Providing business insights through Data Science

Web application Group

This team is well equipped in terms of web based development, development of portals,
interactive sites; web enabled applications, and well versed with latest technologies.
 Five7 caters to the needs of the IT industry in the following segments:

 Training
 Application Software (ERP & e-Business Applications)
 Web based / Mobile based product development
 Android App development

1.3 Five7 Core Team consists of:

MOHAMMAD FAROOQ - With over 3 years of experience in the IT Industry covering a

vast domain of Enterprise Business Solutions, leads the company as Manager of Software
Engineering and Data Analysis.

MOHAMMED AMAAN - With more than 4 years of experience in the industry, leads the
operations as Director and also as the Senior Manager – Business.

1.4 OPERATION OF COMPANY

Five7 company, operations are in line to adhere to ISO 9001-2000 standards and our processes,
procedures and methodologies are continuously tuned towards achieving 100% customer
satisfaction.

1.4.1 Software Development

The entire SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) right from the initiation of the project to
the delivery and support is well defined as having the following milestones

 Feasibility study

 Software development specification

 Coding
 Unit testing
 Integration and integration testing
 Software delivery & Support
While the SDLC is defined, Quality processes encompassing Design, Testing, Quality
Planning, Contract Review, Project Management, Configuration Management, Change
Control, and Quality Assurance have been clearly specified and adhered to.
Reviews are built-in after every major milestone to ensure verification of the product (output)
resulting from the process.
We also use AGILE methodologies for achieving rapid application development for the e-
enabled business needs.

1.5 ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT

The Five7 Pvt limited has various departments like R&D , Education & Training Department,
Finance Department.

1.5.1 Specific Function, Role and Responsibility of Department:

Five7 has designed and developed a web based data conversion and workflow tool for
Document Management Services for different customers. This is Five7’s proprietary
application, which has been customized to client requirements and implemented to provide
data extraction and document management services for its global client. This is a flexible tool
and has the capability to be integrated to external OCR/ICR engines and other third party
applications depending on the technology and solutions platform.
This workflow tool can be configured for data extraction projects for different domains and
business verticals. These include extraction of financial data with the purpose of enabling
financial analysts to read, understand and capture business critical data from financial reports.
Business intelligence related to financial domain is built-in the system. The workflow has been
configured and used for other domains such as utility services, investment and retail banking,
general & life insurance, etc., where specific business requirements have been plugged in. It
has a distinct module to provide requisite data accuracy and efficiency.
This tool is customized, implemented and integrated with the workflow engine for providing
electronic content management and data extraction solutions. The tool has capability to
integrate data, information and objects such as scanned images, PC files to XML schema. The
tool has the capability to perform quality assurance on workflow processes. Data output can be
obtained from the tool in different formats including XML, EDI, RDBMS and Excel, etc.
 On Training
 Candidates will be able to develop their professional and technical
 competencies while working on projects.
 Get mentored by industry experienced professional.
 On training would to transfer the candidate from trainer to as employee
 On successful completion on training candidates would be assign to work
on Five7 prestigious projects.
They even conducted online exams

1.5.2 BENEFITS OF US:

 We can save our time from external training.

 Certified, Experienced and well trained faculties.
 Hands on experience on live projects.
 Platform for improving professional competencies.
 Get a experienced certificate.
 Get international certificate.
 Get placed in Five7 or in other companies.

1.6 About working place

In Five7 company, I had a good place to work and good staff to help me out in all situations it
is very quite and pleasant so I can concentrate on the work. Even though I had a lot to travel on
the daily basis to reach my company but it was a good experience to work in company and
learnt many things.

1.7 About the staff

This is the first time I had a chance to work with a company. I think it was a better experience
and was very helpful. My guide not only gave me the document related to the current system,
but also helped me to understand the requirements and the current system. He helped me many
times to give some more new requirements, to make suggestions and to correct the analysis and
design until it was fully worked-out.
 TABLES OF CONTENT

1. Introduction...................................................................................4
Image Segmentation…......................................................................5
Region Growing Approach............................................................................4
Clustering 3
K-means............................................................................................4
Hierarchical Segmentation................................................................9
Thresholding..................................................................................................10
Design Steps..................................................................................................11
System Analysis............................................................................................12

2. Proposed System.........................................................................13
Fast discrete Curvelet Transformation..............................................14
Block Diagram..................................................................................17
Texture Analysis.............................................................................................19
Co-Occurrence Matrixs..................................................................................20

3. Neural Networks.........................................................................21
Neural network...............................................................................................24
The Used Neural Network..............................................................................28
Types of Neural Networks..............................................................................32
radical Basis Layer…...................................................................................36
PNN 38

4. Spatial Fuzzy Clustering Model....................................................39

Fuzzy C means Algorithm..................................................................41
Initilaising the Fuzzy Weights...........................................................42
Eliminating Empty Clusters...........................................................................44
Morphological Process....................................................................................46
Erosion and Dilation.......................................................................................47

5. Simulated Results........................................................................48
MRI Brain With Benign Case.......................................................................49
MRI Brain With Malignant Case...................................................................51
MRI Brain With Normal Case.......................................................................53

6. Conclusions and Future Scope .........................................55

7. Bibliography.................................................................................56
8. Appendices....................................................................................42
 ABSTRACT

The Automatic Support Intelligent System is used to detect Brain Tumor through the
combination of neural network and fuzzy logic system. It helps in the diagnostic and aid in the
treatment of the brain tumor. The detection of the Brain Tumor is a challenging problem, due to
the structure of the Tumor cells in the brain. This project presents an analytical method that
enhances the detection of brain tumor cells in its early stages and to analyze anatomical
structures by training and classification of the samples in neural network system and tumor cell
segmentation of the sample using fuzzy clustering algorithm. The artificial neural network will
be used to train and classify the stage of Brain Tumor that would be benign, malignant or
normal.

