IAS4Sure Culture & History Notes For Prelims 2022

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REVISION NOTES
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Prelims 2022
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Contents
Traditions ................................................................................................................. 4
New Year in different Parts of the Country ..........................................................................................................4
Buddhism .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Navroz Festival ......................................................................................................................................................6
Theyyam ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
Beating Retreat Ceremony ................................................................................................................................... 7
Jallikattu ................................................................................................................................................................8
Durga Puja ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
Sattras .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Monpa handmade paper ......................................................................................................................................9
Hornbill Festival .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Sarna Tribes and Religion ................................................................................................................................... 10
Turkish Coffee .....................................................................................................................................................10
Nuakhai Juhar ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Bathukamma Festival ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Buddha Path (Atthamahathanani) ..................................................................................................................... 11
Donyi-Polo Religion ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Guru Padmasambhava ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Losar Festival ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
Mahamastakabhisheka .......................................................................................................................................13
Nabakalebara Festival ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Kambala .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Sammakka-Sarakka/Saralamma Jatara Festival ................................................................................................. 13
Sangai Festival .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Shondol Dance ....................................................................................................................................................14
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple ........................................................................................................................... 14
Tendong Lho Rumfaat ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Udvada Festival ...................................................................................................................................................15
Monuments ............................................................................................................. 15
Bamiyan Buddhas ............................................................................................................................................... 15
Konark Sun Temple .............................................................................................................................................17
Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala ............................................................................................................................. 17
Somnath Temple .................................................................................................................................................19
Reclining Buddha ................................................................................................................................................ 20
Lingaraj Temple .................................................................................................................................................. 21
St George Orthodox church ...............................................................................................................................22
Jagannath Temple ...............................................................................................................................................22
Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple ....................................................................................................................... 22
Rahim Khane Khanam Tomb .............................................................................................................................. 23
Hampi Stone Chariot .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Historic City of Hampi .........................................................................................................................................24
Ancient Monuments ...........................................................................................................................................25
Brihadisvara Temple ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Lohagarh Fort ..................................................................................................................................................... 25
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Mamallapuram ................................................................................................................................................... 26
Sabarimala Temple ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Music .......................................................................................................................27
Thumri .................................................................................................................................................................27
Trinities of Carnatic music .................................................................................................................................. 27
Architecture ............................................................................................................ 27
Basic elements of a Hindu Temple ..................................................................................................................... 27
Dravida Vs Nagara Architecture ......................................................................................................................... 29
Nagara or North Indian Temple Style .................................................................................................................29
Hoysala Temple Architecture ............................................................................................................................. 33
Martial Arts .............................................................................................................34
Kalaripayattu .......................................................................................................................................................34
Gatka ...................................................................................................................................................................34
Thang Ta and Sarit Sarak .................................................................................................................................... 35
Mallakhamba ...................................................................................................................................................... 35
Theatre ................................................................................................................... 36
Yakshagana ........................................................................................................................................................ 36
Major Theatre Forms ..........................................................................................................................................37
Paintings ................................................................................................................. 37
Kaavi Art ..............................................................................................................................................................37
Sulawesi Island Cave Paintings ........................................................................................................................... 38
Pattachitra Paintings ...........................................................................................................................................38
Caves with Paintings in India .............................................................................................................................. 39
Literature ............................................................................................................... 40
Tamil Literature .................................................................................................................................................. 40
Thiruvalluvar ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Miscellaneous Culture News .................................................................................... 41
Surajkund Mela ...................................................................................................................................................41
UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage .................................................................................................... 41
Namda craft ........................................................................................................................................................ 42
Art & craft of Srinagar .........................................................................................................................................42
Basaveshwara .................................................................................................................................................... 43
Mongolian Kanjur Manuscripts ......................................................................................................................... 44
Putola Nach .........................................................................................................................................................44
Khajuraho Temple .............................................................................................................................................. 45
Kumbh Mela ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
Jaapi, Xorai and Gamosa .....................................................................................................................................46
Abanindranath Tagore ........................................................................................................................................46
Monuments of National Importance ..................................................................................................................47
Channapatna Toys .............................................................................................................................................. 47
Bhimbetka ...........................................................................................................................................................48
Tholpavakoothu .................................................................................................................................................48
Dhokra Decorative Pieces ...................................................................................................................................49
Orcha Town ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Sawantwadi Toy ..................................................................................................................................................50
