Information Technology Notes

Computer Fundamentals

Definition of a Computer

A computer is an electronic machine that manipulates data according to a set of

instructions called a program.

Basic functions of a computer

IPOS CYCLE
 Input or accept data
 Manipulate or process data
 Produce results or output the processed information
 Store the data and results for future use
The Central Processing Unit Explained

Central Processing Unit - process data that is input into it and produces an output

﹛CPU Components- 2 parts

 Arithmetic Logic unit- responsible for mathematical calculations
 Control Unit -manages and coordinates the output and inputs and directs
flow of data throughout the system.

Hardware Categories

- Input devices- gets data into the computer

- Output devices- gets processed information from the computer
- Main memory- allows computer to store instructions and data (Virtual Memory)
- Secondary storage- allow data to be permanently stored and retrieved when
needed

Storage in Computers
• Primary storage/ main memory/ immediate access storage- fast

- Random access memory (RAM)- the first memory storage the central

processing unit reacts with. Has volatile (soon as electricity is turned off data

is lost) storage memory. Too many programs slow down the Ram. It can

store new data. (Read-write)

- Read only memory (ROM)- holds data necessary for starting up computer.

Non volatile and read only.

 • Secondary storage devices- slow
Stores data permanently that can be access by the central processing unit
Examples: hard disks, magnetic tape, flash drive, memory card, optical disks (CDs
DVDs and Blu-Rays)
- Magnetic (slowest)
- Optical (medium)
- Flash (fastest)

Hardware Devices
• Input Devices
- Manual input devices- users enter data by themselves
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joystick
• Microphone
• Touch pad
• Webcam

- Direct Data Entry Devices- cannot be controlled by humans

 OM Reader - optical mark reader- reads small marks on special forms
 OC Recognition- can read handwritten and printed characters and convert
them to electronic forms
 Smart Card (magnetic swipe card)
 Sensors
 ¶ Output Devices
• Monitor
• Projectors
• Speakers
• Headphones
• Earphones
• Printer
- Impact Printer- always makes a sound and always hits the paper.
- Non-Impact Printer

Impact Printers

à dot matrix - crates characters by striking ribbon with a print head containing
pins. Uses a multi form sheet like receipts

Non-impact
à Inkjet - shooting ink
à Laser- has magnetically charged powder that is pressed on the paper by a
heated drum (toner)
à Thermal - use heat applied to chemically treated
Other Printers
à Plotters- provides accurate and precise drawings on large sheets of paper.
E.g. Housing Plants
à Microfilm- outputs a small film that has to be read by a special machine.
E.g., libraries, newspapers, archives.
 à 3d Printer- allows creation of a physical object from a three- dimensional
digital model.

Software Categories
¶ System software- software that controls how the hardware and software of
the whole computer works. Enable computer to run smoothly.
¶ Application software- instructs computer to do a specific task. Depends on
System software to run.

Application Software
Five types of application software are:
 General Purpose Software- software that is used to perform basic tasks and
can be used by all users. Comes with operating software. E.g., Pdf reader,
notepad.

 Customized Software- a general purpose software that is

customized/modified to do a specific task. E.g., a customized excel template

 Special Purpose Software - software designed/created for a specific task,

e.g., accounting

 Integrated Software- a set of programs in one software that have similar

content and allows data to be transferred easily among applications.
(MICROSOFT OFFICE)

 Custom Written Software- designed specifically for an organization to meet

their needs. E.g., government databases
System Software

Two types of system software are:

à Operating System- a set or programs that controls all the hardware and
application programs that make up the computer system. All programs
depend on it. E.g., windows, Linux, Mac Os, iOS, Android, Windows
mobile
The functions include:
o Process Management
o Memory Management- Virtual memory
o File Management
o Security Management

à Utility Software- software that keeps the operating system running

smoothly, e.g., antivirus, system backup
à
Hardware User Interfaces
¶ Touchscreens, remote controllers
¶ Sensors
Software User Interfaces

• Command line – requires user to put in special commands to accomplish

task. E.g., UNIX
• Menu driven- where user selects multiple commands from one or more
menus. E.g., cell phones
 • Graphical user interface- Where images are used to represent choices a user
can make.
• Touch Interface- user interacts directly with the computer by touching it.
- Two types of touch screen
 Resistive- responds to pressure- phone screen
 Capacitive- responds to an electrical signal- light pens

Types of Computers
¶ Super Computer- highest operational rate
¶ Mainframe Computer- high processing power and high level of reliability.
¶ Desktop/ personal Computer- Regular tasks
¶ Mobile Computer- portable desktop computer
¶ Embedded Systems- performs specific functions and has its own processor.