The Fast discrete curvelet transformation is used to analysis texture of an image. In brain
structure analysis, the tissues which are WM and GM are extracted. Probabilistic Neural
Network with radial basis function is employed to implement an automated Brain Tumor
classification. Decision making is performed in two stages: feature extraction using GLCM and
the classification using PNN-RBF network. The segmentation is performed by fuzzy logic
system and its result would be used as a base for early detection of Brain Tumor which would
improves the chances of survival for the patient. The performance of this automated intelligent
system evaluates in terms of training performance and classification accuracies to provide the
precise and accurate results. The simulated result enhances and shows that classifier and
segmentation algorithm provides better accuracy than previous methodologies.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

2
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

Automated classification and detection of tumors indifferent medical images is motivated

by the necessity of high accuracy when dealing with a human life. Also, the computer assistance
is demanded in medical institutions due to the fact that it could improve the results of humans in
such a domain where the false negative cases must be at a very low rate. It has been proven that
double reading of medical images could lead to better tumor detection. Butte cost implied in
double reading is very high, that’s why good software to assist humans in medical institutions is
of great interest nowadays. Conventional methods of monitoring and diagnosing the diseases
rely on detecting the presence of particular features by a human observer. Due to large number
of patients in intensive care units and the need for continuous observation of such conditions,
several techniques for automated diagnostic systems have been developed in recent years to
attempt to solve this problem. Such techniques work by transforming the mostly qualitative
diagnostic criteria into a more objective quantitative feature classification problem In this project
the automated classification of brain magnetic resonance images by using some prior knowledge
like pixel intensity and some anatomical features is proposed. Currently there are no methods
widely accepted therefore automatic and reliable methods for tumor detection are of great need
and interest. The application of PNN in the classification of data for MR images problems are
not fully utilized yet. These included the clustering and classification techniques especially for
MR images problems with huge scale of data and consuming times and energy if done

3
 manually. Thus, fully understanding the recognition, classification or clustering techniques is
essential to the developments of Neural Network systems particularly in medicine problems.

Segmentation of brain tissues in gray matter, white matter and tumor on medical images
is not only of high interest in serial treatment monitoring of “disease burden” in oncologic
imaging, but also gaining popularity with the advance of image guided surgical approaches.
Outlining the brain tumor contour is a major step in planning spatially localized radiotherapy
(e.g., Cyber knife, iMRT ) which is usually done manually on contrast enhanced T1-weighted
magnetic resonance images (MRI) in current clinical practice. On T1 MR Images acquired after
administration of a contrast agent (gadolinium), blood vessels and parts of the tumor, where the
contrast can pass the blood–brain barrier are observed as hyper intense areas. There are various
attempts for brain tumor segmentation in the literature which use a single modality, combine
multi modalities and use priors obtained from population atlases.

IMAGE SEGMENTATION

OVERVIEW

Segmentation problems are the bottleneck to achieve object extraction, object specific
measurements, and fast object rendering from multi-dimensional image data. Simple segmentation
techniques are based on local pixel-neighborhood classification. Such methods fail however to
global objects rather than local appearances and require often intensive operator assistance. The
reason is that the “logic” of a object does not necessarily follow that of its local image
representation. Local properties, such as textures, edginess, and ridgeness etc. do not always
represent connected features of a given object.

4
 REGION GROWING APPROACH

Region growing technique segments image pixels that are belong to an object into
regions. Segmentation is performed based on some predefined criteria. Two pixels can be
grouped together if they have the same intensity characteristics or if they are close to each other.
It is assumed that pixels that are closed to each other and have similar intensity values are likely
to belong to the same object. The simplest form of the segmentation can be achieved through
thresholding and component labeling. Another method is to find region boundaries using edge
detection. Segmentation process, then, uses region boundary information to extract the regions.
The main disadvantage of region growing approach is that it often requires a seed point as the
starting point of the segmentation process. This requires user interaction. Due to the variations in
image intensities and noise, region growing can result in holes and over segmentation. Thus, it
sometimes requires post-processing of the segmentation result.

CLUSTERING

Clustering can be considered the most important unsupervised learning problem, so it

deals with finding a structure in a collection of unlabeled data. A cluster is therefore a collection
of objects which are “similar” between them and are “dissimilar” to the objects belonging to
other clusters
Clustering algorithms may be classified as listed below:

(1) Exclusive Clustering

(2) Overlapping Clustering
(3) Hierarchical Clustering
(4) Probabilistic Clustering

5
 In the first case data are grouped in an exclusive way, so that if a certain datum belongs to a
definite cluster then it could not be included in another cluster. On the contrary the second type,
the overlapping clustering, uses fuzzy sets to cluster data, so that each point may belong to two
or more clusters with different degrees of membership. In this case, data will be associated to an
appropriate membership value. A hierarchical clustering algorithm is based on the union between
the two nearest clusters. The beginning condition is realized by setting every datum as a cluster.
After a few iterations it reaches the final clusters wanted

K-MEANS SEGMENTATION

K-means is one of the simplest unsupervised learning algorithms that solve the well-
known clustering problem. The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a given data
set through a certain number of clusters (assume k clusters) fixed a priori. The main idea is to
define k centroids, one for each cluster. These centroids should be placed in a cunning way
because of different location causes different result. So, the better choice is to place them as
much as possible far away from each other. The next step is to take each point belonging to a
given data set and associate it to the nearest centroids. When no point is pending, the first step is
completed and an early group age is done. At this point we need to re-calculate k new centroids
as centers of the clusters resulting from the previous step. After we have these k new centroids, a
new binding has to be done between the same data set points and the nearest new centroids. A
loop has been generated. As a result of this loop we may notice that the k centroids change their
location step by step until no more changes are done. In other words centroids do not move any
more. Finally, this algorithm aims at minimizing an objective function, in this case a squared
error function.

6
HIERARCHICAL SEGMENTATION

A hierarchical set of image segmentations is a set of several image segmentations of the

same image at different levels of detail in which the segmentations at coarser levels of detail can
be produced from simple merges of regions at finer levels of detail. A unique feature of
hierarchical segmentation is that the segment or region boundaries are maintained at the full
image spatial resolution for all segmentations. In a hierarchical segmentation, an object of
interest may be represented by multiple image segments in finer levels of detail in the
segmentation hierarchy, and may be merged into a surrounding region at coarser levels of detail
in the segmentation hierarchy. If the segmentation hierarchy has sufficient resolution, the object
of interest will be represented as a single region segment at some intermediate level of
segmentation detail.

A goal of the subject analysis of the segmentation hierarchy is to identify the hierarchical
level at which the object of interest is represented by a single region segment. The object may
then be identified through its spectral and spatial characteristics. Additional clues for object
identification may be obtained from the behavior of the image segmentations at the hierarchical
segmentation level above and below the level at which the object of interest is represented by a
single region.

