UNIT I:

Foundations of Individual Behavior & Motivation

The organization and the individual: Edger H. Schein gave the view that there is a
psychological contract between the individual and the organisation. Both the individuals
and the organisation have mutual expectations from each other. This is beyond the formal
contract of service between the two which lays down the economic terms and conditions of
the employment.
The classical organisation theorists assumed the organisational and individual goals
to be complementary. According to them there was no conflict between these two goals.
According to Henri Fayol “If at all, there is any conflict between the interests of the
organisation and an individual, the organisational interest must prevail.” On the other
hand, according to the Human relationists, the in-congruency between the goals of the
organisation and individuals is inevitable.
Integration of Organisational and Individual Goals: In actual practice, no organisation
and individual has completely opposite or completely compatible goals. We can say that
some integration is always there between the individual and organisational goals. In this
context, HARRY LEVINSON advocated the process of reciprocation. The process of fulfilling
mutual expectations and satisfying mutual needs in the relationship between a man and
his work organisation is conceptualized as a process of reciprocation. It is a complementary
process in which the individual and the organisation seem to become a part of each other.
Personality: Determinants and Attributes: Personality refers to individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. The study of personality focuses
on two broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality
characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The other is understanding how the
various parts of a person come together as a whole. Personality is a result of the combination
of four factors, i.e., physical environment, heredity, culture, and particular experiences.
There are four major determinants of personality:
• Biological/Physical Determinants: Hereditary and physical features
• Social Determinants: Sociological aspects related to the community and his/her role
in the community
• Psychological Determinants: Behaviour, emotions, sentiments, thought patterns and
complexes of an individual
• Intellectual Determinants: Values, Humour, Morality, etc.
Other determinants of personality include cultural, situational, environmental factors, etc.
Job Attitudes:
Important attitudes have a strong relationship to behaviour. The closer the match between
attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship:
Specific attitudes predict specific behaviour
General attitudes predict general behaviour
The more frequently expressed an attitude, the better predictor it is. High social pressures
reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance. Attitudes based on personal experience
are stronger predictors.
Major Job attitudes:
Job Satisfaction:
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.
Job Involvement
Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important
to self-worth.
Psychological Empowerment
Belief in the degree of influence over the job competence, job meaningfulness and autonomy.
Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain
membership in the organization. Three dimensions:
Affective – emotional attachment to organization
Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying
Normative – moral or ethical obligations

Learning and Learning Theories:

“Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills,
values, attitudes, behavior and worldviews,”
Generally, there are five widely accepted learning theories teachers rely on:
Behaviorism learning theory
Cognitive learning theory
Constructivism learning theory
Humanism learning theory
Connectivism learning theory
THEORY EXPLANATION APPLICATION
Learning is based on a
system of routines that
“drill” information into a
As Simply Psychology
student’s memory bank,
puts it: “Behaviorism is
as well as positive
only concerned
feedback from teachers
with observable stimulus-
Behaviorism and an educational
response behaviors, as
institution itself. If
they can be studied in a
students do an excellent
systematic and observable
job, they receive positive
manner.”
reinforcement and are
signaled out for
recognition.
Developed in the 1950s,
this theory moves away
from behaviorism to
focus on the mind’s role
in learning. According to
the International Bureau
Learning relies on both of Education: “In
external factors (like cognitive psychology,
Cognitivism information or data) and learning is understood as
the internal thought the acquisition of
process. knowledge: the learner is
an information-
processor who absorbs
information, undertakes
cognitive operations on it
and stocks it in
memory.”
“The passive view of
teaching views the
learner as ‘an empty
vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge,” explains
The learner builds upon his
Simply Psychology,
or her previous experience
“whereas constructivism
Constructivism and understanding to
states that learners
“construct” a new
construct meaning only
understanding.
through active
engagement with the
world (such as
experiments or real-
world problem solving).”
 With the understanding
that people are inherently
good, humanism focuses
on creating an
A “learner-centric approach” environment conducive to
in which the potential is the self-actualization. In doing
Humanism
focus rather than the so, learners’ needs are met
method or materials. and they are then free to
determine their own goals
while the teacher assists
in meeting those learning
goals.
Strongly influenced by
technology, connectivism
focuses on a learner’s
Informed by the digital age,
ability to frequently
connectivism departs from
source and update
constructivism by
Connectivism accurate information.
identifying and
Knowing how and where
remediating gaps in
to find the best
knowledge.
information is as
important as the
information itself.

Perception: Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their

sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. However, what we
perceive can be substantially different from objective reality. For example, all employees in
a firm may view it as a great place to work—favorable working conditions, interesting job
assignments, good pay, excellent benefits, understanding and responsible management—
but, as most of us know, it’s very unusual to find such agreement. Why is perception
important in the study of OB? Simply because people’s behavior is based on their perception
of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is
behaviorally important.
Factors That Influence Perception
How do we explain the fact that individuals may look at the same thing yet perceive it
differently? A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These
factors can reside in the perceiver; in the object, or target, being perceived; or in the context
of the situation in which the perception is made. When you look at a target and attempt to
interpret what you see, your interpretation is heavily influenced by your personal
characteristics—
your attitudes
, personality
, motives,
interests,
past experiences,
and expectations.
For instance, if you expect police officers to be authoritative or young people to be lazy, you
may perceive them as such, regardless of their actual traits. Characteristics of the target
also affect what we perceive. Loud people are more likely to be noticed in a group than quiet
ones. So, too, are extremely attractive or unattractive individuals. Because we don’t look at
targets in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background also influences perception,
as does our tendency to group close things and similar things together. We often perceive
women, men, Whites, African Americans, Asians, or members of any other group that has
clearly distinguishable characteristics as alike in other, unrelated ways as well. Context
matters too. The time at which we see an object or event can influence our attention, as can
location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. At a nightclub on Saturday night,
you may not notice a young guest “dressed to the nines.” Yet that same person so attired
for your Monday morning management class would certainly catch your attention (and that
of the rest of the class). Neither the perceiver nor the target has changed between Saturday
night and Monday morning, but the situation is different.
Cross cultural issues in OB:
Broadly construed, cross-cultural organizational behavior (OB) is the study of cross-
cultural similarities and differences in processes and behavior at work and the
dynamics of cross-cultural interfaces in multicultural domestic and international
contexts.
Good cross-cultural understanding improves communication between people from
different cultures. Consequently, it fosters greater trust. When employees or customers
are aware of potential differences and similarities, they're likely to pay closer attention.
Cross cultural conflict in the workplace can arise when different perceptions around
power, resources, and compatibility create competition between individuals or
groups.
Theories of motivation:
Motivation can be described as the internal force that impacts the direction, intensity, and
endurance of a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour. It consists of −
• Direction − focused by goals.
• Intensity − bulk of effort allocated.
• Persistence − amount of time taken for the effort to be exerted.
Example − A team leader encourages team members to work efficiently.