Type of Computer Speed Storage Reliability

Super Very high Very High Very low
Mainframe High High Very Low
Desktop Medium Medium Medium
Mobile Low Low Very High
Embedded Very High Very Low Very Low

Cloud Storage
This is storing data on remote servers and is accessed from the internet.
Concept
Companies create a location with a lot of main frame computers or large servers
with fast internet people will then pay the companies to access it whenever they
have internet. (iCloud, drop box, one drive, google photos)

Local Storage
This is any physical storage device directly connected internally or externally to
the computer system hardware. Examples include USB drives, memory cards,
hard disk drives and optical disks

Difference
The difference between the two is that local storage is physically connected to your
computer while cloud storage can be accessed anywhere in the world via a
computer network.

Cloud Local
Capacity Can be extremely high Can be extremely high
but you pay monthly or also but you have to pay
yearly. upfront for the hardware

Cost Paid for by monthly or High cosy but paid for up

yearly subscription front

Accessibility Can be accessed Can only be accessed on

anywhere there is an the computer it is stored
internet connection on.

Security Requires a username and The username and

password that can be password of the computer
hacked. protects it.

The provider ensures data If the hard drive is stolen

is encrypted for you the data can be retrieved
if it is not encrypted.
Information Processing

Data- this is raw facts

Information- this is processed data

Sources of Information

 Primary e.g., questionnaires, interviews, observation

 Secondary e.g., books, journals, magazines, websites.

Documents

à Human readable documents- These are documents that have specific

spaces for people to write in to make it easy to read. This would be data
capture forms, which are designed so that instructions are clear and concise.
E.g., passport forms
à Machine readable documents- There are documents passed through a
computer to get information

à Turnaround Documents- A document where half is printed and half is

written. Front printed back written. It allows for easy collection of data.

Sources of Data online

- Websites- linked pages on the internet

- Wikis- online collaborative web pages
- Online Libraries- books accessed online in digital form
Evaluation of the sources of data
¶ Authenticity- information should be from sources or websites that have a
good reputation. Since some sites allows anybody to edit it.
¶ UpToDate- Information should be UpToDate
¶ Relevance- Data should be relevant.
¶ Bias- Certain online sources may be biased on a certain topic, hence making
their views biased.

Data Entry

This is where someone manually enters data from a form into a screen using a
digital data entry form.

Data Integrity

In order for data to be useful it must be correct, when data is input into a system it
must be verified and validated.

à Data Verification- these are procedures followed to ensure that data inputted
is the actual reflection of the original data.
Two types of errors are:
- Transcription- occurs when document is hard to understand which
results in spelling errors. Can be avoided by document being written
in Block.
- Transposition- occurs when numbers are mixed up. It is very hard to
avoid.
Types of Verification

 Visual Checks- Checking data to ensure it has been entered correctly into the
system. Avoids typological errors
 Double entry verification- double checking data before it goes into the
system.

à Data Validation- checks carried out by the software to ensure that it meets a
criterion.
The five types of data validation are:
 Range Check- checking if someone put correct information using a set
range. Age 16-25
 Data Type Check- checking if correct data type is in the required
field. E.g., if someone put letters in a field that requires numbers
 Inconsistency Check- checking one piece of data against another
 Presence Check- ensure data is actually entered into a field. Usually
denoted by an “ * ”
 Reasonableness Check- checking to see if data is within a reasonable
standard. E.g., checking to see if someone put their number of siblings
as 100
 Format and Length- checking to see if data is formatted according to a
set standard.
File Access

 Direct/ Random- can get the file directly, without going through others
 Sequential – to access a file you would need to go through all the before it.

