Types of Memory

1. Sensory/Immediate Memory: The Sensory Register – Information can be held for a

very brief time in the sensory register. Most of the information briefly held in the
sensory register is lost; what has been briefly stored simply decays from the register.
However, we pay attention to and recognise some of the information in the sensory
register; when we do this, the attended-to information is passed on to short-term
memory for further processing.

Studies with the visual sensory register have also shown that it can hold at least 11 to
16 items of information during the second before it loses the information through
decay. Furthermore, in vision at least, the sensory storage seems to be in the form of a
faint image, called an iconic image which is a copy of the visual input. It is this iconic
image that persists in the visual sensory register for a second before it gradually
decays.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM) – A number of experiments have shown that short-term
memory can be distinguished from long-term memory. Short-term memory (Fig.5.2)
is memory that holds information received from the sensory register for up to about
30 seconds, although the length of the retention depends on a number of factors.

The technique used in this experiment is known as free recall. The subjects in the
experiment were shown lists of 15 nouns. Each noun was presented for 1 second, with
a two-second interval between the presentations. After all 15 nouns had been
presented, subjects were asked to recall the nouns in any order that came to mind
(hence the term free recall).
Thus, recall depends on where an item is in a series of items (its serial position). The
role of serial position in free recall (an in other memory tasks, too) is generally called
the serial-position effect. The better recall at the beginning of the list which
contributes to the serial-position effect is known as the primary effect: items
encountered first are remembered relatively well. The better recall at the end of the
list is known as the recency effect: items encountered most recently are remembered
well.
Short-term memory, in addition to its transient quality, also has a very limited storage
capacity. This capacity is estimated to be about 7 items, plus or minus 2 (Miller,
1956). The storage capacity of short-term memory can be increased, however, by a
process known as chunking. Most of us have learned to combine several items into a
"chunk" as we receive them; then we can retain several (7, plus or minus 2) of these
"chunks" of information in our short-term memories. Telephone numbers, for
instance, consist of 7 items (10, if the area code is included), arrange in 2 (or 3)
chunks. With practice, most of us can easily hold 3 telephone numbers in short-term
memory – 21 items arranged in 6 chunks.
Since the capacity of this memory stage is so small, much information stored here is
lost because it is displayed by incoming items of information. Before it is lost,
however, some of the information can be retrieved and used. Studies of retrieval from
short-term memory (Sternberg, 1966, 1975) show that we rapidly scan through short-
term memory when searching for an item of information.
Rehearsal – The process of rehearsal consist of keeping items of information in the
center of attention, perhaps by repeating them silently or aloud. The amount of
rehearsal given to items is important in the transfer of information from short-term to
long-term memory (Rundus, 1971). In general, the more an item is rehearsed, the
 more likely it is to become part of long-term memory. However, in the last few years,
other experiments have indicated that the sheer amount of rehearsal may be less
important than the ways in which the information is rehearsed. Just going over and
over what is to be remembered (called maintenance rehearsal) does not necessarily
succeed in transferring it to long-term memory (Craik and Watkins, 1973). What is
known as elaborative rehearsal is more likely to succeed. Elaborative rehearsal
involves giving the material organization and meaning as it is being rehearsed; it is an
active rehearsal process, not just the passive process of repetition. In elaborative
rehearsal, people use strategies that give meaning and organisation to the material so
that it can be fitted in with existing organised long-term memories.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) – The time span over which information can be stored
in long-term memory cannot be stated very precisely. Long-term memories may last
for days, months, years, or even a lifetime. Also, unlike short-term memory, the
storage capacity of long-term memory has no known limit.