Features of Motivation
Motivation is an internal feeling, that is, it defines the psychological state of a person. It is
a continuous process and we should make sure that it is not disturbed. A person should
be encouraged completely.
Motivation consists of three interacting and dependent elements −
• Needs − The requirements or deficiency which is created whenever there is
physiological imbalance.
• Drives − The various camps or events organized to motivate the employees and give
them new opportunities.
• Incentives − Employees need to be rewarded for their nice work in order to keep
them encouraged

Importance of Motivation
We need to motivate employees because of the following reasons −

• Motivated employee are more quality oriented.

• Highly motivated employees are more productive as compared to other employees.
• It helps in achieving three behavior dimension of human resource namely
o Candidates must be attracted not only to join but also remain in the firm.
o Employees must perform task in a dependable manner.
o Employees should be creative, spontaneous and innovative at work.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
This theory was produced in order to answer the question “What motivates an individual”.
Every second need comes to force when the first need is satisfied completely. Maslow
explained the hierarchy of needs by grouping them into two: deficiency needs and growth
needs.

Physiological Needs
Every individual needs to take care of the basic requirements required to sustain. These
requirements include food to eat, clothing to wear and shelter to live in. These necessities
are relatively independent of each other but are finite.
Safety Needs
Everybody wants to stay in a protected environment with minimal danger so that they can
have a peaceful life. Safety needs basically includes protection from physiological danger
like accident and having economic security like bank accounts, health insurance
In an enterprise, it includes job security, salary increment, etc. The managerial practice to
satisfy this involves offering pension scheme, provident fund, gratuity etc.
Social Needs
We have all heard that man is a social animal, we want to be there with those people where
we are loved and we are accepted as we are; nobody wants to be judged. This is a common
requirement every human desires.
This theory helps managers to think about encouraging their employees by identifying
employee needs. In short, it presents motivation as constantly changing force, expressing
itself to the constant need for fulfilment of new and higher levels of needs.
Esteem
Esteem means the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often
involve in a profession or hobby to gain recognition, earn fame and respect. According to
Maslow, the needs of humans have strict guidelines - the hierarchies rather than being
sharply separated, are interrelated. This means that esteem and the consequent levels are
not strictly separated but are closely related.
Self-Actualization
Self-actualization means realizing one’s full potential. Maslow describes this as a desire to
complete everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.

UNIT II:
Foundations of Group Behavior
Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve
particular objectives.
o Formal groups -- those defined by the organization’s structure, with
designated work assignments establishing tasks.
 o Informal groups -- alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined. Natural formations in the work environment that
appear in response to the need for social contact.
o Command group -- determined by the organization chart.
o Task groups -- also organizationally determined, representing those working
together to complete a job task.
o Interest group -- people not necessarily aligned into common command or task
groups who affiliate to attain a specific objective.
o Friendship group -- social alliances, frequently extending outside the work
situation.
Stages of group development:
These stages are commonly known as:
Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning
Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability, relationships
establish, and leadership style changes to more collaborative or shared leadership.
Tuckman's original work simply described the way he had observed groups evolve, whether
they were conscious of it or not. In CORAL, the real value is in recognizing where a team
is in the developmental stage process, and assisting the team to enter a stage consistent
with the collaborative work put forth. In the real world, teams are often forming and
changing, and each time that happens, they can move to a different Tuckman Stage. A
group might be happily Norming or Performing, but a new member might force them back
into Storming, or a team member may miss meetings causing the team to fall back into
Storming. Project guides will be ready for this, and will help the team get back to Performing
as quickly as possible.

Forming

The initial forming stage is the process of putting the structure of the team together. Team
members feel ambiguous and conflict is avoided at all costs due to the need to be accepted
into the group. Team members look to a group leader for direction and guidance, usually
CORAL project guides.

Observable Behaviors
• Politeness
• Tentative joining
• Orienting with others personally
• Avoids controversy
• Cliques may form
• Need for safety and approval
• Attempts to define tasks, processes, and how it will be decided here
• Discussion of problems not relevant to the task

Feelings and Thoughts

• Many feel excited, optimistic, and full of anticipation
• Others may feel suspicious, fearful, and anxious working with others
• What is expected of me
• Why are they here
• Uncertainty and Apprehension
Team Needs
• Team mission and vision
• Establish specific objectives and tasks
• Identify roles and responsibilities of team members
• Establish team ground rules
• Team member expectations
• Operational guidelines for team
• Effective in class meetings
• Effective Chat meetings
• 1st set of feedback from project guides

Leadership Required
• Project Guides & Instructors
• provide structure and task direction
• Allow for get-acquainted time
• Create an atmosphere of confidence and optimism
• Active involvement
• Team members believe an appointed leader necessary to make decisions
• One-way communication from leader to team-members

To advance from this stage to the next stage, each member must relinquish the comfort
zone of non-threatening topics and risk the possibility of conflict.

Storming

This stage begins to occur as the process of organizing tasks and processes surface
interpersonal conflicts. Leadership, power, and structural issues dominate this stage.

Observable Behaviors
• Arguing among members
• Vying for leadership
• Differences in points of view and personal style are evident
• Lack of role clarity
• Team organizing itself
• Power struggles and clashes
• Lack of consensus-seeking behaviors
• Lack of progress
• Establishes unrealistic goals
• Concern over excessive work

Feelings & Thoughts

• Feel Defensive
• Confusion, loss of interest can result
• Resistance to tasks
• Fluctuations in attitude about the team
• Unsure if I agree with teams mission and purpose
• Question the wisdom of team members
• Increase in tension and jealousy
• Unsure about my personal influence and freedom in the team
• We're not getting anywhere

Team Needs
• Inter & intra personal relationships
• Identify stylistic and personal differences
 • Effective listening
• Giving and receiving feedback
• Conflict resolution
• Clarify and understand the team’s purpose
• Reestablish roles and ground rules
• How to deal with ‘some’ team members violating team codes of conduct
• Receiving Feedback from project guide

Leadership Required
• Project guide & Instructors acknowledge conflict
• Project Guides suggest that consensus among team members
• Get members to assume more task responsibility
• Concept of Shared Leadership emerges
• Teach conflict resolution methods
• Offer support and praise
• Actively involved Team members begin consulting one another – shared leadership
emerging but have difficulty with decision making

In order to progress to the next stage, group members must move from a "testing and
proving" mentality to a problem-solving mentality. The most important trait in helping
teams move to the next stage is the ability of team members to listen to their team mates -
what are they trying to say?