File Organization

 Serial- records are arranged one after another, they are not sorted in any
particular order. Used for storing data for backup purposes.
 Sequential- files are stored in order using data of one of the fields. This
method is often used in magnetic tape
 Index Sequential- use of an index file to speed up searches on sequential 📂.
Can only be used where data is stored and retrieved directly
Troubleshooting

There are six (6) main Possible Causes Possible Solution

troubleshooting issues:
Issue
Power cable may be
1. System unit does not loose or disconnected a. First check the cable.
boot Unplug it from the
Power outlet may be computer and the
faulty outlet. Re-plug in both
sides (computer then
outlet) and try booting
computer again.

b. Check wall outlet.

Plug something else
into the outlet and see if
it works. If you are
using a surge protector,
try a different outlet.

2. No picture on display Monitor may be in a. Check if the monitor

sleep/ hibernate mode power button is in the
‘ON’ position.
Improperly adjusted
monitor controls b. Check the monitor
controls, brightness and
contrast to ensure they
are not at the lowest
levels

3. Printer not printing Power cable may be a. Make sure USB

loose receiver or cable is
plugged in correctly.
Interface cable may be
loose or disconnected. b. Plug USB receiver or
cable into another port.
4. Wireless • a. Plug the USB
keyboard/mouse not USB receiver loose receiver into another
responding port
Battery contacts may be
dirty. b. Check to ensure the
USB receiver is
plugged in correctly

5. Wireless connection Wireless network a. Try to get closer to

not working adapter not plugged in. the outer/access point,
eliminate interference.
No Wi-Fi device (such
as a router) is in range. b. Restart or reset the
wireless router or
access point and/or
your device.

6. “Network cable Network adapter may a. Turn the computer

unplugged” errors be malfunctioning. off and then restart to
ensure any temporary
Network device driver memory corruption
missing, corrupted or issues are cleared.
out of date.
b. Check both ends of
the network cable
connected to the
adapter to ensure they
are firmly connected to
the network port and
that no part of the cable
is frayed or broken.
Network

Data Communication

Transmission of data between two computers/ electronics devices from one

location to another.

Computer Networks

Set of computers that are linked together by cables or wirelessly that share
information with each other.

Types of Computer Networks

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wireless Area Network (WLAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

à LAN- made up of two or more computers connected to each other within the
same geographical area via cables or wirelessly. Doesn’t have to be in the
same building. WLAN- allows laptops or remote computers to connect to
LAN.

à MAN- a medium sized network build across a whole town or city. Connects
many LANs together and is usually run by one company. E.g., used in
universities
 à WAN- a network that connects computers over a wide area across different
geographical locations. Uses satellite connections other than cables because
of its distance. Wan can share information across organizations so that files
can be accessed from anywhere. E.g., internet

The components of WAN are:

1. Personal computers
2. Network cable
3. Satellites

Lan Man Wan

Location Same Stretches across a Stretched across
geographical area city the world
Connection Cable Wireless and the Wireless, The
Internet internet and
Satellite
Businesses Small companies Large Multi National
Organizations Organizations

Internet
An intranet is a private network contained within an enterprise that is used to
securely share company information and computing resources among employees.

Extranet
An extranet is a part of the intranet that is accessible by third parties. Stock
Mangers, suppliers, vendors, partners, customers and other businesses.
Network Topologies

Four main types

 Peer-to-peer
 Star
 Bus
 Ring

- Peer-to-Peer- a group of connected computers that are not connected through

a hub. Each computer acts as a server to other computers

- Star network- all computers are connected to a central hub

- Bus network- computers are connected in a line

- Ring- the last computer is connected to the first.

Servers

¶ File servers- stores files that will be accessed by the whole network in one
central location
¶ Print server- connects a printer to one central location so everyone can print
to it.

Wireless Network Technology- WNT

¶ Bluetooth- uses short wave radio waves to send information to devices

within range.
 ¶ Wi-fi- uses technology to communicate among electronic devices such as
phones, laptops.

¶ Hotspot- wireless network technology. Usually managed by an internet

company or institution.

Wireless Transmission Media- a network of connections that transmits an

electromagnetic frequency through the atmosphere from one device to another.

