Name:Mira Joy V.

De Tablan                                
Course/Yr. & Sec:BEED 1 B                                
Date:January 14, 2021
Score:

MODULE 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

QUESTION:
1. Basic concept and issue on human development.
The basic concept of human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the lifespan. It includes growth and decline. In other words, it
is about the real freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
Which is why human development can be positive or negative. On the contrary, human
development also comes across issues such as nature versus nurture, continuity versus
discontinuity, and stability versus change. The first issue on human development is Nature
versus Nurture, it is the degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology or
learned through interacting with the environment. Secondly, Continuity versus Discontinuity are
two competing theories in developmental psychology that attempt to explain how people change
through the course of their lives, where the continuity theory says that someone changes
throughout their life along a smooth course while the discontinuity theory instead contends that
people change abruptly. Finally, Stability versus Change deals with the issue of whether or not
personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. To sum it up, this issue
describes the developmental psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are
present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span. 

Module 3: Issues on human development & Module 4: Research in Child and Adolescent
Development

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain briefly in your own words the following:
 Nature vs. Nurture
 Continuity vs. Discontinuity
 Stability vs. Change
Nature versus Nurture - Based on what I understood, nature is an occurrence of the natural
world generally, including plants, animals, the landscape, and other natural creations.
Meanwhile, nurture is caring and uplifting the growth or refinement of a certain thing.
Significantly, nurture can greatly impact human development much more than nature can. This is
because different types of upbringing can affect our behaviors, attitude and perception. While
nature is based on genetic characteristics and skills, nurturing is a big factor in human
development. As I believe that humans are nurtured to behave in certain ways. 
Continuity versus Discontinuity - Particularly, continuity is a consistent functioning which is
constantly unbreakable as time passes by while discontinuity is a break of an erratic sequence.
Continuity or moderate progressing of development is more suitable in human development.
Meanwhile, discontinuity or stoppage is not fitting in a human development. This is due to our
continuous development and growth.
Stability versus Change - The state of being balanced is stability while change is to make a
difference in something or someone. In human development, change is much preferable as we
humans are inconsistent in making changes throughout our growth and improvement.
Meanwhile, stability is not commonly known in human development. This is because to be stable
is to stay that way without being refined or staying balanced continually. 

2. Enumerate and explain the different research designs.

1.Case Study - A process of recording a research in detailed deliberation which is given to the
development of a particular person, group, or situation over time.
2.Experimental - Untried or unproven ideas or methods and not yet established or finalized.
3.Naturalistic Observation - This type of observation is a research tool in which a subject is
observed in its natural habitat without any influence by the spectator.
4.Longitudinal - The researchers frequently survey or question the same individuals to ascertain
any changes that may happen over time. Besides that, researchers observe and collect data on a
number of variables without trying to manipulate those variables.
5.Cross-sectional - A type of research design in which involves collecting data from different
individuals.
6.Sequential - A research design including the elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional
research designs. Sequential research examines the same participants over time and includes
participants of different ages. 
7.Action Research - An educational research involving collecting information regarding current
educational programs and outcome, studying the information, creating a plan to improve it,
collecting changes after a new plan is implemented, and developing conclusions regarding the
improvements.

Module 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

QUESTIONS:
1.Enumerate and explain the 3 components of personality.
1.Id - is the most primitive of the three components. It is mostly concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges which operates entirely unconsciously.
2.Superego - is concerned with social rules and morals similar to what many people call
conscience or moral compass. It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and
wrong.
3.Ego - is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is
partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and its job is
to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. 

2.Compare oedipus complex with that of electra complex.

Oedipus Complex is a Freudian concept that describes a child’s sexual desire for the parent of
the opposite sex and a sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex while Electra complex is a
non-Freudian concept that describes a girls’ adoration and attraction to their fathers and
resentment, hostility and rivalry towards their mothers.

3.Expalin the stages of psychosexual development.

The five psychosexual stages, are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages. These are the
erogenous zones associated with each stage that serve as a source of pleasure. The first stage is
the oral also known as the mouth. During this stage, the infant's primary source of interaction
occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is
vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities
such as tasting and sucking. The second stage is the anal also known as the bowel and bladder
control. During this stage, the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training the child has to learn to control their
bodily needs. The third stage is the phallic also known as the genitals. During this stage, the
primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females. The fourth stage is the latent also known as the sexual
feelings which are still inactive. During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the
id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers
and adults outside of the family. Lastly, the fifth stage is the genital also known as the maturing
sexual interests. During this stage, the onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once
again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest
of a person's life.