National Hispanic Heritage Month ..................................................................................................................... 50
Etikoppaka toys ..................................................................................................................................................51
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Jaipur .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Judaism ............................................................................................................................................................... 52
Kailasa temple .....................................................................................................................................................52
Kangla Fort ..........................................................................................................................................................53
Walled City of Ahmedabad .................................................................................................................................53
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple ........................................................................................................................... 54
Various Mudras .................................................................................................................................................. 54
Natesa .................................................................................................................................................................55
Modern History in News ......................................................................................... 56
Moplah Rebellion ............................................................................................................................................... 56
Pal-Dadhvav Massacre of Gujarat ..................................................................................................................... 57
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar .................................................................................................................................57
Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati .......................................................................................................................... 58
Ahom Kingdom ................................................................................................................................................... 59
Tarapur Massacre of Bihar ................................................................................................................................. 61
Maharaja Surajmal ............................................................................................................................................. 61
State Reorganisation Commission ......................................................................................................................62
Lala Lajpat Rai ..................................................................................................................................................... 63
Tipu Sultan .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Tiruppur Kumaran ...............................................................................................................................................65
Marudhu Pandiyars ............................................................................................................................................ 65
Azad Hind Government ...................................................................................................................................... 65
Women Freedom Fighters ..................................................................................................................................66
Verrier Elwin ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
Gujarat Tribal Massacre 1922 .............................................................................................................................67
Merger of Meghalaya with India ........................................................................................................................ 67
Merger of Tripura with India .............................................................................................................................. 68
Merger of Manipur with India ............................................................................................................................68
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose ...............................................................................................................................68
Guru Gobind Singh ..............................................................................................................................................69
Maharaja Bir Bikram ........................................................................................................................................... 69
Rani Velu Nachiyar ..............................................................................................................................................69
Aurobindo Ghosh ...............................................................................................................................................70
Tai Khamti war ....................................................................................................................................................70
Rani Bhabani ....................................................................................................................................................... 71
Maharaja Chait Singh ..........................................................................................................................................71
Salar Masud ........................................................................................................................................................ 71
Dadabhai Naoroji ................................................................................................................................................72
Paika Rebellion ................................................................................................................................................... 72
Rani Gaidinliu ......................................................................................................................................................73
Chola Dynasty ..................................................................................................................................................... 73
Gopal Krishna Gokhale ....................................................................................................................................... 74
Bal Gangadhar Tilak ............................................................................................................................................ 74
Pagri Sambhal movement .................................................................................................................................. 75
Tileswari Barua ................................................................................................................................................... 75
Prabuddha Bharata journal ................................................................................................................................ 76
Khudiram Bose ....................................................................................................................................................76
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Merger of Manipur with India ............................................................................................................................76

‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ Movement ........................................................................................................................77
Kanaklata Barua ..................................................................................................................................................78
Pritilata Waddedar ............................................................................................................................................. 78
Subramania Bharatiyar ....................................................................................................................................... 79
Noor Inayat Khan ................................................................................................................................................79
Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis ........................................................................................................................................80
Story of our National Flag ...................................................................................................................................80
Shyamji Krishna Varma.......................................................................................................................................81
First Flag Hoisting by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose .......................................................................................... 82
Hicky’s Bengal Gazette ....................................................................................................................................... 82
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad ..................................................................................................................................82
Quit India Movement ......................................................................................................................................... 83
Rajkumar Shukla ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Hunter Commission Report ................................................................................................................................ 83
Ancient History in News ..........................................................................................84
Ramanujacharya................................................................................................................................................. 84
Guru Ravidas .......................................................................................................................................................84
Palaeolithic Age .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Bhakti Movement ............................................................................................................................................... 85
Krishnadevaraya ................................................................................................................................................. 85
Vijayanagara Empire ...........................................................................................................................................85
Maharaja Suheldev .............................................................................................................................................86
Kempe Gowda I .................................................................................................................................................. 86
Indus Valley Civilisation ...................................................................................................................................... 86
Meat residue in Indus Valley .............................................................................................................................. 87
Theravada Buddhism .......................................................................................................................................... 88
Hoysala ............................................................................................................................................................... 88
Traditions
New Year in different Parts of the Country
Chaitra Sukladi:
 It marks the beginning of the new year of the Vikram Samvat also known as the Vedic [Hindu]
calendar.