Some theorists believe that there is no true forgetting from long-term memory.
According to this view, once information is stored in long-term memory, it is there for
good; when we seem to forget, it is because we have trouble retrieving, or getting
access to, what has been stored. In other words, the information is still there; we just
cannot get to it because it has not been stored in an organised fashion or because we
are not searching for it in the right part of the memory storehouse.
Long-term memory contains words, sentences, ideas, concepts and the life
experiences we have had. As we shall see in more detail, two different but related
long-term memory stores are called (a) semantic memory (the word semantic refers to
"meaning"), contains the meaning of words and concepts and the rules for using them
in language; it is a vast network of meaningful organised items of information
(Quillian, 1966). The other, containing memories of specific things that have
happened to a person is called (b) episodic memory.
Information Processing Theory
The information-processing theory developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
(1968). In the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory, memory starts with a sensory input from the
environment (Fig.1). This input is held for a very brief time – several seconds, at most – in a
sensory register associated with the sensory channels (vision, hearing, touch and so forth).
Information that is attended to and recognised in the sensory register may be passed on to
short term memory (STM), where it is held for perhaps 20 or 30 seconds. Some of the
information reaching short-term memory is processed by being rehearsed – that is, by having
attention focussed on it, perhaps by being repeated over and over, or perhaps by being
processed in some other way that will link it up with other information already stored in
memory. Information that is rehearsed may then be passed along to long-term memory
(LTM); information not so processed is lost. When items of information are placed in long-
term memory, they are recognised into categories, where they may reside for days, months,
years, or for a lifetime. When you remember something, our representation of the item is
withdrawn, or retrieved, from long-term memory.
Improving your Memory: Some Useful Steps

How good is your memory? If you are like most people, your answer is probably "Not good
enough!" At one time or another, most of us have wished that we could improve our ability to
retain facts and information. Fortunately, with a little work, almost anyone can improve
her/his memory. Here are some tips for reaching this goal:
1. Really think about what you want to remember – If you wish to enter information into
long-term memory, it is important to think about it. Ask question about it, consider its
meaning and examine its relationship to information you already know. In other words,
engage in elaboration or deep "processing". Doing so will help make the new information
part of your existing knowledge frameworks – and will increase your chances of
remembering it later.

2. Pay careful attention to what you want to remember – Unless you consciously notice
information you want to remember, it stands little chance of really getting "in" – into
long-term memory. So be sure to direct you full attention to information you want to
remember. True, this does involve a bit of work. But, in the long-term, it will save your
time and effort.

3. Minimize interference – Interference is a major cause of forgetting; and, in general, the

more similar materials are, the more likely they are to produce interference. The practical
terms, this means you should arrange your studying so that you don't study similar
subjects one right after the other. Instead work on subjects that are unrelated; the result
may be less interference between them – and, potentially, better grades.

4. Engage in distribute learning/practice – Don't try to cram all the information you want
to memorize into a long-term storage at once. Rather, if at all possible, space your
studying over several sessions – preferably several delays. This is especially important if
you want to retain the information for a long period of time rather than just until the next
exam!

5. Use virtual imagery and other mnemonics – You have probably heard the saying "A
picture is worth a thousand words." Where memory is concerned, that is sometimes true,
it is often easier to remember information associated with vivid mental images (example
Gehring and Toglia, 1989). You can put this principle to use by adopting any one of
several different mnemonics-tactics for improving memory. One of these, the method of
loci involves linking points you want to remember with visual images arranged in some
familiar order. For instance, suppose you want to remember the points in speech you will
soon make. You can imagine walking through some familiar place, say you own home
then form a series of images in which each item you wish to remember is placed in a
specific location. Perhaps the first point is "The greenhouse effect is real". You might
imagine a large, steamy greenhouse right outside your front door. The next point might be
"Cutting down the rainforest is increasing the greenhouse effect". For this one, you might
imagine a large cut down tree in your living room. You'd form other images, in different
locations for the other points you want to make then, by asking an imagery walk through
 your house, you can "see" each of these images and so remember the points in your
speech.

6. Give yourself extra retrieval cues – Remember the concept of state-dependent retrieval?
As we noted previously, you can use this principle to provide yourself with extra retrieval
cues and so help to enhance your memory. For instance, if you studied for a test while in
one physical state, try to be in the same state when you take the test. Similarly, use the
principle of mood-dependent memory. If you learn some material while in a good mood
and then want to remember it try to put yourself in the same mood. This is not as hard as
it sounds; you can often vary your own mood by imagining happy or sad events. To the
degree that your mood matches the mood you were in when you learnt some information,
your memory for the information may be improved.