7
THRESHOLDING

The simplest method of image segmentation is called the thresholding method. This
method is based on a clip-level (or a threshold value) to turn a gray- scale image into a binary
image. The key of this method is to select the threshold value (or values when multiple-levels are
selected). Several popular methods are used in industry including the maximum entropy method,
Otsu's method (maximum variance), and k-means clustering. Recently, methods have been
developed for thresholding computed tomography (CT) images. The key idea is that, unlike
Otsu's method, the thresholds are derived from the radiographs instead of the (reconstructed)
image.

DESIGN STEPS

(1) Set the initial threshold T= (the maximum value of the image brightness
+ the minimum value of the image brightness)/2.
(2) Using T segment the image to get two sets of pixels B (all the
pixel values are less than T) and N (all the pixel values are greater
than T);

(3) Calculate the average value of B and N separately, mean ub and un.

(4) Calculate the new threshold: T= (ub+un)/2

(5) Repeat Second steps to fourth steps up to iterative conditions are met
and get necessary region from the brain image.

8
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
EXISTING TECHNIQUES

(1) PCA and Wavelet based texture characterization

(2) K means clustering and Thresholding method
(3) Manual analysis - time consuming, inaccurate and requires intensive trained
person to avoid diagnostic errors.

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS

PCA is a mathematical procedure that uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set

of observations of possibly correlated variables into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated
variables called principal components. The number of principal components is less than or equal
to the number of original variables. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first
principal component has the largest possible variance (that is, accounts for as much of the
variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component in turn has the highest
variance possible under the constraint that it be orthogonal to (i.e., uncorrelated with) the
preceding components. Principal components are guaranteed to be independent only if the data
set is jointly normally distributed. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original
variables. Depending on the field of application, it is also named the discrete Karhunen–Loève
transform (KLT), the Hotelling transform or proper orthogonal decomposition (POD).

9
 DRAWBACKS

(1) Poor discriminatory power

(2) High computational load

DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM

In mathematics, a wavelet series is a representation of a square integrable (real-or

complex-valued) function by a certain Ortho normal series generated by a wavelet. This article
provides a formal, mathematical definition of an Ortho normal wavelet and of the integral
wavelet transform.

DEFINITION

A function is called an Ortho normal wavelet if it can be used to define a

Hilbert basis, that is a complete Ortho normal system, for the Hilbert of
square
integrable functions. The Hilbert basis is constructed as the family of functions for integers
. This family is an Ortho normal system if it is ortho normal under the inner product

where is the Kronecker delta and is the standard inner product on

The requirement of completeness is that every function may be expanded

in the basis as

10
With convergence of the series understood to be convergence in norm. Such a representation of a
function f is known as a wavelet series. This implies that an ortho normal wavelet is self-dual.

DRAWBACKS

(1) Loss of edge details due to shift variant property.

KNN CLASSIFIER

In pattern recognition, the k-nearest neighbor algorithm (k-NN) is a method for

classifying objects based on closest training examples in the feature space. K- NN is a type of
instance-based learning, or lazy learning where the function is only approximated locally and all
computation is deferred until classification. The k- nearest neighbor algorithm is amongst
the simplest of all machine learning algorithms: an object is classified by a majority vote of
its neighbors, with the object being assigned to the class most common amongst its k nearest
neighbors (k is a positive integer, typically small). If k = 1, then the object is simply assigned to
the class of its nearest neighbor.

The same method can be used for regression, by simply assigning the property value for
the object to be the average of the values of itsk nearest neighbors. It can be useful to weight the
contributions of the neighbors, so that the nearer neighbors contribute more to the average than
the more distant ones. (A common weighting scheme is to give each neighbor a weight of 1/d,
where d is the distance to the neighbor. This scheme is a generalization of linear interpolation.)

11
 DRAWBACKS

(1) Less accuracy in classification

(2) Medical Resonance images contain a noise caused by operator
performance which can lead to serious inaccuracies classification.

PROPOSED METHOD

MRI Brain image Classification and anatomical structure analysis are proposed based on,
(1) PNN-RBF Network for classification
(2) Fuzzy clustering for tumor detection and structural analysis

METHODOLOGIES

(1) Fast Discrete Curve let Decomposition

(2) GLCM Feature Extraction
(3) PNN -RBF Training and Classification
(4) Brain structural analysis

ADVANTAGES

(1) It can segment the Brain regions from the image accurately.
(2) It is useful to classify the Brain Tumor images for accurate detection.
(3) Brain Tumor will be detected in an early stages

12
 CHAPTER 2
PROPOSED SYSTEM

13
 CHAPTER 2
PROPOSED SYSTEM

FAST DISCRETE CURVELET TRANSFORMATION

Curvelets implementations are based on the original construction which uses apre-
processing step involving a special partitioning of phase-space followed by the ridge let
transform which is applied to blocks of data that are well localized in space and frequency.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

MRI Brain Fast discrete Texture features

Image Trained Network
curvelet Extraction
Decomposition

Training Feature Extraction &

Samples PNN-RBF Training
Classification

Performance Tumor and structural Segmentation If Input Is

analysis part detection Process Abnormal

In the last two or three years, however, Curvelets have actually been redesigned in a
effort to make them easier to use and understand. As a result, the new construction is
considerably simpler and totally transparent. What is interesting here is that the new
mathematical architecture suggests innovative

14
algorithmic strategies, and provides the opportunity to improve upon earlier implementations.
The two new fast discrete curvelet transforms (FDCTs) which are simpler, faster, and less
redundant than existing proposals:
(1) Curvelets via USFFT, and
(2) Curvelets via Wrapping.

The block size can be changed at each scale level. The wrapping construction is shown is
taken to be a Cartesian array and ˆ f[n1, n2 ] denotes its 2-D discrete Fourier transform, then the
architecture of the FDCT via wrapping is as follows.

1) Apply the 2-D FFT and obtain Fourier samples,

2) For each scale j and angle l, form the product

3) Wrap this product around the origin and obtain

4) Apply the inverse 2-D FFT to each ˜ fj,l , hence collecting the
discrete coefficient .