Module 6: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

QUESTION:
1.Explain the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget's stages of development are part of a theory about the phases of normal intellectual
development, from infancy through adulthood. Piaget's four stages of cognitive development are
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The first stage is the
sensorimotor stage in which children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the
world works. The second stage is the preoperational stage in which kids learn through pretend
play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often
struggle with understanding the idea of constancy. The third stage is the concrete operational
stage in which children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their
thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings,
and opinions. Lastly, the final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to
use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the
world around them.

Module 7: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development & Module 8: Kohlberg’s Stages

of Moral Development

QUESTION:
1.Explain and give examples about Kohlberg’s moral development. 
Kohlberg's stages of moral development consists of pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Each level is associated with 2 increasingly complex stages of moral development.
The first level is the preconventional level, it is a child’s sense of morality that is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers. This level consists of stage 1 which is the punishment or obedience. Stage 1 focuses on
the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the
more “bad” the act is perceived to be. Meanwhile, stage 2 is the mutual benefit. In this stage, it
expresses the right behavior which is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their
best interest. For example, when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
“what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by increasing his allowance.
The second level in the stages of Kohlberg’s moral development is conventional. Throughout the
conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. This
level consists of stage 3 which is social approval . For example, a student may think, 'Students
who cheat on tests are bad, so I will not cheat. Meanwhile stage 4 is law and order. In this stage,
laws and social order reign supreme. Rules and regulations are to be followed and obeyed. For
example, man should not steal because it is against the law. Last but not the least is the third
level which is the post conventional in which a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be
changed or eliminated. This level consists of stage 5 which is the social contract. This stage
acknowledges the introduction of abstract reasoning as people attempt to explain specific
behaviors. For example, the man should steal the medication for his wife because she is deathly
ill and the laws do not take the circumstances into account. Finally, the sixth stage is the
universal principles. In the final stage of Kohlberg’s theory, it states that moral reasoning is
based on personal values. For example, it is okay for the man to take the medication without
paying as objects or property are not as valuable as his wife’s life. 

Module 9: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

QUESTIONS:
1.Answer the following questions in the activity by completing the items.
1.As a child, I wanted to learn taekwondo and eventually I learned it well.
2.I wasn’t enthusiastic to learn it, but I had to learn it because it was necessary for my co-
curriculum grades. 
3.The one who taught me was a professional taekwondo instructor.
4. The first step we had to master was flexibility so that our body will be flexible enough to be
able to master different kinds of kick. After that, we were taught how to punch and kick properly
in order to defend ourselves with confidence.

2.Compare the differences and views of Vygotsky and Piaget in cognitive development.
Vygotsky argued that social learning preceded cognitive development. In other words, culture
affects cognitive development. Whereas Piaget asserted that all children pass through a number
of universal stages of cognitive development, Vygotsky believed that cognitive development
varied across cultures. In short, the key difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Piaget
believed that self-discovery is crucial, whereas Vygotsky stated that learning is done through
being taught by a more knowledgeable other.

3.Explain the zone of proximal development.

The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner. In other words, it is the range of abilities that an individual can perform with assistance
but cannot yet perform independently. These skills are called "proximal" because the individual
is close to mastering them but needs more guidance and practice in order to perform these
actions independently.

Module 10: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

QUESTIONS:
1.Answer the questions in the activity by completing the items 1-10.
1.When I was 5 years old, my parents wanted to separate and so they did. During that time, I
lived with my father until I was 9 years old.
2.As a child, my unforgettable playmates were my cousins and the neighbor’s kids.
3.When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show Boys Over Flowers.
4.When I was growing up. We went to church in Gerona, Tarlac.
5.I cannot forget my teacher who was very strict in teaching Chinese.
6.When I was growing up, I was away from the Philippines for 6 years.
7.When I was in high school, I was close to my one and only girl classmate.
8.As a child, I can recall this big news about my grandfather who passed away.
9.The most serious challenge in our family experienced was when we moved back to the
Philippines 3 years ago and had to start all over again.
10.The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was how to write a proper
English essay.