Norming

In this stage, team members are creating new ways of doing and being together. As the
group develops cohesion, leadership changes from ‘one’ teammate in charge to shared
leadership. Team members learn they have to trust one another for shared leadership to be
effective.

Observable Behaviors
• Processes and procedures are agreed upon
• Comfortable with relationships
• Focus and energy on tasks
• Effective conflict resolution skills
• Sincere attempt to make consensual decisions
• Balanced influence, shared problem solving
• Develop team routines
• Sets and achieves task milestones

Feelings & Thoughts

• Sense of belonging to a team
• Confidence is high
• Team members feel a new ability to express criticism constructively
• Acceptance of all members in the team
• General sense of trust
• Assured that everything is going to work out okay
• Freedom to express and contribute

Team Needs
• Develop a decision making process
• Be prepared to offer ideas and suggestions
• Problem solving is shared
 • Utilizing all resources to support the team effort
• Team members take responsibility in shared leadership skills
• Receiving Feedback from project guides

Leadership Required
• Shared leadership
• Give feedback and support from Project Guides
• Allow for less structure
• Promotes team interaction
• Asks for contributions from all team members
• Collaboration becomes clearer
• Encouraging others in making decisions
• Continues to build strong relationships

The major task function of stage three is the data flow between group members: They
share feelings and ideas, solicit and give feedback to one another, and explore actions
related to the task. Creativity is high. Collaboration emerges during this stage when team
work ethic and shared leadership is understood.

The major drawback of the norming stage is that members may begin to fear the inevitable
future breakup of the team; they may resist change of any sort.

Performing

True interdependence is the norm of this stage of group development. The team is flexible
as individuals adapt to meet the needs of other team members. This is a highly productive
stage both personally and professionally.

Observable Behaviors
• Fully functional teams
• Roles are clearer
• Team develops independence
• Team able to organize itself
• Flexible members function well individually, in subgroups or as a team
• Better understand each other’s strengths and weaknesses and insights into group
processes

Feelings & Thoughts

• Empathy for one another
• High commitment
• Begin understanding collaborative work ethic
• Tight bonds emerge
• Fun and excitement
• Lots of personal development and creativity
• General sense of satisfaction
• Continual discovery of how to sustain feelings of momentum and enthusiasm

Team Needs
• Project guides assure team is moving in collaborative direction
• Maintain team flexibility
• Measure knowledge performance – post test
• Provide information
• Giving and Receiving
 • Feedback and Dialogue with project guides

Leadership Required
• Shared Leadership being practiced
• Observing, Inquiring, Fulfilling, team needs
• Collaborative efforts among team members
• Project guides provides little direction
• Team members offer positive reinforcement and support
• Share new information

The Performing stage is not reached by all groups. If group members are able to evolve to
stage four, their capacity, range, and depth of personal relations expand to true
interdependence. In this stage, people can work independently, in subgroups, or as a total
unit with equal competencies.

Adjourning

In this stage typically team members are ready to leave (course termination) causing
significant change to the team structure, membership, or purpose and the team during the
last week of class. They experience change and transition. While the group continues to
perform productively they also need time to manage their feelings of termination and
transition.

Observable Behaviors
• Visible signs of grief
• Momentum slows down
• Restless Behavior
• Bursts of extreme energy usually followed by lack of energy

Feelings & Thoughts

• Sadness
• Humor (that to outsiders could appear cruel)
• Glad it is over – relief

Team Needs
• Evaluate the efforts of the team
• Tie up loose ends and tasks
• Recognize and reward team efforts

Leadership Required
• Project guides help team develop options for termination
• Good listening
• Reflection and carry forth collaborative learning to next opportunity

The final stage, adjourning, involves the termination of task behaviors and disengagement
from relationships. A planned conclusion usually includes recognition for participation and
achievement and an opportunity for members to say personal goodbyes. Concluding a group
can create some apprehension – in effect, a minor crisis. The termination of the group is a
regressive movement from giving up control to giving up inclusion in the group.
Group Structures:
Group structure is defined as the layout of a group. It is a combination of group roles,
norms, conformity, workplace behavior, status, reference groups, status, social loafing,
cohorts, group demography and cohesiveness.
• Group Roles − The different roles a person plays as a part of the group.
• Norms − The typical standard set by the group collaboratively that every member has
to follow.
• Conformity − The decisions or stand taken by majority in the group.
• Workplace behaviour − The ethics that one needs to follow while working with an
organization.
• Status − The designation of members in the group.
• Social Loafing − The phenomena where group members put less effort towards
achieving a goal than they would have while working alone.
• Cohorts − Sharing common behavior in the group.
• Reference Groups − Other groups to which a group is compared to.
• Group Demography − Extent of sharing same behavior.
• Cohesiveness − Extent of belongingness towards each other in the group.

Roles
Roles are a set of expected behavior patterns associated to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit. There are three broad types of roles people play in small groups −

• Task roles
• Building and maintenance roles
• Self-centered roles
Task Roles
Task roles are roles that focus on completing group’s goal. The different task roles of a
group are stated below −
• Coordinator − Links statements made by one group member to another.
Example − “Gita’s comment relate well to what Ram was saying.”
• Energizer − Provokes group to take action.
Example − “How many of you are willing to bring in a video on dispute for the next
session?”
• Elaborator − Extends upon another’s ideas.
Example − “I think what Niki and Anni are suggesting is that we first explain
nonverbally before we turn to verbal communication.”
• Evaluator-critic − Evaluates the group’s work against higher standards.
Example − “This is okay, but I think Shree needs to give more feedback.”
• Information-giver − Gives helpful information.
Example − “Rohit has some books about conflict we could use.”
• Information-seeker − Questions for clarification.
 Example − “Richa or Trishala, could you please tell me what you said about
disconfirming responses?”
• Recorder − Keeps notes regarding the meeting.
Example − “Last session we did not get to A-P’s presentation. Rahul and Rohit had
just finished theirs.”
• Procedural Technician − Takes accountability for tasks.
Example − “I checked out the VCR for Nigaar and Neha’s presentations.”
Group-Building / Maintenance Roles
It focuses on building interpersonal relationships and maintaining harmony. The various
maintenance roles in a group are −
• Encourager − Gives positive feedback.
Example − “I think what Shyam was saying was totally right.”
• Follower − Obtains ideas of others in the group.
Example − “Let’s follow Adi’s plan—he had the right idea.”
• Compromiser − Attempts to reach a solution acceptable by everyone.
Example − “Pratik, Sid, and Nimmi have offered three great solutions. Why don’t we
integrate them?”
• Gatekeeper − Assists participation from everyone in the group.
Example − “I don’t think we’ve heard from Madhuri yet.”
• Harmonizer − Limits conflict and tension.
Example − “After that test, we deserve a free meal!”
• Observer − Examines group progress.
Example − “I think we’ve learned a lot so far. Monica and Mona gave us great
information.”
Self-centered Roles
These roles aim to impede or disrupt the group from reaching its goals. The various self-
centered roles in a group are as follows −
• Aggressor − Acts aggressively towards other group members and their ideas.
Example − “Playing desert survival is the greatest idea I’ve ever heard.”
• Dominator − Dominates group speaking time.
Example − Interrupting—“I’m going to tell you seven reasons why this is a great
idea.”
• Blocker − Refuses to collaborate with other’s ideas.
Example − “I refuse to play Family Swap.”
• Help-Seeker − Acts helpless to neglect work.
Example − “I don’t think I can put together a summary. Why don’t you do it for me?”
• Loafer − Refrains from work.
Example − “Why don’t we just go have coffee instead of finishing this project?”
• Special Interest Advocate − Presents own viewpoint and requirements.
Example − “I can’t meet today. I need to sleep early and call my mom.”
 • Self-confessor − Talks about the topics important to self and not the group.
Example − “I really like tea. Yesterday I went to CCD. Their coffee is better than what
you get elsewhere . . .”