15
TEXTURE ANALYSIS
2.3.1 OVERVIEW

Texture is that innate property of all surfaces that describes visual patterns, each having
properties of homogeneity. It contains important information about the structural arrangement of
the surface, such as; clouds, leaves, bricks, fabric, etc. It also describes the relationship of the
surface to the surrounding environment. In short, it is a feature that describes the distinctive
physical composition of a surface. Texture properties include:

(1) Coarseness
(2) Contrast
(3) Directionality
(4) Line-likeness
(5) Regularity
(6) Roughness

Texture is one of the most important defining features of an image. It is characterized by

the spatial distribution of gray levels in a neighborhood. In order to capture the spatial
dependence of gray-level values, which contribute to the perception of texture, a two-
dimensional dependence texture analysis matrix is taken into consideration. This two-
dimensional matrix is obtained by decoding the image file; jpeg, bmp, etc.

METHODS OF REPRESENTATION

There are three principal approaches used to describe texture; statistical, structural and
spectral…

16
 (1) Statistical techniques characterize textures using the statistical properties
of the grey levels of the points/pixels comprising a surface image.
Typically, these properties are computed using: the grey level co-
occurrence matrix of the surface, or the wavelet transformation of the
surface.

(2) Structural techniques characterize textures as being composed of simple

primitive structures called “Texel’s” (or texture elements). These are
arranged regularly on a surface according to some surface arrangement
rules.

(3) Spectral techniques are based on properties of the Fourier spectrum and
describe global periodicity of the grey levels of a surface by identifying
high-energy peaks in the Fourier spectrum.

For optimum classification purposes, what concern us are the statistical techniques of
characterization… This is because it is these techniques that result in computing texture
properties… The most popular statistical representations of texture are:

(1) Co-occurrence Matrix

(2) Tamura Texture

(3) Wavelet Transform

17
CO-OCCURRENCE MATRIX

Originally proposed by R.M. Haralick, the co-occurrence matrix representation of texture

features explores the grey level spatial dependence of texture. A mathematical definition of the
co-occurrence matrix is as follows:

- Given a position operator P(i,j),

- let A be an n x n matrix
- Whose element A[i][j] is the number of times that points with grey level
(intensity) g[i] occur, in the position specified by P, relative to points
with grey level g[j].
- Let C be the n x n matrix that is produced by dividing A with the total
number of point pairs that satisfy P. C[i][j] is a measure of the joint
probability that a pair of points satisfying P will have values g[i], g[j].
- C is called a co-occurrence matrix defined by P.

Examples for the operator P are: “i above j”, or “i one position to the right and two below j”, etc.

This can also be illustrated as follows… Let t be a translation, then a co-occurrence matrix Ctof a
region is defined for every grey-level (a, b) by [1]:

Ct (a,b) card{(s, s t) R2 | A[s] a, A[s t] b}

18
 Here, Ct(a, b) is the number of site-couples, denoted by (s, s + t) that are separated by a
translation vector t, with a being the grey-level of s, and b being the grey-level of s + t.

For example; with an 8 grey-level image representation and a vector t that considers
only one neighbor, we would find [1]:

CLASSICAL CO-OCCURRENCE MATRIX

At first the co-occurrence matrix is constructed, based on the orientation and distance
between image pixels. Then meaningful statistics are extracted from the matrix as the texture
representation. Haralick proposed the following texture features:

(1) Energy
(2) Contrast
(3) Correlation
(4) Homogeneity

Hence, for each Haralick texture feature, we obtain a co-occurrence matrix.

These co-occurrence matrices represent the spatial distribution and thedependence of the grey levels
within a local area. Each (i,j) th entry in the matrices, represents the probability of going from one
pixel with a grey level of 'i' to another with a grey level of 'j' under a predefined distance and angle.
From these matrices, sets of statistical measures are computed, called feature vectors.

19
ENERGY

It is a gray-scale image texture measure of homogeneity changing, reflecting the

distribution of image gray-scale uniformity of weight and texture..

p(x,y) is the GLC M

CONTRAST

Contrast is the main diagonal near the moment of inertia, which measure the value of the
matrix is distributed and images of local changes in number, reflecting the image clarity and
texture of shadow depth.

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Measures the joint probability occurrence of the specified pixel pairs Correlation: sum
(sum ((x- μx)(y-μy)p(x , y)/σxσy))

HOMOGENEITY

Measures the closeness of the distribution of elements in the GLCM to the GLCM
diagonal.
Homogenity = sum (sum(p(x , y)/(1 + [x-y])))

20
 CHAPTER 3
PROBABILISTIC NEURAL NETWORKS

21
 CHAPTER 3
PROBABILISTIC NEURAL NETWORKS

3.1 NEURAL NETWORK

Neural networks are predictive models loosely based on the action of biological neurons.
The selection of the name “neural network” was one of the great PR successes of the Twentieth
Century. It certainly sounds more exciting than a technical description such as “A network of
weighted, additive values with nonlinear transfer functions”. However, despite the name, neural
networks are far from “thinking machines” or “artificial brains”. A typical artificial neural
network might have a hundred neurons. In comparison, the human nervous system is believed to
have about 3x1010 neurons. We are still light years from “Data”.

The original “Perception” model was developed by Frank Rosenblatt in 1958. Rosenblatt’s
model consisted of three layers, (1) a “retina” that distributed inputs to the second layer, (2)
“association units” that combine the inputs with weights and trigger a threshold step function
which feeds to the output layer, (3) the output layer which combines the values. Unfortunately,
the use of a step function in the neurons made the perceptions difficult or impossible to train. A
critical analysis of perceptions published in 1969 by Marvin Musky and Seymour Paper pointed
out a number of critical weaknesses of perceptions, and, for a period of time, interest in
perceptions waned.

Interest in neural networks was revived in 1986 when David Rumelhart, Geoffrey Hinton
and Ronald Williams published “Learning Internal Representations by Error Propagation”. They
proposed a multilayer neural network with nonlinear but differentiable transfer functions that
avoided the pitfalls of the original perception’s step functions. They also provided a reasonably
effective training algorithm for neural networks.