Wired (Physical) transmission media

1. Twisted-Pair Cable

• Consists of one or more twisted pair wires bundled together

• Each twisted pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper wires that are
twisted together

• Inexpensive

• Susceptible to electrical interference

Twisted-pair cables have been used for telephones and computer networks for
over a long period, although they are gradually being replaced by fibre-optic.

2. Coaxial Cable

• Higher bandwidth
• It has a twisted-pair with a shiels

• It has heavier insulation than most cables

• It is vulnerable to high frequency interference.

Coaxial cables carry electronic current at radio frequencies. It is used for cable
television and broadband internet connections.

3. Fibre-Optic Cables

• Transmits using light

• Less expensive

• Immune to electrical noise

• More secure

• Each strand is called an optical fibre which is as thin as human hair.

Fibre-Optic cable is a fast and reliable form of data transmission. Although light
travels in straight lines, a beam bounces off the sides of the fibre along its length.

Wireless Transmission Media

à Radio waves- wireless signal sent over long distances from one tower to
another.

à Microwave- a wireless signal sent over short distances from one device to
another. Commonly used by WIFI routers and small wireless devices.
à Satellite Communication- communication between two locations on earth
via a satellite in the sky.

à Infrared- wireless communication over a short distance from one small

device to another
Terms to Remember

– Point-to-point: when a device is connected directly to another device by a

dedicated communication channel, giving those devices sole use of that channel.

– Uploading: Uploading occurs when data from a storage device (e.g., disk) from
your computer is sent to another computer via communication channel.

– Downloading: Downloading occurs when data is received from another

computer and saved onto a storage device on your computer via communication
channel.

– Broadcast Transmission: In an arrangement with multiple systems, a broadcast

transmission is one sent out data to all the machines simultaneously.

Protocol- a set of rules that govern the transfer of data over a network.

à HTTP- Hypertext transfer protocol

Used between a server and client. Client sends request to the server and the
server responds by sending the requested information

à HTML- Hyper Text Markup Language

A programming language used to create web pages

à FTP- file transfer protocol

Method of transferring a file across the network or internet. Commonly used
when transferring fields from client to server.

à VOLP- voice over IP protocol

 Used for services such as Skype.

à TCP/IP- transmission protocol/ internet protocol

Breaks down data into smaller pieces called packets. It is then sent across
the network and reassembled into its original form.

à URL- uniform resource locator

The web address that points to any file for download on the internet.
- Breakdown:
Protocol://DOMAIN NAME/FILENAME

Modulation

When digital data is sent over an analog form, the digital signal must be converted
to an analog form. Modulation is the name of this process. And the inverse is
known as demodulation.

Modem

 This is a device that converts digital signals to analog and vice versa
 It is measured in bits per second (bps)

Router

 Process logical addressing information in the network header of a packet

such as IP addresses.
 Router is used to create large complex networks by complex traffic routing.
Switches

 Linkage between two points of network

 Connected through a twisted pair cabling

Hub

 Placed at the centre of a network

 Used to connect devices together
 When it receives data it sends out the data to the devices connected to it.

Network Interface Cards

 Network cards are hardware devices that connect a computer with the
network.
 Computer data is translated into electrical signals sent to the network via
Network Interface Cards
 Every network has a unique identifier called a Media Access Control

Communication Terms

 Simplex- communication that sends signals in one direction. E.g., television

where you can receive signals but can’t send.
 Duplex- sends signals in both directions e.g., a computer connected to the
internet.
  Half-duplex- communication work in both directions but only one at a time.
E.g., walkie-talkie where only one person can talk at a time.

Misuse and Security

Computer Security

Protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft and unauthorized
use.

Cybersecurity

Practice of defending computers, servers from malicious attacks.

Computer Misuse

Wilful attacks and theft of information using computer systems

Vulnerability

A defect in a system that can leave it open to attack.

Threat

Anything virtual or physical that has potential to harm a computer system.

Attack
An information security threat that involves an attempt to obtain, alter, destroy,
remove information.

Countermeasure

An action, device or technique that eliminates or prevent harm to a computer.

à Propaganda- information that is designed to make you think a particular

way.

à Surveillance- allows you to monitor conversations and watch people without

them knowing. It is easy to hack into systems and use it for the wrong
purposes

à Electronic Eavesdropping- messages, emails, chatrooms can be intercepted

by hackers and the information can be used for blackmail.