7. Develop your own shorthand codes – While we learn the names of the nine planets we
may do so by the first letter technique, in which the first letter of each word in a phrase
stands for an item to be remembered. In this case, the phrase was "Mary's violet eyes
make John stay up nights pondering" (For Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune and Pluto). This can be very useful if you need to remember a list of
items.
You could add additional techniques but most would be related to the points already
described. Whichever techniques you choose, you will learn that making them work does
require effort. In memory training, as in any other kind of self-improvement, it appears
that "No pain, no gain" holds true.
MNEMONICS
This strange looking word (pronounced "nemonics") comes from Greek word for "memory"
and refers to specific memory improvement techniques. Most mnemonic techniques rely on
the linking, or association, of to be remembered material with a systematic and organised set
of images or words that are already firmly established in long-term memory and can therefore
serve as minder cues. With the analogy of a clock room in mind,
1. The reminder cues are called memory pegs; the to-be remembered items are hung on
these "pegs". For example, the letters in the word homes can be used "pegs" on which to
hang the names of the great lakes – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior.

2. The method of loci – the word loci means "places". The memory pegs in this system are
part of your image of a scene. The scene can be street, building with rooms, the layout of
a college campus, the kitchen, or just about anything that can be visualized and contains a
number of discreet items in specific locations to serve as memory pegs.
Using the method of loci to do this, start by "imagining" a building with number of rooms
in it and several items of furniture in each room (Fig 5.17). Rehearse the image over and
over until it is well established in your mind. After you have formed you image, associate
the events you wish to remember with the rooms and items of furniture.
3. Number and Letter Peg System – Like the method of loci, the main idea of these
systems is to establish, in your long-term memory, a well-organised set of images to
which the to-be remembered items can be linked. In number system, you form an image
with each number. For instance, a rhyming system can be used for the numbers 1 through
10. Think of words that rhyme with the numbers – 1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe, 3 is a tree, 4 is a
door and so on. Now when you have a list of remember, you can associate the items on
the list with your images of the numbers. If first item on a grocery list is coffee, imagine a
steaming cup of coffee near to a plate of buns; if the second item is hamburger, you might
see a girl shoe squashing hamburger into a patty; and so on through the associating the
number of images with what is to be remembered.

4. Stories You Tell Yourself – If you have a list of unrelated items to remember, a useful
mnemonic device is to relate the items in a made story. The story starts with the first item
on the list, and, in order, succeeding item is worked in. Doing this gives coherence and
meaning otherwise unrelated items; it is a form of elaborative encoding. Suppose a person
has been given the following list of remember (Bowel Clark, 1969):
 Lumberjack
 Dart
 Skate
 Hedge
 Colony
 Duck
 Furniture
 Pillow
 Stocking
 Mistress
 The made up story might go as follows:
"A LUMBERJACK DARTed out of the forest, SKATEed around a HEDGE past a
COLONY of DUCKS. He tripped on some FURNITURE, tearing his STOCKING while
hastening towards the PILLOW where his MISTRESS lay."
Remembering Names and Faces – It may not be important to have memory techniques to
help us remember grocery list, steps in a sequence of chemical reactions, and the like;
after all, we can almost always consult written notes. As first steps in establishing a good
memory for names and faces, we should (1) be sure we hear the name clearly when
introduced, (2) repeat the name when acknowledging the introduction, and (3) if the name
is unusual, politely ask our new acquaintance to spell it. While we are making sure we
have heard and rehearsed the name, we should be paying close attention to the
individual's face, the shape and size of the head and individual characteristics of the hair,
forehead, eyebrows, eye lashes, eyes, cheekbones, ears, lips, chin and skin should all be
focal points of attention.
5. Chunking – A general characteristics of mnemonic techniques – Systematic ways of
encoding information. Suppose you want to remember your credit card number –
19141609001, for example. It will help if you break the number into chunks. In the
example, the first four numbers may remind you of an important date in history (the day
of the outbreak of World War I). The next four numbers can also be chunked as a date,
while the last three numbers form a chunk that is easy to remember by itself.
Dementia
Dementia implies loss, and it is characterized by a decline from a previously attained level of
functioning (see the table on criteria for dementia). The onset of dementia is typically quite
gradual. Early on, the individual is alert and fairly well attuned to events in the environment.
Even in the early stages, however, memory is invariably effected, especially memory for
recent events. As time goes on, patients with dementia show increasingly marked deficits in
abstract thinking, the acquisition of new knowledge or skills, visuo-spatial comprehension,
motor control, problem solving and judgment. Dementia is often accompanied by impairment
in emotional control and in moral and ethical sensibilities; for example, the person may,
engage in crude solicitations for sex. Dementia may be progressive getting worse over time
or static but is more often the former. Occasionally dementia is reversible if it has underlying
cause that can be removed or treated (such as vitamin deficiency).