22
 In this paper, we investigate the possibility of utilizing the detection capability of the
neural networks as a diagnostic tool for early breast cancer. Breast cancer is one of leading
causes of women death in the world. Detection and localization of tumor at early stages is the
only way to decrease the mortality rate. X-ray mammography is the most used diagnostic tool for
breast cancer screening. However, it has important limitations with. For example, it has high
false -negative and -positive rates that may reach up to 34%. Thus, the development of imaging
modalities which enhance, complement, or replace X-ray mammography has been a priority in
the medical imaging research. Recently, several microwave imaging methods have been
developed. Microwave ultra-wideband (UWB) imaging is currently one of promising methods
that are under investigation by many research groups around the world. This method involves
transmitting UWB signals through the breast tissue and records the scattered signals from
different locations surrounding the breast using compact UWB antennas. The basis of this
method is the difference in the electrical properties between the tumors and the healthy tissues.

It has been shown by different research groups worldwide that the healthy fat tissues of
the breast have a dielectric constant that ranges between S and 9 and conductivity between 0.02
Sims and 0.2 S/m. On the hand, the malignant tissues have a dielectric constant of around 60 and
conductivity around 2 Sim. Thus, it is clear that there is a significant contrast between the
electrical characteristics of the healthy and malignant tissues. From the electromagnetic point of
view, this contrast means a significant difference in the scattering properties of those tissues.
From the neural network point of view, it is possible to say that the difference in the scattering
properties of healthy and malignant tissues means that the scattered signals recorded in different
places around the breast have the signature of existence of tumor. The comparison between those
received signals recorded in different places gives an indication about the place of tumor.

23
 Reviewing the literature shows that most of the research on using neural networks for
breast cancer detection were aimed at enabling radiologist to make accurate diagnoses of breast
cancer on X-ray mammograms. For example, several neural network methods were used in [IS]
for automated classification of clustered micro-calcifications in mammograms.

Concerning the UWB systems, the neural network has been used extensively to detect the
direction of arrival of ultra wideband signals. It is also utilized in a simple manner to detect and
locate tumor of 2.S mm radius along certain axis
(one dimension) and also in two dimensions but by rotating the place of receiving the signal by
steps of 1 degree around the breast.

This paper presents the use of neural network to detect and locate tumors in breast with
sizes down to 1 mm in radius by using four permanent probes around the breast. A three
dimensional breast model is built for the purpose of this investigation. A pulsed plane
electromagnetic wave is sent towards the breast and the scattered signals are collected by four
antennas surrounding the breast. The transmitted pulse occupies the UWB frequency range from
GHz to 10.6 GHz.

A simple feed-forward back-propagation neural network is then used to detect the tumor and locate
its position.

24
THE USED NEURAL NETWORK

Neural network is the best tool in recognition and discrimination between different sets
of signals. To get best results using the neural network, it is necessary to choose a suitable
architecture and learning algorithm. Unfortunately there is no guaranteed method to do that. The
best way to do that is to choose what is expected to be suitable according to our previous
experience and then to expand or shrink the neural network size until a reasonable output is
obtained. In this work we tried different sizes for the neural network using MA TLAB and we
found that the best in our case is the model shown in Fig. 2. It has an input layer with 2000
inputs, first hidden layer with 11 nodes, and T ANSIG transfer function, second hidden layer
with 7 nodes, and T ANSIG transfer function, and output layer with PURELIN transfer function
and 2 outputs. One of the two outputs is used for the detection of tumor, and the other for the
localization. T ANSIG transfer function is selected to limit the signal between -1 and1.

For the output layer, PURELIN transfer function is chosen to give all the possible cases
for the location of tumor. The proposed neural network has been used to detect and locate the
tumor in two cases. The first case was to detect and locate a tumor in a two-dimensional sector of
the breast model. The location of tumor was considered randomly at the center and in any of the
four quadrature . The second case was to detect and locate tumor anywhere in the three-
dimensional model. The neural network has been trained using 100 sets of inputs using the

25
training function (TRAINSCG). Additional 40sets of inputs were used to test the performance of
each neural network.

TYPES OF NEURAL NETWORKS

1) Artificial Neural Network

2) Probabilistic Neural Networks
3) General Regression Neural Networks

DTREG implements the most widely used types of neural networks:

(1) Multilayer Perception Networks (also known as multilayer feed-forward
network),
(2) Cascade Correlation Neural Networks,
(3) Probabilistic Neural Networks (PNN)
(4) General Regression Neural Networks (GRNN).

RADIAL BASIS FUNCTION NETWORKS

(1) Functional Link Networks,

(2) Kohonen networks,
(3) Gram-Charier networks,
(4) Hebb networks,
(5) Adeline networks,
(6) Hybrid Networks.

26
 THE MULTILAYER PERCEPTRON NEURAL NETWORK MODEL

The following diagram illustrates a perceptions network with three layers:

This network has an input layer (on the left) with three neurons, one hidden layer (in the
middle) with three neurons and an output layer (on the right) with three neurons.

There is one neuron in the input layer for each predictor variable. In the case of
categorical variables, N-1 neurons are used to represent the N categories of the variable.

INPUT LAYER

A vector of predictor variable values (x1...xp) is presented to the input layer. The input
layer (or processing before the input layer) standardizes these values so

27
 that the range of each variable is -1 to 1. The input layer distributes the values to each of the
neurons in the hidden layer. In addition to the predictor variables, there is a constant input of 1.0,
called the bias that is fed to each of the hidden layers; the bias is multiplied by a weight and
added to the sum going into the neuron.

HIDDEN LAYER

Arriving at a neuron in the hidden layer, the value from each input neuron is multiplied
by a weight (wji), and the resulting weighted values are added together producing a combined
value uj. The weighted sum (uj) is fed into a transfer function, σ, which outputs a value hj. The
outputs from the hidden layer are distributed to the output layer.

OUTPUT LAYER

Arriving at a neuron in the output layer, the value from each hidden layer neuron is
multiplied by a weight (wkj), and the resulting weighted values are added together producing a
combined value vj. The weighted sum (vj) is fed into a transfer function, σ, which outputs a value
yk. The y values are the outputs of the network.

If a regression analysis is being performed with a continuous target variable, then there is
a single neuron in the output layer, and it generates a single y value. For classification problems
with categorical target variables, there are N neurons in the output layer producing N values, one
for each of the N categories of the target variable.