Norms
Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the
group members. Every group develops its own customs, values, habits and expectations
for how things need to be done.
These patterns and expectations, or group norms as they're called sometimes, direct the
ways team members interact with each other.
Norms can help or block a group in achieving its goals.
Types of Norms
There are four different types of norms that exist in a group −

• Performance norms
• Appearance Norms
• Social arrangement norms
• Resource allocation norms
Performance Norms
These are centered on how hard a person should work in a given group. They are informal
clues that help a person understand how hard they should work and what type of output
they should give.
For example − Team leader puts various posters in the firm to motivate employees to work
efficiently and give their best performance.
Appearance Norms
Appearance norms updates or guides us as to how we should look or what our physical
appearance should be, like what fashion we should wear or how we should style our hair
or any number of areas related to how we should look.
For example − There is a formal dress code we need to follow while working in a
organization, we cannot wear a wedding gown to a board meeting.
Social Arrangement Norms
This norm is basically centered on how we should behave in social settings. Again here,
there are clues we need to pick up on when we are out with friends or at social events that
help us fit in and get a closer connection to the group.
For Example − We cannot take our official work to a friend’s birthday party just for the
sake of completing it.
Resource Allocation Norms
This norm focusses on the allocation of resources in a business surrounding. This may
include raw materials as well as working overtime or any other resource found or needed
within an organization.
For Example − If the client needs the project by tomorrow then anyhow it has to be
completed by using available resources or doing over time.

Conformity
Conformity can be stated as “accommodating to group pressures”. It is also called as the
majority influence or we can say the group pressure.
It is widely used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by
a desire to fit-in or be liked or because of a desire to be correct, or simply to conform to a
social role.
Types of Social Conformity
Three types of conformity can be identified −

•Normative Conformity
•Informational Conformity
•Ingratiational Conformity
Normative Conformity
Yielding to group pressure because an individual wants to fit in with the group. Conforming
usually takes place because the individual is scared of being rejected or neglected by the
group.
This type of conformity usually includes compliance like where a person publicly accepts
the views of a group but privately rejects them.
Informational Conformity
This usually happens when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group for guidance.
Or when a person is not clear about a situation and socially compares one’s behavior with
the group.
This type of conformity includes internalization like where a person accepts the views of
the groups and adopts them as an individual.
Ingratiational Conformity
Where a person conforms to gain a favor or acceptance from other people. It is relative to
normative influence but is encouraged by the need for social rewards rather than the threat
of being rejected.
In other words, group pressure is not always the reason to conform.
Harvard psychologist, Herbert Kelman, identified three different types of conformity −
• Compliance − Socially changing behavior in order to fit in with the group while
disagreeing privately. In simple words, conforming to the mass, in spite of not really
agreeing with them.
• Internalization − Socially changing behavior to fit in with the group and also
agreeing with them privately.
• Identification − Agreeing to the expectations of a social role. It is similar to
compliance, but there is no change in private opinion.

Reference Groups
It is a group to which a person or another group is compared. Reference groups are used
in order to examine and determine the nature of a person or other group's features and
sociological attributes.
It is the group to which a person relates or aspires to link himself or herself psychologically.
It becomes the individual's frame of reference and source to derive his or her experiences,
perceptions, needs, and ideas of self.
These groups act as a benchmark and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of
group and personal characteristics.

Status
Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
A group structure status includes group norms, culture, status equity. All these factors
when combined presents the status of members of the group.

Social Loafing
It is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work as a
group than when they work alone.
This is one of the main reasons why groups are sometimes less productive than the
combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should be recognized
from the accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience.
Many of the causes of social loafing arise from an individual feeling that his or her effort
will not matter to the group.

Cohorts & Group Demography

Individuals who, as a part of a group, share a common attribute are known as cohorts.
Group demography is the level to which a member of a group can share a common
demographic attribute with his fellow team members. Group demography is a successful
ploy in increasing the efficiency of a team in the long run.
For Example − Age, sex, religion, region, length of the service in the organization and the
impact of this attribute on turnover.

Cohesiveness
Extent to which group members are attracted towards each other, and are encouraged to
stay in the group. Group cohesion is the aggregate of all the factors causing members of a
group to stay in the group or be attracted to the group. Group cohesion acts as the social
glue that binds a group together. Some people think that work teams illustrating strong
group cohesion will function and perform better in achieving work goals.
Group cohesion is not attributed to one single factor, but is the interaction of more than
one factor. While group cohesion may have an impact on group performance, group
performance may create or increase group cohesion. Thus, group cohesion can actually
have a negative impact on group task performance.
The most influential factor that creates a positive relationship between group cohesion and
group performance is the group members' commitment towards the organization's
performance goals and norms.
Group Dynamics:

Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns of a group. It can be used as
a means for problem-solving, teamwork, and to become more innovative and productive as an
organization. The concept of group dynamics will also provide you with the strengths, success
factors and measures along with other professional tools.
The term ‘group dynamics’ means the study of forces within a group. Since human beings
have an innate desire for belonging to a group, group dynamism is bound to occur. In an
organization or in a society, we can see groups, small or large, working for the well-being.
The social process by which people interact with one another in small groups can be called
group dynamism. A group has certain common objectives & goals. Because of which members
are bound together with certain values and culture.
Importance of Group Dynamism

1. Firstly, a group can influence the way the members think. The members are
always influenced by the interactions of other members in the group. A group with
a good leader performs better as compared to a group with a weak leader.
2. The group can give the effect of synergy, that is, if the group consists of positive
thinkers then its output is more than double every time.
3. Group dynamism can furthermore give job satisfaction to the members.
4. The group can also infuse the team spirit among the members.
5. Even the attitude, insights & ideas of members depend on group dynamism. For
example, negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers with the help of the
facilitator.
6. Also, if the group works as a cohesive group, the cooperation and convergence can
result in maximization of productivity
7. Furthermore, group dynamism can reduce labor unrest. Lastly, it reduces labor
turnover due to emotional attachment among the group members.