DSM-IV-TR
Criteria for Dementia
 The development of multiple cognitive deficits manifested by both
1) Memory impairment
2) One or more of the following cognitive disturbances:
a. Aphasia (language disturbance)
b. Apraxia (impaired ability to carry out motor tasks despite having the motor
ability to do so)
c. Agnosia (failure to recognise or identify objects despite intact sensory
functions)
d. Disturbance in executive functioning (i.e. planning, organising,
sequencing, abstracting)
 The cognitive deficits caused significant impairment in functioning and represent a
significant decline from a previous level of functioning.
 The onset of the disorder is gradual and there is continuing cognitive decline.

AMNESIA
Any loss of memory, often applied to situation in which a person forgets his or her identity
and is unable recognize familiar persons and situations. Amnesia is a memory condition in
which memory is disturbed in simple terms it is the loss of memory. The causes of amnesia
are organic or functional. Organic causes include damage to the brain, through trauma or
disease, or use of certain drugs (generally sedatives). Functional causes psychological factors
such as defense mechanisms.

There are two types of Amnesia.

1) Retrograde amnesia: - is a form of amnesia where someone will be unable to recall

events that occurred before the development of amnesia. The term is used to categorize
patterns of symptom rather than to indicate a particular cause. Retrograde amnesia commonly
results from the damage of the brain regions. Retrograde amnesia is caused by trauma that
results in brain injury. Events nearest in time to the event that caused memory loss may never
be recovered. The memory loss may just affect specific “classes” of memory. For instance,
the victim concert pianist before, may still remember what a piano is after the onset of
retrograde amnesia but may forget how to plat the relearning rate for often used skills such as
typing and maths is typically faster than of others who had never learned before. While there
is no cure for retrograde amnesia, "jogging" the victim's memory from the past will speed the
rate of recall. It is important to let the amnesiacgo at his or her "own pace", so they are not
overly stressed.

2) Anterograde amnesia: - is a loss of ability to create memories after the event that caused
the amnesia. This type of amnesia is either drug induced (by drugs known to have powerful
amnesic effects) or it follows a traumatic brain injury. After a night of heavy drinking, a high
dose of alcohol person may have amnesia for the events that occurred while he was smashed.
When sober again the individual’s memory of the events .before overindulgence is intact but
there is a memory gap for the period of darkness. Patients who suffer from Anterograde
amnesia may have widely varying degrees of forgetfulness. In case the amnesia is drug
induced it may be short lived and patients may recover from it. In other case of brain injury,
some recovery is possible depending upon the nature of the damage. In case of pure
Anterograde amnesia, patients have recollection of events prior to the injury but cannot recall
day to day information or new facts that were presented to them after the injury occurred.

Some patients with severe cases have a combined form of retrograde and Anterograde
amnesia, call Global amnesia.