28
 PROBABILISTIC NEURAL NETWORKS (PNN)

Probabilistic (PNN) and General Regression Neural Networks (GRNN) have similar
architectures, but there is a fundamental difference: Probabilistic networks perform classification
where the target variable is categorical, whereas general regression neural networks perform
regression where the target variable is continuous. If you select a PNN/GRNN network, DTREG
will automatically select the correct type of network based on the type of target variable.

ARCHITECTURE OF A PNN

Fig 3.6

All PNN networks have four layers:

(1) Input layer - There is one neuron in the input layer for each predictor
variable. In the case of categorical variables, N-1 neurons are used where N
is the number of categories. The input neurons (or processing before the
input layer) standardizes the range of the values by subtracting the median

29
 and dividing by the inter quartile range. The input neurons then feed the values to
each of the neurons in the hidden layer.

(2) Hidden layer - This layer has one neuron for each case in the training data
set. The neuron stores the values of the predictor variables for the case along
with the target value. When presented with the x vector of input values from
the input layer, a hidden neuron computes the Euclidean distance of the test
case from the neuron’s center point and then applies the RBF kernel function
using the sigma value(s). The resulting value is passed to the neurons in the
pattern layer.

(3) Pattern layer / Summation layer - The next layer in the network is different
for PNN networks and for GRNN networks. For PNN networks there is one
pattern neuron for each category of the target variable. The actual target
category of each training case is stored with each hidden neuron; the
weighted value coming out of a hidden neuron is fed only to the pattern
neuron that corresponds to the hidden neuron’s category. The pattern
neurons add the values for the class they represent (hence, it is a weighted
vote for that category).

For GRNN networks, there are only two neurons in the pattern layer. One neuron
is the denominator summation unit the other is the numerator summation unit. The
denominator summation unit adds up the weight values coming from each of the hidden
neurons. The numerator summation unit adds up the weight values multiplied by the
actual target value for each hidden neuron.

30
 (4) Decision layer - The decision layer is different for PNN and GRNN
networks. For PNN networks, the decision layer compares the weighted
votes for each target category accumulated in the pattern layer and uses the
largest vote to predict the target category.

For GRNN networks, the decision layer divides the value accumulated in the
numerator summation unit by the value in the denominator summation unit and uses the
result as the predicted target value.

The following diagram is actual diagram or propose network used in our project

Fig 3.6b

(1) Input Layer:

The input vector, denoted as p, is presented as the black vertical bar. Its dimension is R × 1.
In this paper, R = 3.

31
(2) Radial Basis Layer:

In Radial Basis Layer, the vector distances between input vector p and the weight vector
made of each row of weight matrix W are calculated. Here, the vector distance is defined as the
dot product between two vectors [8]. Assume the dimension of W is Q×R. The dot product
between p and the i-th row of W produces the i-th element of the distance vector ||W-p||, whose
dimension is Q×1. The minus symbol, “-”, indicates that it is the distance between vectors. Then,
the bias vector b is combined with ||W- p|| by an element-by-element multiplication,
.The result is denoted as n = ||W- p|| ..p. The transfer function in PNN has built into a distance
criterion with respect to a center. In this paper, it is defined as radbas (n)
= 2 n e- (1) each element of n is substituted into Eq. 1 and produces corresponding element of a,
the output vector of Radial Basis Layer. The i-th element of a can be represented as ai = radbas
(||Wi - p|| ..bi) (2) where Wi is the vector made of the i- th row of W and bi is the i-th element of
bias vector b.

Some characteristics of Radial Basis Layer:

The i-th element of a equals to 1 if the input p is identical to the ith row of input weight matrix
W. A radial basis neuron with a weight vector close to the input vector p produces a value near 1
and then its output weights in the competitive layer will pass their values to the competitive
function. It is also possible that several elements of a are close to 1 since the input pattern is
close to several training patterns.

32
 (2) Competitive Layer:

There is no bias in Competitive Layer. In Competitive Layer, the vector a is firstly

multiplied with layer weight matrix M, producing an output vector d. The competitive function,
denoted as C in Fig. 2, produces a 1 corresponding to the largest element of d, and 0’s elsewhere.
The output vector of competitive function is denoted as c. The index of 1 in c is the number of
tumor that the system can classify. The dimension of output vector, K, is 5 in this paper.

PNN NETWORK WORK

Although the implementation is very different, probabilistic neural networks are

conceptually similar to K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) models. The basic idea is

Fig 3.6.2 a

33
 that a predicted target value of an item is likely to be about the same as other items that
have close values of the predictor variables. Consider this figure:

Assume that each case in the training set has two predictor variables, x and
y. The cases are plotted using their x,y coordinates as shown in the figure. Also assume that the
target variable has two categories, positive which is denoted by a square and negative which is
denoted by a dash. Now, suppose we are trying to predict the value of a new case represented by
the triangle with predictor values x=6, y=5.1. Should we predict the target as positive or
negative?

Notice that the triangle is position almost exactly on top of a dash representing a negative
value. But that dash is in a fairly unusual position compared to the other dashes which are
clustered below the squares and left of center. So it could be that the underlying negative value is
an odd case.

The nearest neighbor classification performed for this example depends on how many
neighboring points are considered. If 1-NN is used and only the closest point is considered, then
clearly the new point should be classified as negative since it is on top of a known negative
point. On the other hand, if 9-NN classification is used and the closest 9 points are considered,
then the effect of the surrounding 8 positive points may overbalance the close negative point.

A probabilistic neural network builds on this foundation and generalizes it to consider all
of the other points. The distance is computed from the point being evaluated to each of the other
points, and a radial basis function (RBF) (also called a kernel function) is applied to the distance
to compute the weight (influence) for

34
 each point. The radial basis function is so named because the radius distance is the argument to the
function.

Weight = RBF (distance)

The further some other point is from the new point, the less influence it has.

Fig 3.6.2b

RADIAL BASIS FUNCTION

Different types of radial basis functions could be used, but the most common is the
Gaussian function:

Fig 3.7

35
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PNN NETWORKS

(1) It is usually much faster to train a PNN/GRNN network than a multilayer

Perceptron network.
(2) PNN/GRNN networks often are more accurate than multilayer perceptron
Networks.
(3) PNN/GRNN networks are relatively insensitive to outliers (wild points).
(4) PNN networks generate accurate predicted target probability scores.
(5) PNN networks approach Bayes optimal classification.
(6) PNN/GRNN networks are slower than multilayer perceptron networks at
Classifying new cases.
(7)PNN/GRNN networks require more memory space to store the model.