Group vs. team

A group is a collection of individuals who coordinate their efforts, while a team is a group
of people who share a common goal. While similar, the two are different when it comes to
decision-making and teamwork.

In a work group, group members are independent from one another and have individual
accountability. On the other hand, in a team, team members share a mutual accountability
and work closely together to solve problems. These dynamics inform the way tasks are
handled and overall collaboration.
Team effectiveness
Team effectiveness is the capacity of a group of people, usually with complementary
skills, to work together to accomplish goals set out by an authority, members, or
leaders of the team. Team effectiveness models help us understand the best management
techniques to get optimal performance from our teams.
UNIT III:
Leadership
Leadership can simply be defined as the ability to influence others. Leadership is the work
that is done by the leader.

It is a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of
others in the accomplishment of a common task.

In the course of his survey of leadership theories and research; Stogdill came across
innumerable definitions of leadership.

Nature of leadership

• Leadership derives from the power and is similar to, yet distinct from, management.
In fact, “leadership” and “management” are different. There can be leaders of
completely unorganized groups, but there can be managers only of organized groups.
Thus it can be said that a manager is necessarily a leader but a leader may not be a
manager.
• Leadership is essential for managing. The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys
to being an effective manager because she/he has to combine resources and lead a
group to achieve objectives.
• Leadership and motivation are closely interconnected. By understanding motivation,
one can appreciate better what people want and why they act as they do. A leader
can encourage or dampen workers’ motivation by creating a favorable or unfavorable
working environment in the organization.
• The essence of leadership is followership. In other words, it is the willingness of people
to follow a person that makes that person a leader. Moreover, people tend to follow
those whom they see as providing a means of achieving their desires, needs and
wants.
• Leadership involves an unequal distribution of power between leaders and group
members. Group members are not powerless; they can shape group activities in some
ways. Still, the leader will usually have more power than the group members.
• Leaders can influence the followers’ behavior in some ways. Leaders can influence
workers either to do ill or well for the company. The leader must be able to empower
and motivate the followers to the cause.
• The leader must co-exist with the subordinates or followers and must have a clear
idea about their demands and ambitions. This creates loyalty and trust in
subordinates for their leader.
• Leadership is to be concerned about values. Followers learn ethics and values from
their leaders. Leaders are the real teachers of ethics, and they can reinforce ideas.
Leaders need to make positive statements of ethics if they are not hypocritical.
• Leading is a very demanding job both physically and psychologically. The leader must
have the strength, power, and ability to meet the bodily requirements; zeal, energy,
and patience to meet the mental requirements for leading.
The Trait Theory of Leadership:
The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both
successful and unsuccessful - and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting
lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to assess their likelihood of
success or failure.
Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height,
and weight), demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality,
self-confidence, and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and
knowledge), task-related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social
characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader
effectiveness.
Successful leaders definitely have interests, abilities, and personality traits that are
different from those of the less effective leaders. Through many researches conducted
in the last three decades of the 20th century, a set of core traits of successful leaders have
been identified. These traits are not responsible solely to identify whether a person will be
a successful leader or not, but they are essentially seen as preconditions that endow people
with leadership potential.
Among the core traits identified are:

• Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative
• Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals
• Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open
• Self-confidence: Belief in one’s self, ideas, and ability
• Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and
conceptually skilled
• Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters
• Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological
disorders.
• Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility
Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

• It is naturally pleasing theory.

• It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.
• It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be
assessed.
• It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the
leadership process.
Limitations of The Trait Theory

• There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a

‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader
• The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of
successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These
descriptions are simply generalities.
• There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective
leader
• The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective
leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a
minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a
military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the
requirements to be an effective leader.
• The theory is very complex
Implications of Trait Theory

The trait theory gives constructive information about leadership. It can be applied by people
at all levels in all types of organizations. Managers can utilize the information from the
theory to evaluate their position in the organization and to assess how their position can be
made stronger in the organization. They can get an in-depth understanding of their identity
and the way they will affect others in the organization. This theory makes the manager
aware of their strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of how they
can develop their leadership qualities
The Ohio State Leadership Studies
The Ohio State Leadership Studies is a behavioral leadership theory that shows that
leadership performance depends on two categories of behaviors: Initiating Structure
and Consideration. The Ohio State Leadership Studies also concluded that you are
not born to become a leader; you can learn, practice, and develop yourself to become
one.
In 1945, the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University initiated a series of
studies on leadership. These studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leader
behaviour. The studies started with the premise that no satisfactory definition of leadership
existed and there was no precise indication of the qualities of a good leader. So it sought to
define leadership in terms of performance.
These studies identified two independent leadership dimensions called initiating structure
and consideration which meant more or less the same thing as task behaviour and
relationship behaviour of a leader.
Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure
his own role as well as the roles of subordinates in the search for goal attainment. It includes
behaviour that attempts to organise work, work relationships and goals. The leader
characterized as high in initiating structure specifies the task to be performed by each
member of his group, sets down deadlines, gives directions and puts pressure on them for
its fulfillment.
Consideration refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships which
are characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’ ideas and regard for their
feelings. He shows concern for his followers’ comfort, well-being, status and satisfaction.
A leader characterized as high in consideration could be described as one who helps
subordinates in their personal problems, is friendly and approachable and treats all
subordinates as equals.
The Ohio State Studies suggested that the “high-high” leadership style (high in initiating
structure as well as in consideration) generally results in positive outcomes but there are
exceptions which indicate that situational factors should be integrated into the theory.
The Ohio studies have value for the study of leadership. They were the first to emphasize
the importance of both task direction and consideration of individual needs in assessing
leadership. This two-dimensional approach lessened the gap between the strict task
orientation of the scientific management movement and the human relations emphasis.

What Are the Michigan Leadership Studies?

The Michigan Leadership Studies was a well-known series of leadership studies that
commenced at the University of Michigan in the 1950s, intending to identify the principles
and types of leadership styles that led to greater productivity and enhanced job satisfaction
among workers. The studies identified two broad leadership styles: an employee orientation
and a production orientation. They also identified three critical characteristics of effective
leaders: task-oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative
leadership.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The Michigan Leadership Studies identified the leadership styles that produced the
highest employee satisfaction and productivity.
• The studies categorized leadership styles as either employee orientation, which
emphasizes human relations, or production orientation, which focuses on task-
oriented activities.
• The research identified that employee orientation with general supervision produced
more favorable results compared to production orientation and direct supervision.
• Critics contend that the study is limiting as it does not consider all circumstances
and types of organizations, leaders, and employees.