2.Describe the Bioecological Model.

The bioecological model is based on the idea that the relationships children have with parents
and caregivers impacts their development and that these relationships are affected by their work,
school, and community settings, which are in turn affected by broader social, cultural, and policy
conditions.

Module 11: Prenatal Development

QUESTIONS:
1.Why is the film entitled “silent scream”?
I believe that the film was entitled silent scream because it depicts the abortion process via
ultrasound and shows an abortion taking place in the uterus. During the abortion process, the
fetus is described as appearing to make outcries of pain and discomfort as if the fetus was
silently screaming for mercy.
 
2.Explain the stages of prenatal development.
There are three stages of prenatal development germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal
development is also organized into trimesters: the first trimester ends with the end of the
embryonic stage, the second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth. The
first stage is the germinal stage. During this stage, conception begins when the sperm and egg
cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours
after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the
uterus. The second stage is the embryonic stage. During this stage, approximately four weeks
after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous
system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an area
known as the neural plate. Last but not the least, the final stage is the fetal stage. And during this
stage, it lasts from two months after conception until birth. About one month into this stage, the
sex organs of the fetus begin to form. The fetus quickly grows as bones and muscles form, and it
begins to move inside the uterus.

Module 12: Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

QUESTIONS:
1.Compare proximodistal development with that of cephalocaudal development.
Cephalocaudal development refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down.
An infant will gain control over their neck muscles first, which allows them to hold their head
steady. Proximodistal development occurs from the centre or core of the body in an outward
direction. In other words, cephalocaudal development describes the general growth pattern of
organisms to develop areas near the main neural area earlier than areas of the body that are more
distant. This can be seen in human fetuses where the head is the first body part formed.
Proximodistal development describes the general tendency for the development of motor skills to
start at the center of an organism and radiate outwards from there. The middle is the first to
develop and movement extends outwards from there. Infants will first learn to move their torso
and then their arms and legs.

2.Explain the different stages of development of a child.

The different stages of development of a child consists of height and weight, brain development,
motor development, gross motor skills, fine motor skills, and sensory and perceptual
development. Height and weight in the development of a child is the physical growth that refers
to an increase in body size (length or height and weight) and in the size of organs. From birth to
about age 1 or 2 years, children grow rapidly. After this time, growth slows. As growth slows,
children need fewer calories and parents may notice a decrease in appetite. Brain development is
when children's brains develop rapidly from ages birth through three. Brain development affects
all areas of a child's growth. There are four main areas of development: motor, language and
communication, social and emotional, and cognitive. Motor development means the physical
growth and strengthening of a child's bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her
surroundings. A child's motor development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor.
Gross motor skills in child development for children ages 0 to 5 years involve the larger muscles
in the arms, legs and torso. Gross motor activities include walking, running, throwing, lifting,
kicking, etc. These skills also relate to body awareness, reaction speed, balance and strength.
Meanwhile, fine motor skills start to develop when a child uses the smaller muscles in their
hands, wrists, fingers, feet and toes. Developing those muscles includes actions like grasping,
holding, pressing, or using a pincer grip. Lastly, sensory and perceptual development refers to
how children start taking in, interpreting, and understanding sensory input. Perception allows
children to adapt and interact with their environment through the use of their senses. Children are
born with the ability to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch.

Module 13: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers & Module 14: Socio-emotional
Development of Infants and Toddlers

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain the six sub stages of sensorimotor stage.
The sensorimotor stage of development can be broken down into six additional sub-stages
including simple reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination
of reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and early symbolic thought. The first substage is the stage
of reflex acts. The neonate responds to external stimulation with innate reflex actions. The
second sub stage is the stage of primary circular reactions. The baby will repeat pleasurable
actions centered on its own body. Next comes the stage of secondary circular reactions. It
typically lasts from about 4-8 months. Now babies repeat pleasurable actions that involve objects
as well as actions involving their own bodies. The fourth sub stage from 8-12 months is the stage
of coordinating secondary schemes. Instead of simply prolonging interesting events, babies now
show signs of an ability to use their acquired knowledge to reach a goal. Fifth comes the stage of
tertiary circular reactions. These differ from secondary circular reactions in that they are
intentional adaptations to specific situations. The infant who once explored an object by taking it
apart now tries to put it back together. Finally, in sub stage six there is the beginning of symbolic
thought. This is transitional to the pre operational stage of cognitive development. Babies can
now form mental representations of objects. 