à Inaccurate Information – data is stored on people every day. If the data is

inaccurate, it can have harmful effects on people

à Industrial Espionage- businesses can spy on other businesses using

electronic interception, surveillance, etc,

à Software Piracy- the illegal copying and selling of software

à Fraud-deception of others for your own personal gain

à Identity Theft- where criminal gets your personal information and pretends
to be you online

à Phishing- the fraudulent practice of sending emails pretending to be from

companies with good reputations in order to convince individuals to reveal
personal information (scamming)

à
Database Management

Functions of a Database Management System

¶ Allows users to store, retrieve and update data
¶ Allows users to recover most recent information if system fails
¶ Handles password allocation and checking
¶ Ensures no two users can access the same record

Definitions
à Database- consists of a number of related files or tables

à Tables- consist of a collection of record

à Records- consist of a number of fields

à Fields- the smallest piece of data that can be stored.

à Forms- provides a way where data can be displayed and stored

à Reports- lets data be printed or viewed in a useful format

à Queries- A way of storing and answering questions within a database.

Data Type Purpose
Short text Used to store alphanumeric characters
(letters of numbers) e.g., name,
address, phone, country

Number Used to store numbers with or without

decimal places. E.g., age, quantity,
average

Currency Used to store money values

Date/Time Used to store date/time values e.g.,

dob, death date

AutoNumber Creates automatic numbers, e.g., Id,

number

Memo/Long Text Used to store long text, notes or

paragraphs, e.g., remarks

Primary Key
à A field that cannot be duplicated. It is usually anything that holds the
customer ID or anything with a unique ID. Examples could be Student ID,
National ID.

à It is identified in the Design View with a key symbol

Candidate Key
à Also, a primary key if it is unique. They are optional so some tables may
have several, none or one.

Composite Key
A primary key made up of two or more fields.
Foreign Key
 à A normal key in one table and in another a Primary Key.

Forming a Relationship
Since tables have a field called a form, they can be linked in a relationship. The
linking of a table can occur in two ways.

¶ One-to-one (1:1)
This is a linking where the primary key in a table matches the primary in
another.

¶ One -to-many(1:M)
Occurs when one primary key in one table links with a foreign key or a
combined key in another table.

Structure of a Query
¶ Select: (the fields you want to look for)
¶ From: (The table you want to find the information)
¶ Where: (The criteria you are looking for in the fields)

Examples
¶ Select: Age, First name
¶ From: Employees
¶ Where: Age>18, first name=John
Problem Solving and Program Design

Algorithm

This is a sequence of precise instructions that will result in a solution.

algorithm can be represented with a pseudocode or flow chart

Algorithm Phase Steps

 Define the problem
 Propose solution
 Selection reasonable solution
 Design Algorithm
 Test your algorithm

The program’s objectives

1. specify the output
2. specify input- specify what values are needed for input
3. specify processing- what processing should be done on the input to
get necessary output

Input-processing-output charts are used to identify

¶ inputs the information needed to solve the problem
¶ Steps needed to convert the input data to desired outputs
¶ The goal of the problem solution

Variables and Constants

This is an area or space in memory that holds data that a program might use or
manipulate.

Variables- values in a variable change throughout the program

Constant- values in the variable remains the same.
*Note* Each variable is given a name and a type.
Statement

This the description of the preceding that includes an action or condition.

Keywords
These are instructions within a statement.

Examples of keywords are:

Input, read (means putting data into a computer)
Output, display, write (means putting data on the screen of a computer)

Conditional Statements
This allows decision to be made in programs. It includes deciding which
statements are to be executed and carry out.

*Note* If statements is a condition that allow various paths to be followed

Loops
This is useful for repeating parts of a program. This will be useful until the
condition is satisfied. Loops had conditions where it will decide if you will stay in
the loop or will leave it.

Subroutine/ functions/ modules/ procedures

This is the breaking up of a large program into different parts. it is a named section
of a program that can be repeatedly called on Subroutine saves us from the writing
the same code several times in a program.
Pseudocodes uses English type words and phrases clear enough to be converted
into a programming code. This can be developed from an IPO chart.