Understanding Michigan Leadership Studies

The studies concluded that an employee orientation coupled with general, rather than close
or direct, supervision led to better results. Employee orientation focuses on the human
element of employment, stressing that employees have needs that employers should
address and care for.
In contrast, production orientation focuses on the technical elements of employment and
employees are a means to complete production. The Michigan leadership studies, along
with the Ohio State University studies that took place in the 1940s, are two of the best-
known behavioral leadership studies and continue to be cited to this day.

Criticisms of the Michigan Leadership Studies

The overarching assertion of the studies was that less direct pressure and control allows
employees to be more productive and engaged with their tasks. However, there have been
critiques and questions about the methodology and results of the studies. One such
critique is that the context of the employees, leadership, and task was not taken into
consideration, which raises the possibility that the situation at the organization might
warrant one leadership style over another.
Furthermore, the disposition of the workers can be a factor in the leadership approach.
The way employees perform may influence a leader to be more hands-on if more direction
is needed due to the complexities of the task. Likewise, if employees prove themselves to
be capable and handle their tasks fluidly on their own, there is little need for more overt
control. A team of veteran workers who have studied and worked on a task for many years
might not require a direct manager to issue directives; thus, in that context, it is more
likely for the leader to afford them more autonomy.
The narrow options of the studies also do not consider that one size does not fit all
organizations or circumstances. Using the same leadership at two different companies can
still result in failure or success due to other elements at play. It is common for leaders to
adapt their styles over time and as needed, rather than remain committed to a fixed
pattern.
Although the Michigan Leadership Studies remain notable, other theories and studies on
leadership approaches have developed in more recent years that take into account different
dynamics, such as the servant leadership philosophy.
managerial grid model

The managerial grid model is a self-assessment tool by which individuals and organizations
can help identify a manager's or leader's style. The grid was originally developed by Robert
R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton in the 1960s and has evolved in subsequent decades.

Blake, a pioneer in organizational dynamics and an American management theoretician,

and Mouton, also a management theoretician, focused on the human side of business
leadership in the 1950s and 1960s. During their work to improve effective leadership at
Exxon, they noted that management behavior worked on axes (i.e., concern for production,
concern for people) and moved along a continuum. They went on to create the Managerial
Grid theory of leadership styles. They formed Scientific Methods Inc. (now Grid
International Inc.) in Austin, Texas, in 1961, and together published the first edition of "The
Managerial Grid" in 1964. They consulted for numerous organizations in 40 countries and
also developed a global network of consultants. They co-authored more than 40 books and
seminars as well as hundreds of articles.

The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid model is created using a horizontal axis and vertical
axis that meet at a right angle.
"Concern for Production" runs along the horizontal axis on a 9-point scale. A 1, or low
concern for production, is placed to the far left of the horizontal line, close to the right angle;
a 9, or high concern for production, is located on the far right of the horizontal line.

"Concern for People" runs along the vertical axis on a 9-point scale. A 1, or low concern,
falls at the bottom of the vertical line, close to the base near the right angle, while a 9, or
high concern for people, is placed at the top of this vertical axis.

UNIT IV
Conflict and Negotiation
Transitions in Conflict Thought

It is entirely appropriate to say that there has been “conflict over the role of conflict” in
groups and organizations. One school of thought has argued that conflict must be avoided
that it indicates a mal functioning within the group. We call this the traditional view.
Another school of thought the human relations view, argues that conflict is a natural and
inevitable outcome in any group and that it need not be evil, but rather has potential to be
a positive force in determining group performance The third, and most recent, perspective
proposes not only that conflict can be a positive force in a group but explicitly argues that
some conflict is absolutely necessary for a group outperform effectively. We label this third
school the interactions view. Let’s take a closer look at each of these views.

The traditional View:

The early approach to conflict assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was viewed
negatively and it was used synonymous with such terms as violence, destruction and
irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. Conflict by definition, was harmful and
was to be avoided. The traditional view was consistent with attitudes that prevailed about
group behavior in the 1930s and 1940s. Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome
resulting from poor communication, lack of openness and trust between people and the
failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees.

The view that all conflict is bad certainly offers a simple approach to looking at the behavior
of people who create conflict. Because all conflict is to be avoided, we need merely direct
our attention to the causes of conflict and correct these mal-functioning’s to improve group
and organizational performance. Although research studies do not provide strong evidence
to dispute that this approach to conflict reduction result in high group performance, many
of us still evaluate conflict situations using this outmoded standard.

The Human Relations View:

The human relations view argued that conflict was a natural occurrence in all groups and
organizations. Because conflict was inevitable, the human relations school advocated
acceptance of conflict. Proponents rationalized its existence. It cannot be eliminated, and
there are times when conflict may benefit a group’s performance. The human relations view
dominated conflict theory from the late 1940 through the mid-1970s.
The Interaction view:

While the human relations view accepted conflict, the interactionist view encourage conflicts
on the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to
becoming static apathetic and non-responsive to needs for change in innovation. The major
contribution of the ineteractionist view therefore is encouraging group leaders to maintain
an ongoing minimum level of conflict enough to keep the group viable, self critical and
creative.

The inetractionist’s view does not purpose that all conflicts are good. Rather some conflicts
support the goals of the group and improve its performance these are functional
constructive firms of conflict. In addition, there are conflicts that hinder group performance
these are dysfunctional or destructive of destructive forms of conflict. What differentiates
functional for, dysfunctional conflicts? The evidence indicates that you need to look at the
type of conflict. Specifically there are three types: Task, relationship and process.

Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship conflict focuses on
interpersonal relationships. Process conflict relates to how the work gets done. Studies
demonstrate that relationship conflicts are almost dysfunctional. Why? It appears that the
friction and inter personal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality
clashes and decrease mutual understanding, which hinders the completion of the
organizational tasks However, low level of process conflict and low-to-moderate levels of
task conflict are functional. For process conflict to be productive, it must be kept low.
Intense arguments about who should do what become dysfunctional when they create
uncertainty about task roles increase the time to complete tasks and lead to members
working at cross purposes. Low to moderate levels of task conflict consistently demonstrates
a positive effect on group performance because it stimulates discussion of ideas that helps
groups perform better.
Functional and Dysfunctional Conflicts
Functional conflicts and dysfunctional conflicts are the two dimensions or the outcomes of
the conflicts. Functional conflict has positive effects on the conflicts whereas dysfunctional
conflict has negative effects. Both can be discussed with the help of following points:

1. Functional Conflict: Positive Effects

Functional conflict is also known as constructive conflict. Such conflict will have positive
effects on individuals, groups and organizations. Such conflict is useful in order to solve
problems related to individuals and groups. Functional conflict is important for effective
performance due to the following reasons:
• It ventilates tension from the organization.
• It increases individual's efforts at work.
• It helps thinking analytically.
• It provides foundation for organizational change and development.
• It provides an individual a chance to think again, undertake self introspection
and have a second look at the existing things, like procedures, policies, equipment,
behaviors etc.
• It leads to innovation and at times to new direction. It is, therefore, even
necessary for the survival and growth organizations.
• It helps to seek classification and generate search behavior.
• When conflict is developed, attention is immediately drawn to the
malfunctioning parts of a system. It is an indication that the situation calls for
improvement. Conflict is, therefore, an essential portion of a cybernetic system.
 • At times, it is also used as a means to certain ends and to create confusion or
set subordinates against each other in order to maintain the interested parties own
position. It may not be a positive outcome in the strict sense of the term from the
organizational point of view, but it is certainly a management strategy toward of
problems temporarily. It may be viewed as an unavoidable cost of the pursuit of one's
aspirations.
• Long standing problems, which continue to agitate people's mind in surface,
they are able to release their tensions and unburden themselves. They display
creativity in identifying solutions and dealing with problems.
• It serves as a cementing force in a group and incredible unity is witnessed even
in a heterogeneous group at times of tension.
• It energizes people, leads to mild stimulation and one is at one's best in times
of crisis. It helps them test their capacities.

2. Dysfunctional Conflict: Negative Effects

Dysfunctional conflict is also known as destructive conflict. Many times conflict may be
detrimental and disastrous. Such conflict has negative effect on individuals, groups and the
organizational levels. The effects might be diverting energies, hurting group cohesion,
promoting interpersonal hostilities and creating negative working environment. Due to the
dysfunctional conflict and its negative effects, employees become dissatisfied with the
working environment and as a result, absenteeism will increase and productivity will
decline. A few dysfunctional effects of rising conflict include:
• Increasing conflict will result in delays in meeting schedules, decrease in the
quality of goods and services and finally will increase customer complaints.
• It is undesirable if it creates a climate of distrust and suspicion among people,
if some people feel are defeated and demanded and it develops antagonism instead of
spirit of cooperation.
• In the absence of smooth communication at the workplace, there will be
problems in coordinating activities.
• With the increasing conflict in the organization, people start to divert
themselves from the real work schedule and keep less interest and show less energy,
and this will ultimately affect the achievement of organizational goals.
• The increasing negative emotions at the workplace can be quite stressful.
• When conflict does not lead to solution of a problem, it is unproductive and
investment of time and effort goes waste.
• As a consequence of conflict, there may be intensification of internalization of
sub-unit goals which may result in the neglect of overall organizational goals.
• It is seriously harmful if it distracts attention from basic organizational
objectives and makes people work for their defeat.
• When management loses objectivity and treats disagreement as equivalent to
disloyalty and rebellion, an opportunity for creativity should be deemed to have been
lost. It may even pour oil over troubled waters, exploit differences to strengthen itself
and weakens others, and accept resolutions capable of different interpretation.

The conflict process—that is, the process by which conflict arises—can be seen in five
stages. Those stages are:
• Potential opposition or incompatibility
• Cognition and personalization
• Intentions
• Behavior
 • Outcomes

Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

The first stage in the conflict process is the existence of conditions that allow conflict to
arise. The existence of these conditions doesn’t necessarily guarantee conflict will arise. But
if conflict does arise, chances are it’s because of issues regarding communication, structure,
or personal variables.
• Communication. Conflict can arise from semantic issues, misunderstanding,
or noise in the communication channel that hasn’t been clarified. For instance,
your new manager, Steve, is leading a project and you’re on the team. Steve is
vague about the team’s goals, and when you get to work on your part of the
project, Steve shows up half the way through to tell you you’re doing it wrong.
This is conflict caused by communication.
• Structure. Conflict can arise based on the structure of a group of people who
have to work together. For instance, let’s say you sell cars, and your co-worker
has to approve the credit of all the people who purchase a vehicle from you. If
your co-worker doesn’t approve your customers, then he is standing between
you and your commission, your good performance review, and your paycheck.
This is a structure that invites conflict.
• Personal variables. Conflict can arise if two people who work together just don’t
care for each other. Perhaps you work with a man and you find him
untrustworthy. Comments he’s made, the way he laughs, the way he talks about
his wife and family, all of it just rubs you the wrong way. That’s personal
variable, ripe to cause a conflict.

Cognition and Personalization

In the last section, we talked about how conflict only exists if it’s perceived to exist. If it’s
been determined that potential opposition or incompatibility exists and both parties feel it,
then conflict is developing.

If Joan and her new manager, Mitch, are having a disagreement, they may perceive it but
not be personally affected by it. Perhaps Joan is not worried about the disagreement. It is
only when both parties understand that conflict is brewing, and they internalize it as
something that is affecting them, that this stage is complete.

Intentions

Intentions come between people’s perceptions and emotions and help those who are
involved in the potential conflict to decide to act in a particular way.

One has to infer what the other person meant in order to determine how to respond to a
statement or action. A lot of conflicts are escalated because one party infers the wrong
intentions from the other person. There are five different ways a person can respond to the
other party’s statements or actions.
• Competing. One party seeks to satisfy his own interests regardless of the impact
on the other party.
• Collaborating. One party, or both, desire to fully satisfied the concerns of all
parties involved in the conflict.
• Avoiding. One party withdraws from or suppresses the conflict once it is
recognized.
 • Accommodating. One party seeks to appease the opponent once potential
conflict is recognized.
• Compromising. Each party to the conflict seeks to give up something to resolve
the conflict.

We’ll talk about this a little more in the next section when we use these styles to manage
conflict.

Behavior

Behavior is the stage where conflict becomes evident, as it includes the statements, actions
and reactions of the parties involved in the conflict. These behaviors might be overt attempts
to get the other party to reveal intentions, but they have a stimulus quality that separates
them from the actual intention stage.

Behavior is the actual dynamic process of interaction. Perhaps Party A makes a demand on
Party B, Party B argues back, Party A threatens, and so on. The intensity of the behavior
falls along a conflict oriented continuum. If the intensity is low, the conflict might just be a
minor misunderstanding, and if the intensity is high, the conflict could be an effort to harm
or even destroy the other party.