2.Do infants learn and remember? Support your answer.

Yes. This is because  just by watching objects and events, sometimes for much longer time spans
than in operant conditioning studies infants are able to learn and remember.

3.What is LAD?
Language acquisition device also known as LAD is a hypothetical tool in the human brain that
lets children learn and understand language quickly.

4.Read Nolte’s poem and analyze which plays a very important role in the socio-emotional
development of children?
The social environment that parents provide for their children plays a very important role in the
development of a child’s social and emotional skills during the early and middle childhood years.

5.What kind of environment do children who are well adjusted most probably come? How about
maladjusted children?
The environment in which children who are well adjusted grows up revolves around the family,
the home, the neighborhood, the school all play a big role in how the child develops. During
these early years, the child learns mainly through interactions with their environment and with
other people. This is how they learn to solve problems, socialize, adopt good habits, and develop
the necessary motor skills and strength to function properly. Meanwhile, children who are
maladjusted probably grew up in a poor environment with bad influences and social interactions.

6.State in a sentence why the poem is saying about a child’s socio-emotional development?
The poem conveys a child’s socio-emotional development as children are continuously learning
from their parents and it affects how they cope up in life.

7.Which line of the poem do you like best? Why?

“If children live with friendliness,
They learn the world is a nice place in which to live”
I like this phrase the most as it pertains to how children perceive the world they live in if they
learn to be friendly and kind.

Module 15: Preschoolers Physical Development

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain the fine gross motor development of the preschooler’s motor development.
Fine motor skills are the ability to make movements using the small muscles in our hands and
wrists. Kids use fine motor skills to do many school-related tasks. At 36-48 months, kids
constantly turn pages of a picture or story book whilst looking at the picture with interest. Apart
from that, they are also already capable of pouring without spilling, putting on their clothes and
socks independently. Preschoolers at 49-60 months old are able to copy simple patterns, draw or
color. Lastly, they are also able to feed and prepare food for themselves as well as dressing,
bathing, brushing teeth and so on.

2.Explain the significant changes in the physical growth of a child.

Significant changes in the physical growth of a child begins at infancy or toddler development. It
is when a toddler soon acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. The
child's trunk and limbs grow longer, and the abdominal muscles form, tightening the appearance
of the stomach. Even at this early stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls.
Children become stronger as their muscle mass increases. Motor skills in both strength and
coordination improve. A school-age child's hair may become a little darker. The texture and
appearance of a child's skin gradually changes, becoming more like that of an adult.

Module 16: Cognitive Development of Preschoolers

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain the information processing theory-attention of memory.
Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded
into our memory. The theory describes how our brains filter information, from what we’re
paying attention to in the present moment, to what gets stored in our short-term or working
memory and ultimately into our long-term memory. The premise of Information Processing
Theory is that creating a long-term memory is something that happens in stages; first we
perceive something through our sensory memory, which is everything we can see, hear, feel or
taste in a given moment; our short-term memory is what we use to remember things for very
short periods, like a phone number; and long-term memory is stored permanently in our brains. 

2.What is theory of the mind? Explain.

The understanding that people don't share the same thoughts and feelings as you do develops
during childhood, and is called theory of mind. Another way to think about it is a child's ability
to tune-in to other peoples' perspectives. This ability doesn't emerge overnight, and it develops in
a predictable order.

3.What are the roles of caregivers in cognitive development?

When children are growing up, positive parenting improves their cognitive, social and problem-
solving skills. Positive parenting also affects their responses and helps them grow up to be better
humans. These are the appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of
preschoolers:
For three years old:
1.Speak with children as often as possible.
2.Add new information to your children’s sentences.
3.Teach children to memorize first and last names.
For four years old:
1.Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their own.
2.Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together.
3.Encourage interests in writing and words.
For five years old:
1.Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for different characters.
2.Ask them to tell you a story.
3.Ask “what if" questions.