REMOVING UNNECESSARY NEURONS

One of the disadvantages of PNN models compared to multilayer perceptron networks is

that PNN models are large due to the fact that there is one neuron for each training row. This
causes the model to run slower than multilayer perceptron networks when using scoring to
predict values for new rows.

DTREG provides an option to cause it remove unnecessary neurons from the model after
the model has been constructed.

Removing unnecessary neurons has three benefits:

(1) The size of the stored model is reduced.
(2) The time required to apply the model during scoring is reduced.
(3) Removing neurons often improves the accuracy of the model.

36
 The process of removing unnecessary neurons is an iterative process. Leave- one-out
validation is used to measure the error of the model with each neuron removed. The neuron that
causes the least increase in error (or possibly the largest reduction in error) is then removed from
the model. The process is repeated with the remaining neurons until the stopping criterion is
reached.

When unnecessary neurons are removed, the “Model Size” section of the analysis report
shows how the error changes with different numbers of neurons. You can see a graphical chart of
this by clicking Chart/Model size.

There are three criteria that can be selected to guide the removal of neurons:
(1) Minimize error – If this option is selected, then DTREG removes neurons as
long as the leave-one-out error remains constant or decreases. It stops when
it finds a neuron whose removal would cause the error to increase above the
minimum found.

(2) Minimize neurons – If this option is selected, DTREG removes neurons until
the leave-one-out error would exceed the error for the model with all
neurons.

(3) # of neurons – If this option is selected, DTREG reduces the least significant
neurons until only the specified number of neurons remain.

37
PNN

NEWPNN creates a two layer network. The first layer has RADBAS neurons, and
calculates its weighted inputs with DIST, and its net input with NETPROD. The second layer has
COMPET neurons, and calculates its weighted input with DOTPROD and its net inputs with
NETSUM. Only the first layer has biases. NEWPNN sets the first layer weights to P', and the
first layer biases are all set to 0.8326/SPREAD resulting in radial basis functions that cross 0.5
at weighted inputs% of +/- SPREAD. The second layer weights W2 are set to T.

3.10.1 METHODOLOGY

A description of the derivation of the PNN classifier was given. PNNs had been used for
classification problems. The PNN classifier presented good accuracy, very small training time,
robustness to weight changes, and negligible retraining time. There are 6 stages involved in the
proposed model which are starting from the data input to output. The first stage is should be the
image processing system. Basically in image processing system, image acquisition and image
enhancement are the steps that have to do. In this paper, these two steps are skipped and all the
images are collected from available resource. The proposed model requires converting the image
into a format capable of being manipulated by the computer. The MR images are converted into
matrices form by using MATLAB. Then, the PNN is used to classify the MR images. Lastly,
performance based on the result will be analyzed at the end of the development phase.

38
 CHAPTER 4

SPATIAL FUZZY CLUSTERING MODEL

39
 SPATIAL FUZZY CLUSTERING MODEL
Fuzzy clustering plays an important role in solving problems in the areas of pattern
recognition and fuzzy model identification. A variety of fuzzy clustering methods have been
proposed and most of them are based upon distance criteria. One widely used algorithm is the
fuzzy c-means (FCM) algorithm. It uses reciprocal distance to compute fuzzy weights. A more
efficient algorithm is the new FCFM. It computes the cluster center using Gaussian weights, uses
large initial prototypes, and adds processes of eliminating, clustering and merging. In the
following sections we discuss and compare the FCM algorithm and FCFM algorithm.

Spatial Fuzzy C Means method incorporates spatial information, and the membership
weighting of each cluster is altered after the cluster distribution in the neighborhood is
considered. The first pass is the same as that in standard FCM tocalculate the membership
function in the spectral domain. In the second pass, the membership information of each pixel is
mapped to the spatial domain and the spatial function is computed from that. The FCM iteration
proceeds with the new membership that is incorporated with the spatial function. The iteration is
stopped when the maximum difference between cluster centers or membership functions at two
successive iterations is less than a least threshold value.

The fuzzy c-means (FCM) algorithm was introduced by J. C. Bezdek [2]. The idea of
FCM is using the weights that minimize the total weighted mean- square error:

(k) (q) (k) 2

J(wqk, z ) = (k=1,K) (k=1,K) (wqk)|| x - z ||

(k=1,K) (wqk) =1

40
 2 1/(p-1) 2 1/(p-1)
wqk = (1/(Dqk) ) / (k=1,K) (1/(Dqk) ) , p>1

The FCM allows each feature vector to belong to every cluster with a fuzzy truth value
(between 0 and 1), which is computed using Equation (4). The algorithm assigns a feature vector
to a cluster according to the maximum weight of the feature vector over all clusters.

A NEW FUZZY C-MEANS IMPLEMENTATION

ALGORITHM FLOW

INITIALIZE THE FUZZY WEIGHTS

In order to comparing the FCM with FCFM, our implementation allows the user to
choose initializing the weights using feature vectors or randomly. The process of initializing the
weights using feature vectors assigns the first Kinit (user- given) feature vectors to prototypes
then computes the weights by Equation (4).

41
STANDARDIZE THE WEIGHTS OVER Q
During the FCM iteration, the computed cluster centers get closer and closer.
To avoid the rapid convergence and always grouping into one cluster, we use w[q,k] =
(w[q,k] – wmin)/( wmax – wmin)

before standardizing the weights over Q. Where wmax, wmin are maximum or minimum weights
over the weights of all feature vectors for the particular class prototype.

ELIMINATING EMPTY CLUSTERS

After the fuzzy clustering loop we add a step (Step 8) to eliminate the empty clusters.
This step is put outside the fuzzy clustering loop and before calculation of modified XB validity.
Without the elimination, the minimum distance of prototype pair used in Equation (8) may be the
distance of empty cluster pair. We call the method of eliminating small clusters by passing 0 to
the process so it will only eliminate the empty clusters.
After the fuzzy c-means iteration, for the purpose of comparison and to pick the optimal
result, we add Step 9 to calculate the cluster centers and the modified Xie-Beni clustering

validity :

The Xie-Beni validity is a product of compactness and separation measures.