Outcomes

Outcomes of a conflict can be either functional or dysfunctional:

• Functional outcomes occur when conflict is constructive. It may be hard to think
of times when people disagree and argue, and the outcome is somehow
good. But think of conflict, for a moment, as the antidote to groupthink. If group
members want consensus, they’re bound to all agree before all the viable
alternatives have been reviewed. Conflict keeps that from happening. The group
may be close to agreeing on something, and a member will speak up, arguing
for another point of view. The conflict that results could yield a positive result.
• Dysfunctional outcomes are generally more well known and understood.
Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to sever ties and
eventually leads to the dissolution of the group. Organizations meet their
ultimate demise more often than you’d think as a result of dysfunctional conflict.
People who hate each other and don’t get along can’t make decisions to run a
company well.

Conflict Management Techniques

We get into a conflict when the person opposite to us has a different mindset. It is very
common in a workplace to get into differences of opinion. Sometimes there is a conflict
between two or more employees, sometimes employees have a conflict with their managers
and so on. Now the question is, how can we manage disagreements in ways that build
personal and collegial relationships?
Here are five strategies from conflict management theory for managing stressful situations.
None of them is a "one-size-fits-all" answer. Which one is the best in a given situation
depends on variety of factors, including an appraisal of the levels of conflict.
• Collaborating − win/win
• Compromising − win some/lose some
• Accommodating − lose/win
 • Competing − win/lose
• Avoiding − no winners/no losers
Collaborating
This technique follows the rule "I win, you win". Collaborating means working together by
integrating ideas set out by multiple people. The objective here is to find a creative solution
acceptable to everyone. It calls for a significant time commitment but is not appropriate for
all conflicts.
This technique is used in situations where −

• There is a high level of trust

• We don't want to take complete responsibility
• We want others to also have "ownership" of solutions
• People involved are willing to change their thinking
• We need to work through animosity and hard feelings
However, this process takes a lot of time and energy and some may take advantage of other
people's trust and openness.
Example − A businessman should work collaboratively with the manager to establish
policies, but collaborative decision-making regarding office supplies wastes time better
spent on other activities.
Compromising
This technique follows the rule "You bend, I bend". Compromising means adjusting with
each other’s opinions and ideas, and thinking of a solution where some points of both the
parties can be entertained. Similarly, both the parties need to give up on some of their
ideas and should agree with the other.
This technique can be used in situations where −
• People of equal levels are equally committed to goals
• Time can be saved by reaching intermediate settlements on individual parts of
complex matters
• Goals are moderately important
Important values and long-term objectives can be derailed using this technique. This
process may not work if initial demands are high and mainly if there's no commitment to
honor the compromise solutions.
Example − Two friends had a fight and they decide to compromise with each other through
mutual understanding.
Accommodating
This technique follows the rule "I lose, you win". Accommodating means giving up of ideas
and thoughts so that the other party wins and the conflict ends. This technique can be
used when −
• An issue is not that important to us as it is to the other person
• We realize we are wrong
• We are willing to let others learn by mistake
• We know we cannot win
• It is not the right time and we would prefer to simply build credit for the future
• Harmony is extremely important
 • What the parties have in common is a good deal more important than their
differences
However, using this technique, one's own ideas don't get attention and credibility, and
influence can be lost.
Example − When we fight with someone we love we choose to let them win.
Competing
This technique follows the rule "I win, you lose". Competing means when there is a dispute
a person or a group is not willing to collaborate or adjust but it simply wants the opposite
party to lose. This technique can be used when −
• We know you are right.
• Time is short and a quick decision is to be made.
• A strong personality is trying to steamroll us and we don't want to be taken advantage
of.
• We need to stand up for our rights.
This technique can further escalate conflict or losers may retaliate.
Example − When in a debate the party with more facts wins.
Avoiding
This technique follows the rule "No winners, no losers". Avoiding means the ideas suggested
by both the parties are rejected and a third person is involved who takes a decision without
favoring any of the parties. This technique can be used when −
• The conflict is small and relationships are at stake
• We are counting to ten to cool off
• More important issues are pressing and we feel we don't have time to deal with this
particular one
• We have no power and we see no chance of getting our concerns met
• We are too emotionally involved and others around us can solve the conflict more
successfully
Using this technique may lead to postponing the conflict, that may make matters worse.
Example − Rahul and Rohit had a fight, their mother came and punished both of them

Negotiation process:

The 5 steps of the negotiation process are;

1. Preparation and Planning.

2. Definition of Ground Rules.
3. Clarification and Justification.
4. Bargaining and Problem Solving.
5. Closure and Implementation.

UNIT V:
Organizational Culture, Organizational Change and Stress Management
Organizational Culture: Organizational culture is the collection of values, expectations,
and practices that guide and inform the actions of all team members. Think of it as the
collection of traits that make your company what it is. A great culture exemplifies positive
traits that lead to improved performance, while a dysfunctional company culture brings
out qualities that can hinder even the most successful organizations.
Don’t confuse culture with organizational goals or a mission statement, although both can
help define it. Culture is created through consistent and authentic behaviours, not press
releases or policy documents. You can watch company culture in action when you see how
a CEO responds to a crisis, how a team adapts to new customer demands, or how a manager
corrects an employee who makes a mistake.
Organizational Change: Organizational change can be defined as the alteration in
structure, technology or people in an organization or behavior by an organization. Here we
need to note that change in organizational culture is different from change in an
organization. A new method or style or new rule is implemented here.
An organizational change occurs due to two major factors namely −
• External factor − External factors are those factors that are present outside the firm
but force the firm to change or implement a new law, rule etc. For example, all banks
are bound to follow the rules laid down by the RBI.
• Internal factor − Internal factors are those factors that are caused or introduced
inside an organization that forces a change. For example, no smoking in the
workplace.
Stress Management: Stress management refers to a wide spectrum of techniques
and therapies that aim to control a person’s levels of stress, especially chronic stress,
to improve everyday functioning. To reduce workplace stress, managers can monitor
each employee’s workload to ensure it is in line with their capabilities and resources.

National Culture:
National Culture is the term we use to refer to a group of people who have been brought
up within a given country. In comparison to others, these individuals tend to share certain
expectations of how things should be done and values around these expectations.
Global culture
Global culture is a set of shared experiences, norms, symbols and ideas that unite
people at the global level. Cultures can exist at the global, national, regional, city,
neighborhood, subculture and super culture levels. Such cultures are not mutually
exclusive but overlap in countless ways.

Work stress and its management:

Stress has been defined in different ways over the years. Originally, it was conceived of as
pressure from the environment, then as strain within the person. The generally accepted
definition today is one of interaction between the situation and the individual. It is the
psychological and physical state that results when the resources of the individual are not
sufficient to cope with the demands and pressures of the situation. Thus, stress is more
likely in some situations than others and in some individuals than others. Stress can
undermine the achievement of goals, both for individuals and for organisations.