¶ Titles must always be in this format. “Pseudocode: _______”

¶ When initializing do not use a percentage sign. instead calculate it to

decimal format.

¶ Only characters, words or phrases that you want to appear on the screen
must be placed in a quotation mark.

¶ Enter a semi colon to mean end of line.

Pseudocode Layout

1. Title- indicates start of your pseudocode

2. Variables- Declare (name a variable and give data type)
3. Initialize variables (give variables a value)
4. Input steps
a) Before storing input give instructions what to input
5. Process steps (calculations)
6. Output steps
7. End
Sequential statements
These are statements one after each other. All pseudocodes have this.

Conditional Branching
This is used when there is a choice between two options. Two types of conditional
branching are:
à If then- which represents data that is true to the condition
à If else- represents data that is false to the condition.

IF-THEN Structure
If (the condition is true)
THEN (carry out one or more statements)
End if

IF-THEN-ELSE Structure
If (the condition is true)
Then (carry out one or more condition)
Else (carry out one or more condition)
ENDIF

*NOTE* - Indent indicates which statements falls under which keywords

Nested Conditions
Combines conditions or statements together.

Loop statements
There are two types
 Indefinite- this is where you don’t know how many times the loop will run.
Examples are “while” and “repeats”

 Definite- this is where you know in advance how many times it will repeat.
An example is “for loop”

While loop
This has a condition at beginning. The statements (body) are after. It will then
repeatedly execute one or more statement asking as the condition is true. Since
statement is after, there is a possibility where it will never run

Structure
while
end while
Repeat loop
This has conditions at the end. The statements (body) are before. It will execute
statement once condition its false. Since it’s at the end, the statement will always
be tested atleast once.

Structure
repeat
until

For loop
This is only used when the start value and end value are known
Flowcharts

Flowcharts Definition
There are algorithms that use symbols to display the output, input and processing
of data and information.
Rules for flowcharts
à Flowcharts must have a start and a stop symbol. These are called the
terminals or terminators.
à Use arrow heads or flow lines where the direction of flow may not be
obvious
à The flow sequence is the top of the page to the bottom.
à Processes only have one entry and one exit point.

Conditional Statements

If-Then Structure
If-Then-Else
While Loop
Repeat Loop
Arithmetic, Relational and Logical Operators

Arithmetic Operations
These perform basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division to produce a result.

Relational Operators
These compare two quantities with each other.
Logical Operators
There are 3 main logical operators: -AND, -OR, -NOT

Operator Example Meaning

AND (x) and (y) Both x and y are true
OR (x) or (y) At least one of the
statements x and y is true
NOT NOT(x) Statement x is not true.

And Operator Explanation

¶ In this operation, both conditions must be true

¶ If the value of one condition is true, and the value of the other condition is
true, then the results of the condition is TRUE

¶ If the value of one condition is true, and the value of the other is false, then
the results will be FALSE

An example
Not operator explanation
¶ In this, the result of the condition has two options
¶ Examples:
 If it is not True it is False
 If it is not Yes, it is No

Or operator explanation
¶ If the value of one condition is true, the results is true
¶ However, if the value of all conditions is false, the value is false

Combined Operations
This is simply all the operators are combined, this if found in pseudocodes with
long expressions.
Programming Languages

à Low level Languages- These are machine dependent languages. This means
that the code or language written can only be understood by the processor or
computer.

à Assembly Language- This has the same structure and commands as machine
language but allows programmers to use abbreviated words, called
mnemonics, instead of binary.

à High Level Languages- These are not machine dependent. Therefore, they
use keywords similar to English and easier to write.

Programming Errors
à Syntax Errors- occurs when a mistake is made in the language rules or the
sentence structure of a program language. This can be caused by:
 A word spelt incorrectly
 Using wrong symbols as operators
 Putting words in wrong order

à Run-time Errors- This occurs as the program complies or “runs” This can be
caused by:
 Trying to divide by zero
 Data type errors
 Endless loop

à Logic Error- Occurs when a programmer makes mistake in the sequence of

the program sentences. This error can be present and the program will still
run, it will just produce a wrong result.
Pascal Program (High Level Language)
Structure