 Vikram Samvat is based on the day when the emperor Vikramaditya defeated Sakas, invaded
Ujjain and called for a new era.
 Under his supervision, astronomers formed a new calendar based on the luni-solar system that is still
followed in the northern regions of India.
 It is the first day during the waxing phase (in which the visible side of the moon is getting bigger
every night) of the moon in the Chaitra (first month of Hindu calendar).
Ugadi:
 These festivals are celebrated by the people in the Deccan region including Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra.
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 The common practice in the celebrations of both the festivals is the festive food that is prepared with
a mix of sweet and bitter.
 A famous concoction served is jaggery (sweet) and neem (bitter), called bevu-bella in the South,
signifying that life brings both happiness and sorrows.
 For Ugadi, doors in homes are adorned with mango leaf decorations called toranalu or Torana in
Kannada.
Gudi Padwa :
 Gudi Padwa which falls in the Chaitra month of Hindu calendar is celebrated in the state of
Maharashtra by hanging Gudi on the right side of the entrance of their house.
 Gudi is a doll prepared in Maharashtrian homes. A bamboo stick is adorned with green or red
brocade to make the gudi. This gudi is placed prominently in the house or outside a window/ door for
all to see.
Baisakhi : Baisakhi is the Punjabi New Year celebrated in the month of April by performing their folk
dance, Bhangra and Gidda and feasting.
Puthandu : Puthandu is the Tamil New Year celebrated in the month of April by preparing Manga
Pachadi a traditional food to ring in their new year.
Bohag Bihu : Bohag Bihu is the Assamese New year celebrated by performing the folk dance Bihu and a
grand buffet.
Pohela Boishakh : Pohela Boishakh is the Bengali New Year celebrated with making many sweetmeats.
Bestu Varas : Bestu Varas is celebrated in Gujarat on the day after Deepavali. Marwaris in Rajasthan also
celebrate their new year during Deepavali.
Vishu : Vishu is the Malayali New Year celebrated in the state of Kerala in the month of April.
Losoong : Losoong is the Sikkimese New Year and falls in December at the end of harvesting. It is
celebrated by performing Chham dance.
Navreh:
 It is the lunar new year that is celebrated in Kashmir.
 It is the Sanskrit word ‘Nav-Varsha’ from which the word ‘Navreh’ has been derived.
 It falls on the first day of the Chaitra Navratri.
 On this day, Kashmiri pandits look at a bowl of rice which is considered as a symbol of riches and
fertility.
Cheti Chand:
 Sindhis celebrate the new year as Cheti Chand. Chaitra month is called 'Chet' in Sindhi.
 The day commemorates the birth anniversary of Uderolal/Jhulelal, the patron saint of Sindhis.
Sajibu Cheiraoba:
 It is the great ritual festival of Meiteis (an ethnic group in Manipur) which is observed on the first
day of Manipur lunar month Shajibu, which falls in the month of April every year.
