Module 7

Sensors and Transducers

 Optical Sensors
• An optical sensor converts light rays into an electrical signal
• The purpose of an optical sensor is to measure a physical quantity of
light
• Depending on the type of sensor, the output translates it into a form that
is readable by an integrated measuring device
• Optical Sensors are used for contact-less detection, counting or
positioning of parts
• Optical sensors can be either internal or external
• External sensors gather and transmit a required quantity of light, while
internal sensors are most often used to measure the bends and other
small changes in direction
• The measurands possible by different optical sensors are Temperature,
Velocity Liquid level, Pressure, Displacement (position), Vibrations,
Chemical species, Force radiation, pH- value, Strain, Acoustic field and
Electric field
 Working principle of Optical Sensor

• In general, there are two components in optical sensing viz. transmitter (i.e.
optical source) and receiver (optical detector)
• The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in an optical
sensor, the object to be detected reflects or interrupts a light beam sent out by
an emitting diode
• Depending on the type of device, the interruption or reflection of the light
beam is evaluated.
• As shown light beam changes its parameters when any object comes in
between transmitter and receiver
• There are five useful parameters of light which are being measured in optical
sensing viz. intensity, phase, wavelength, polarization, spectral distribution
 Types of Optical Sensors
There are different kinds of optical sensors, the most common types
which we have been using in our real world applications as given below
• Photoconductive devices used to measure the resistance by converting
a change of incident light into a change of resistance
• The photovoltaic cell (solar cell) converts an amount of incident light
into an output voltage
• The Photodiodes/Phototransistors convert an amount of incident light
into an output current
Following are the optical sensor types based on different characteristics
• Point sensor, Distributed sensor
• Extrinsic sensor, Intrinsic sensor
• Through beam sensor, Diffuse reflective Sensor, Retro-reflective sensor
 Point sensor & Distributed Sensor
• In point sensor type, sensor operates on single point
• In point sensor type, transducers are placed at the end of optical fiber
• Example of this type is fiber Bragg grating which is spread across
optical fiber length
• It is used to measure temperature or strain
• This single point method of optical sensing uses phase change for
activation of sensor
• In distributed sensor type, sensor operates over distribution of points
• In this method, sensor is reactive along long series of sensors or optical
array.
 Extrinsic sensor & Intrinsic Sensor
• There are two types of optical sensors based on where light beam is
changed for sensing
• If light beam leaves the optical fiber cable or feed and it is changed
before it continues on its path till optical detector, then it is known as
extrinsic optical sensor
• If light beam does not leave the optical fiber cable and it is changed
inside the cable itself, then it is known as intrinsic optical sensor
• Intensity based fiber optic pressure sensor used to measure pressure
between two plates is referred as intrinsic optical sensor
 Through-Beam Sensors
• The system consists of two separate components the transmitter and
the receiver are placed opposite to each other
• The transmitter projects a light beam onto the receiver
• An interruption of the light beam is interpreted as a switch signal by the
receiver
• It is irrelevant where the interruption occurs
 Through-Beam Sensors
• Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is
independent of the object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity

• To guarantee a high operational dependability, it must be assured that

the object is sufficiently large to interrupt the light beam completely
 Retro-Reflective Sensors
• Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a
reflector the emitted light beam is directed back to the receiver
• An interruption of the light beam initiates a switching operation and
where the interruption occurs is of no importance

• Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching

points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort
• All objects interrupting the light beam are accurately detected
independently of their surface structure or color
 Diffuse Reflection Sensors
• Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing
• The transmitted light is reflected by the object to be detected
• The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the switching
condition
• Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part always reflects better
than the front part and this leads to the consequence to erroneous
switching operations
 Advantages of optical sensors
• The optical signal is immune to electro-magnetic interference and
hence it is ideal to be employed in microwave environment
• It has very high sensitivity, range and resolution compare to non optical
sensors
• It has wider dynamic range
• It is completely passive and hence used in explosive environment
• It is small in size and light in weight
• It is resistant to high temperatures and chemically reactive environment.
Hence optical sensors are ideal for hostile and harsh environment
• It can be used to monitor wide range of physical as well as chemical
parameters as listed above
• It provides complete electrical insulation from high electrostatic potential
• Multiplexed/distributed sensors provide measurements at large number
of distributed points
 Disadvantages of optical sensors
• The only problem with both optical sensor and non-optical sensor is
interference from multiple effects
• For example, sensor used for pressure/strain measurement is very
sensitive to temperature variation
• Research is in progress to study and find out ways to have distinction
between these different effects to have accurate measurement in
optical sensing
• The other concern different types of losses involved in optical domain
• The common among them are absorption loss, scattering loss, coupler
loss, insertion loss, reflection loss, impurity loss etc.
Applications of Optical Sensors
 Self Generating Sensors
• The self generated sensors don’t use the external power supply source
• However they provide an electrical output when stimulated by some
physical form of energy
• They offer alternative methods for measuring many common quantities
in particular, temperature, force, pressure and acceleration
• Furthermore, because they are based on reversible effects, these
sensors can be used as actuators to obtain nonelectric outputs from
electric signals
 Thermocouple sensors
• The thermocouple sensor consist on two dissimilar metal wires jointed
at one end as shown in the given diagram, the end “A” is known as
“sensing junction”, the other end known as “Cold” or “Reference”
junction because it is kept at a low but a constant temperature
(Reference Temperature)
 Thermocouple sensors
• When end “A” is heated an e.m.f called thermo electric e.m.f in the Milli
volt is produce between sensing junction”, and “Reference junction”

• The magnitude of this e.m.f depends on the temperature difference

between the hot and cold junctions

• The thermocouples are made from a number of different materials

covering a wide range of temperature from -2700C to 27000C
 Uses Of Thermocouple
• Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the industrial
furnaces

• They are suitable for very low temperature

• In medical fields, the thermocouple probes are used internal body

temperature
 Piezo electric sensor
• The production of Electric potential difference by means of mechanical
pressure is called piezo electric phenomena
• It is consist of crystal of ceramic such as barium titanate
 Piezo electric sensor
• The crystal is pleased between a solid base and force sensing arm
• When pressure is increased on the top surface of the crystal, a potential
difference is developed across its opposite ends which are connected to
the output terminals
• The output voltage found is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
pressure and the potential difference develops in opposite polarity
• If we apply a suitable AC voltage across the terminals of the crystal, it
starts vibration with its natural frequency which is very stable
• The main disadvantage of this sensor is that it cannot measure the static
pressure
 Photo Conductive Cell (Light Sensor)

• Photoconductive cell is also called a photo resistive device

• It is based on the principle that the resistance of the certain
semiconductor material decreases when they are exposed to light, in
other words such material have high dark resistance
• The photo conductive cell has a resistance of more than 100K
• When it is exposed to the light, it resistance falls to a few ohms so this
way the photoconductive cell is used as a light sensor