DEMENTIA
Dementia (meaning "deprived of mind”) is a serious cognitive disorder It may be static (the
result of bra injury) or progressive, resulting in long term decline in cognitive function due to
damage or disease in the body beyond what might be expected for normal aging. Although
dementia is far more common in the geriatric population, it may occur in any stage of
adulthood.

In dementia, affected areas of cognition may be memory, attention, language and problem
solving. In all types of general cognitive dysfunction, higher mental functions are affected
first in the process. Dementia though often treatable to some degree, is usually due to causes
which are progressive and incurable less than 10% of cases of dementia are due to causes
which may presently be reversed with treatment.

Senile dementia: Amnesia in senile dementia is Anterograde. The person has trouble
remembering the events that happened after the onset of the disease. Thus the old person with
this disorder has trouble learning and cannot recall well what happened last month, yesterday
or even a few hours ago. Memories for the years before the disease are largely intact until the
brain damage became widespread and severe. Senile dementia is usually the result of a
reduction in blood flow to the brain, brain cells are deprived of adequate supply of oxygen
and nutrients leading to brain atrophy.
 Alzheimer's disease
Alzheimer's is a form of degenerative dementia in which there is a cluster of specific
degenerative changes of unknown origins. It is the most common form of dementia. This
incurable degenerative terminal disease was first described by German psychiatrist and
neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer. Generally it is diagnosed in people over 60 years of age. It
occurs in 5% of population over the age years.

Although the cause for Alzheimer disease in unique for every individual, there are many
common symptoms. The earliest observable symptoms are often mistakenly thought to be age
related conce manifestations of stress. In the early stages, the most commonly recognized
symptom is memory of such as difficulty in remembering recently earned facts. As the
disease advances, symptoms including confusion, irritability and aggression, mood swings,
language breakdown, long term memory loss a general withdrawal of the sufferer as their
senses decline. Gradually, bodily functions are lost, ultin leading toe death. It can progress
undiagnosed for years. The mean life expectancy following diagnosed approximately seven
years, less than 3% of individuals live more than 14 years after diagnosis, e.g. American
President, Ronald Reagon suffered from Alzheimer's disease, he held a formal ceremony
good bye to many friends and associates because he realized that soon Alzheimer's disease
would of his memory and personality. Research indicates that the disease is associated with
plaques and in the brain. Mental stimulation, exercise and balanced diet are often
recommended, as both a pppp prevention and sensible way of managing the disease.
Alzheimer's disease is one of the most economically costly diseases of the society. Along
whit their memories the patients loose their past their souls.

The disease course is divided into four stages,

1. Pre-dementia - the first symptoms are often mistaken as related to ageing and stress. The
symptoms can affect the most complex daily laying activities. The most noticeable deficit
is loss, which shows up as difficulty in remembering recently learnt facts and inability to
acquire information.

2. Early- dementia: - increasing impairment of learning and memory eventually leads to a

de § diagnosis. Older memories of the person’s life (episodic memory), facts learned
(semantic rr fj and memory of the body on how to do things such as using the fork to eat
are affected to a degree than the new facts or memories, language problems are mainly
characterized by a shrinking vocabulary and decreased word fluency, which lead to a
general impoverishment written language.

3. Moderate dementia. - progressive deterioration hinders independence; speech

difficulties become evident due to an inability to recall vocabulary, which leads to
frequent incorrect wc | substitutions. Reading and writing skills are lost progressively lest.
Memory problem worsen | the person may fail to recognize close relatives. Long term
memory becomes impaired.

4. Advanced dementia:- during the last stage of Alzheimer's disease, the patient is
complete dependents upon caregivers. Language is reduced to simple phrases or even
single words, eventually leading to complete loss of speech. Despite the loss of verbal
language the persons often understand and return emotional signals. Although
aggressiveness can be present, ex jjj apathy and exhaustion are much more common
results. Patients will ultimately not be able to perform even the most simple task without
assistance. Muscle mass and mobility deteriorate the point where they are bedridden, and
they lose the ability to feed themselves. Advanced dementia is a terminal illness.