Module 17: Socio-emotional Development of the Preschooler 

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain:
Parten’s stages of play:
Unoccupied play - Children are relatively still and their play appears scattered. This type of play
builds the foundation for the other five stages of play. Unoccupied play looks like babies or
young children exploring materials around them without any sort of organization.
Solitary play - This type of play occurs when children entertain themselves without any other
social involvement. Children in solitary play may not notice or acknowledge other children.
Onlooker play - Children who sit back and engagingly watch other children playing, but do not
join in are onlookers. The active part of their play is watching others. They learn about the social
rules of play and relationships, they explore different ways of playing or using materials and they
learn about the world in general.
Parallel play - This occurs when children play next to each other, but are not really interacting
together. Think of this stage like a warm up exercise – children work side by side on the same
activity, practicing skills and learning new methods to engage together.
Associative play - This type of play signifies a shift in the child. Instead of being more focused
on the activity or object involved in play, children begin to be more interested in the other
players.
Cooperative play - This is play categorized by cooperative efforts between players. Children
might adopt group goals, establish rules for play. It’s important to remember cooperation is an
advanced skill and can be very difficult for young children. Ironically, cooperative play often
involves a lot of conflict. 

Four styles of caregiving:

Authoritarians - are parents who are often thought of as disciplinarians. They use a strict
discipline style with little negotiation possible. Punishment is common. Communication is
mostly one way: from parent to child. Rules usually are not explained. Parents with this style are
typically less nurturing. Expectations are high with limited flexibility.
Permissive - or Indulgent parents mostly let their children do what they want, and offer limited
guidance or direction. They are more like friends than parents. Their discipline style is the
opposite of strict. They have limited or no rules and mostly let children figure problems out on
their own. Communication is open but these parents let children decide for themselves rather
than giving direction. Parents in this category tend to be warm and nurturing. Expectations are
typically minimal or not set by these parents.
Negligent - are parents who give children a lot of freedom and generally stay out of their way.
Some parents may make a conscious decision to parent in this way, while others are less
interested in parenting or unsure of what to do. No particular discipline style is utilized. An
uninvolved parent lets a child mostly do what he wants, probably out of a lack of information or
caring. Communication is limited. This group of parents offers little nurturing. There are few or
no expectations of children.
Authoritative - are parents who are reasonable and nurturing, and set high, clear expectations.
Children with parents who demonstrate this style tend to be self-disciplined and think for
themselves. This style is thought to be most beneficial to children. Disciplinary rules are clear
and the reasons behind them are explained. Communication is frequent and appropriate to the
child’s level of understanding. Authoritative parents are nurturing. Expectations and goals are
high but stated clearly. Children may have input into goals.

Prelims

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain why human development is gradual.
Development is the process of growth and change that everyone experiences. I can say that
human development is gradual as we continuously grow and develop throughout our lives. For
example, as a child, there were a lot of things that I couldn’t do but, because of sufficient
guidance, support and understanding, I was able to do the things that I could do now. And as I
continue to grow, I still keep learning new things as knowledge is infinite.

2.Describe the 8 developmental tasks of Santrock.

The 8 developmental tasks of Santrock consists of prenatal development, infancy, early
childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late
adulthood. The first developmental tasks of Santrock begins at prenatal development. During this
period of development, conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of
prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the
body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. When the fetus has been
fully developed in the uterus for about 40 weeks, there are still various approaches to labor,
delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery. After a baby
has been successfully delivered, the next period of the 8 developmental tasks of Santrock is the
infancy period. This period lasts from birth to 2 years old. During this period, the first year and a
half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with many
involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking,
talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. After the infancy period, the next period
is the early childhood. Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the
years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or
6. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater
independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. Past the age of 6 is
the period of middle and late childhood. The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much
of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of
school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing
one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. After the
period of middle and late childhood, adolescence is the next period of dramatic physical change
marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing
may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent
begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and
freedom. After going through adolescent period, early adulthood comes next. In early adulthood,
human roughly ages 20-40. Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early
adulthood. It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement
in violent crimes and substance abuse. After the early adulthood comes the late thirties through
the mid-60s which are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which physiological
aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their
peak of productivity in love and work. Last but not the least, is the period of the lifespan, late
adulthood, which has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries, as
average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a wide age range with a lot of
variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “young old” (65-74 years old),
“old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years old).

3.Which of the research designs do you prefer? Why?