The compactness-to-separation ratio is defined by Equation (6).

= {(1/K) 2
}/D 2

(k=1,K) k min
2 (q) (k) 2
k
= (q=1,Q) wqk || x – c ||

Dmin is the minimum distance between the cluster centers.

42
 The variance of each cluster is calculated by summing over only the members of each cluster
rather than over all Q for each cluster, which contrasts with the original Xie-Beni validity
measure.
(q) (k) 2
2
= {q: q is in cluster k} wqk || x – c ||
k
The spatial function is included into membership function as given in Equation

MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS
Morphological image processing is a collection of non-linear operations related to the
shape or morphology of features in an image. Morphological operations rely only on the relative
ordering of pixel values, not on their numerical values, and therefore are especially suited to the
processing of binary images. Morphological operations can also be applied to grey scale images
such that their light transfer functions are unknown and therefore their absolute pixel values are
of no or minor interest.
Morphological techniques probe an image with a small shape or template called a
structuring element. The structuring element is positioned at all possible locations in the image
and it is compared with the corresponding neighbourhood of pixels. Some operations test
whether the element "fits" within the neighbourhood, while others test whether it "hits" or
intersects the neighbourhood:

A morphological operation on a binary image creates a new binary image in which the pixel has
a non-zero value only if the test is successful at that location in the input image.

43
 A morphological operation on a binary image creates a new binary image in which the
pixel has a non-zero value only if the test is successful at that locationin the input image.

The structuring element is a small binary image, i.e. a small matrix of pixels, each with
a value of zero or one:

The matrix dimensions specify the size of the structuring element.

The pattern of ones and zeros specifies the shape of the structuring element.

An origin of the structuring element is usually one of its pixels, although generally the origin can
be outside the structuring element.

fig 4.5 Examples of simple structuring elements.

A common practice is to have odd dimensions of the structuring matrix and the origin
defined as the centre of the matrix. Structuring elements play in morphological image processing
the same role as convolution kernels in linear image filtering.

When a structuring element is placed in a binary image, each of its pixels is associated
with the corresponding pixel of the neighbourhood under the structuring element. The structuring
element is said to fit the image if, for each of its pixels set to 1, the corresponding image pixel is
also 1. Similarly, a structuring element is

44
 said to hit, or intersect, an image if, at least for one of its pixels set to 1 the corresponding
image pixel is also 1.

fig 4.5a Fitting and hitting of a binary image with structuring elements s1 and s2.
Zero-valued pixels of the structuring element are ignored, i.e. indicate points where the
corresponding image value is irrelevant.

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

More formal descriptions and examples of how basic morphological operations work are
given in the Hypermedia Image Processing Reference (HIPR) developed by Dr. R. Fisher et al. at
the Department of Artificial Intelligence in the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.

EROSION AND DILATION

The erosion of a binary image f by a structuring element s (denoted f s) produces a new

binary image g = f s with ones in all locations (x,y) of a structuring element's origin at which
that structuring element s fits the input image f, i.e. g(x,y) = 1 is s fits f and 0 otherwise, repeating
for all pixel coordinates (x,y).

Erosion with small (e.g. 2×2 - 5×5) square structuring elements shrinks an image by
stripping away a layer of pixels from both the inner and outer boundaries of regions. The holes
and gaps between different regions become larger, and small details are eliminated:

45
 fig 4.7 Erosion: a 3×3 square structuring element

Larger structuring elements have a more pronounced effect, the result of erosion with a
large structuring element being similar to the result obtained by iterated erosion using a smaller
structuring element of the same shape. If s1 and s2 are a pair of structuring elements identical in
shape, with s2 twice the size of s1, thenf s2 ≈ (f s1) s1.

Erosion removes small-scale details from a binary image but simultaneously reduces the
size of regions of interest, too. By subtracting the eroded image from the original image,
boundaries of each region can be found: b = f − (f s ) where f is an image of the regions, s is a
3×3 structuring element, and b is an image of the region boundaries.

The dilation of an image f by a structuring element s (denoted f s) produces a new

binary image g = f s with ones in all locations (x,y) of a structuring element's orogin at which
that structuring element s hits the the input image f, i.e. g(x,y) = 1 if s hits f and 0 otherwise,
repeating for all pixel coordinates (x,y). Dilation has the opposite effect to erosion -- it adds a
layer of pixels to both the inner and outer boundaries of regions.

The holes enclosed by a single region and gaps between different regions become
smaller, and small intrusions into boundaries of a region are filled in:

46
 fig 4.7a Dilation: a 3×3 square structuring element

Results of dilation or erosion are influenced both by the size and shape of a structuring
element. Dilation and erosion are dual operations in that they have opposite effects. Let f c denote
the complement of an image f, i.e., the image produced by replacing 1 with 0 and vice versa.
Formally, the duality is written as

f s = f c srot

where srot is the structuring element s rotated by 180 . If a structuring element is

symmetrical with respect to rotation, then srot does not differ from s. If a binary image is
considered to be a collection of connected regions of pixels set to 1 on a background of pixels set
to 0, then erosion is the fitting of a structuring element to these regions and dilation is the fitting
of a structuring element (rotated if necessary) into the background, followed by inversion of the
result.

47
 CHAPTER 5
SIMULATED RESULTS

48
MRI Brain Image with Benign Case

(1)Input Image with its curvelet Decomposition

49
 IMAGE SEGMENTATION

(a) original image (b) expert selection (c) K-means selection

Fig. 5.1.1 MRI Brain Image with Benign Case

50
IMAGE SEGMENTATION

Fig 5.2.2MRI Brain with Malignant Case

51
SNAPSHOTS OF MODEL

52
TUMOUR DETECTION

53
TUMOUR AREA VIEW

54
 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The project presented that automated brain image classification for early stage
abnormality detection with use of neural network classifier and spotting of
tumor was done with image segmentation.

Pattern recognition was performed using probabilistic neural network with

radial basis function and pattern will be characterized with the help of fast
discrete curvelet transform and haralick features analysis.
Here, Spatial fuzzy clustering algorithm was utilized effectively for accurate
tumor detection to measure the area of abnormal region.

From an experiment, system proved that it provides better classification

accuracy with various stages of test samples and it consumed less time for
process.

55
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