Among the different research designs, I prefer case study the most. This is because case study
capture a range of perspectives, as opposed to the single view of an individual you get with a
survey response or interview. This gives the opportunity to gain a greater understanding of the
subject in hand and reduces the potential for any bias, by diluting the agenda of a particular
individual.

Midterm

QUESTIONS:
1.Enumerate and explain Freud’s stages of psychosexual development:
1.Oral - The first stage is the oral also known as the mouth. During this stage, the infant's
primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
2.Anal - The second stage is the anal also known as the bowel and bladder control. During this
stage, the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The
major conflict at this stage is toilet training the child has to learn to control their bodily needs.
3.Phallic - The third stage is the phallic also known as the genitals. During this stage, the
primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females.
4.Latency - The fourth stage is the latent also known as the sexual feelings which are still
inactive. During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside
of the family.
5.Genital - Lastly, the fifth stage is the genital also known as the maturing sexual interests.
During this stage, the onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the
final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

2.Explain briefly the stage 5 and stage 6 of the 8 psychological stages of development.
Stage 5 Adolescence - Adolescence is the period of dramatic physical change marked by an
overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by
gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think
of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom.
Stage 6 Early adulthood – In early adulthood, human roughly ages 20-40. Late teens, twenties,
and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. It is a time when we are at our physiological
peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse.

3.What are the biological systems of Broferbrenner’s model? Describe them.

The bioecological theory of Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different
systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the
chronosystem. The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things
that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings,
teachers and school peers. Secondly, the mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the
child’s microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or
between school peers and siblings. Thirdly, the exosystem incorporates other formal and
informal social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence
them as they affect one of the microsystems. Fourthly, the macrosystem focuses on how cultural
elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and
ethnicity. Lastly, the fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory is
known as the chronosystem. This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur
over the lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical
events.

4.How do you teach a younger brother to tie or untie his shoe?

The first step I would teach my younger brother in order to tie or untie his shoe involves tying
one loop, and then a second that's a little looser, then putting one shoelace through that hole to
the opposite end and taking the other shoelace and putting it through to the opposite end, then
pulling the bunny ears tight. Finally, in order to untie his shoe, I would teach him to pull the
laces upward with his index fingers, just like the first set of laces. Open the shoe again. Repeat
the process of pulling the laces upward, and opening the shoe, until the all the laces are loose.

5.What is scaffolding? Explain.

Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher adds supports for students in order to enhance
learning and aid in the mastery of tasks. The teacher does this by systematically building on
students' experiences and knowledge as they are learning new skills.

Semi-final 

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain the height and weight of a child.
Height and weight in the development of a child is the physical growth that refers to an increase
in body size (length or height and weight) and in the size of organs. From birth to about age 1 or
2 years, children grow rapidly. After this time, growth slows. As growth slows, children need
fewer calories and parents may notice a decrease in appetite.

2.Compare proximodistal & cephalocaudal pattern of growth of a child.

Cephalocaudal development refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down.
An infant will gain control over their neck muscles first, which allows them to hold their head
steady. Proximodistal development occurs from the centre or core of the body in an outward
direction. In other words, cephalocaudal development describes the general growth pattern of
organisms to develop areas near the main neural area earlier than areas of the body that are more
distant. This can be seen in human fetuses where the head is the first body part formed.
Proximodistal development describes the general tendency for the development of motor skills to
start at the center of an organism and radiate outwards from there. The middle is the first to
develop and movement extends outwards from there. Infants will first learn to move their torso
and then their arms and legs.

3.Choose 2 lines of the poem of Nolte’s poem and explain.

“If children live with friendliness,
They learn the world is a nice place in which to live”
I believe this line pertains to how children will perceive the world they live in if they are
surrounded with positive social interactions and influences and are living in a good environment.
In these ways, children will grow up to be to be friendly and kind.

Final

QUESTIONS:
1.Explain the 12 principles of child development and learning the inform practice.

2.Enumerate and explain the developmental task of adolescence (13-18) years of age.
Adolescence, or the age roughly between 12-18, is marked by puberty and sexual maturation,
accompanied by major socio-emotional changes. It is a period of dramatic physical change
marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing
may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent
begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and
freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of
dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong
consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk-taking and
impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one’s
own identity. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers
become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer
groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve
dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.

3.In your own words, explain Nature versus Nurture.

Based on what I understood, nature is an occurrence of the natural world generally, including
plants, animals, the landscape, and other natural creations. Meanwhile, nurture is caring and
uplifting the growth or refinement of a certain thing. Significantly, nurture can greatly impact
human development much more than nature can. This is because different types of upbringing
can affect our behaviors, attitude and perception. While nature is based on genetic characteristics
and skills, nurturing is a big factor in human development. As I believe that humans are nurtured
to behave in certain ways.

4.Describe the 3 components of personality.

1.Id - is the most primitive of the three components. It is mostly concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges which operates entirely unconsciously.
2.Superego - is concerned with social rules and morals similar to what many people call
conscience or moral compass. It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and
wrong.
3.Ego - is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is
partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and its job is
to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. 

5.Describe the 8 stages of Erickson's Psycho-Social Theory of Development. 

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust - The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an
infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt - The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during
the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their
power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority - The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early
school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion - The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often
turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal
identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay
true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and
isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation - Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement
in the world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair - The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is
focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events
of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the
things they did or didn't do.

6.Enumerate and explain the Brofenbrenner's Biological Model: Structure of Environment.

1.The microsystem - is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have
direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers
and school peers.
2.The mesosystem - encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
3.The exosystem - incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not
themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems.
4.The macrosystem - focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and etethnicity.
5.The chronosystem – is a system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over
the lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.

7.Why are psycho-active drugs not advisable for pregnant mothers?

Psycho-active drugs are indeed not advisable for pregnant mothers as it can have severe effects
for both mother and fetus. Effects such as central nervous system damage and fetal effects are
more likely to produce malformation in which the developing brain is prevented from forming
normally. Toxic influences during this period may dramatically alter brain development.

8.Name and describe the different reflexes of babies.

Rooting reflex - This reflex starts when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched.
The baby will turn his or her head and open his or her mouth to follow and root in the direction
of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to start feeding. This reflex lasts
about 4 months.
Suck reflex - Rooting helps the baby get ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is
touched, the baby will start to suck. This reflex doesn't start until about the 32nd week of
pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak
or immature sucking ability because of this. Because babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex
that goes with rooting and sucking, they may suck on their fingers or hands.
Moro reflex - The Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex. That’s because it usually occurs
when a baby is startled by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws
back his or her head, extends out his or her arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs
back in. A baby's own cry can startle him or her and trigger this reflex. This reflex lasts until the
baby is about 2 months old.
Tonic neck reflex - When a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out
and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often called the fencing position. This reflex
lasts until the baby is about 5 to 7 months old.
Grasp reflex - Stroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close his or her fingers in a
grasp. The grasp reflex lasts until the baby is about 5 to 6 months old. A similar reflex in the toes
lasts until 9 to 12 months.
Stepping reflex - This reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to
take steps or dance when held upright with his or her feet touching a solid surface. This reflex
lasts about 2 months.

9.What are the roles of caregivers in the socio-emotional development of preschoolers?

1.Greet each child with his or her name each day. Be sincere and respectful to each child.
2.Read story books that deal about friendship and different feelings.
3.Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and getting along.
4.Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by providing opportunities for them
to play in small groups.
5.Play games that involve social interactions and teamwork.
6.Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach them how to request, bargain, negotiate,
and apologize.
7.Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words they can use to
express how they feel.
8.Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express feelings appropriately.
9.Acknowledgehow the child feels.
10.Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish something. Be
specific in your praise.
11.Read story books that deals with friendships.
12.For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting along.

10.What are some of the appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of
preschoolers?
For three years old:
1.Speak with children as often as possible.
2.Add new information to your children’s sentences.
3.Teach children to memorize first and last names.
For four years old:
1.Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their own.
2.Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together.
3.Encourage interests in writing and words.
For five years old:
1.Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for different characters.
2.Ask them to tell you a story.
3.Ask “what if" questions.
 Module 7: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development & Module 8: Kohlberg’s Stages
of Moral Development

QUESTION:
1.Illustrate by drawing the 8 Psychological stages of development.

Stage

Too much Too much

Maladaptation Psychosocial Crisis Malignancy

Virtue