 On the day of the festival, people arrange a joint family feast in which traditional cuisines are offered
to local deities at the entrance gates of the houses.
Buddhism
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Buddhism:
 Buddhism is 2,500 years old.
 It is one of the important religions of South and South-Eastern Asian countries.
 Buddhism arose as a result of Siddhartha Gautama's quest for Enlightenment in around the
6th Century BC.
 There is no belief in a personal God. It is not centred on the relationship between humanity and
God.
 Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent - change is always possible.
 The two main Buddhist sects are Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, but there are
many more.
 The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality, meditation and
wisdom.
 The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born
in circa 563 BCE.
Siddhartha Gautam:
 He was born into the royal family of the Sakya clan who ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which
is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border.
 At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of
asceticism, or extreme self-discipline.
 After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree
at Bodhgaya a village in Bihar.
 Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This event
is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
 He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara, a town in UP. The event is known
as Mahaparinibban.
Navroz Festival
Navroz Festival:
 Navroz is celebrated by Parsis as Parsi New Year.
 In Persian, Nav means new and Roz means day and together translating to ‘new day’.
 It is celebrated for health, wealth, prosperity and productivity.
 The central feature of this festive day is visiting Fire Temple and offering prayers to deities
Khorshed and Meher, who are considered the presiding deities of sun and moon respectively.
Background
 Jamshedi Navroz got its name from legendary King of Persia – Jamshed, who is said to have
introduced solar calculation in Parsi Calendar.
 In Iran and other parts, Zoroastrians celebrate Persian New Year using Fasli/Bastnai calendar
according to which this day falls on moment of Vernal Equinox and marks beginning of spring in the
Northern Hemisphere, mostly falls on March 21st every year.
 However, Parsis in India follow Shahenshahi calendar (which does not account for leap years) and
hence Persian New Year in India is celebrated mostly on August 17th, approximately 150-200 days
after its original day of vernal equinox (Spring Equinox).
 Celebrations of Jamshedi Navroz or Parsi New Year are similar to Nowruz spring festival where
people celebrate commencement of New Year amidst exchange of gifts, donations, new clothes,
house cleaning and lots of fun and frolic.
Zoroastrians
_______________________________________________________________
 Parsis are also known as Zoroastrians as they follow Zoroastrianism, one of the oldest known
monotheistic religions founded by Prophet Zarathustra or Zoroaster (Greek) in Pre-Islam era of
ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago in 650 BC.
 After the invasion of Islamic armies in 7th Century, Zoroastrians fled Persia and mainly dwelled in
India.
 India is home to the largest group of Parsis from around the world where the community has been a
significant part of the economic and industrial growth of the country and lives in harmony with
various other religions like Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Christians and many more.
Theyyam
Theyyam:
 Theyyam is a popular ritual form of dance worship in Kerala and Karnataka, India.
 It consisted of thousand-year-old traditions, rituals and customs.
 The people consider Theyyam itself as a channel to a god and they thus seek blessings from
Theyyam.
 Each Theyyam is a man or a woman who attained divine status by performing heroic deeds or by
leading a virtuous life
 Most Theyyams are believed to be the incarnations of Shiva or Shakti (the consort of Shiva). Or they
have strong associations with these principal deities of Hinduism.
 There are over 400 theyyams. Some of these are very important.
 Major Types are:
o Vishnumoorthi:
 There are only two Vaishnava Theyyams – Daivatar and Vishnumoorthi.
 These Theyyams are believed to be the incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
 This Theyyam narrates the story of Palanthai Kannan who was a great devotee of
Lord Vishnu.
o Gulikan
 Gulikan is believed to be an incarnation of Yama, the Hindu god of death and justice.
 According to Indian mythology, Gulikan was one of the most important warriors of
Lord Shiva.
o Kuttichathan:
 It is the theyyam of Bhrahmin caste.
 Kuttichathan theyyam is considered to have originated for Lord Shiva in Vishnu
Maaya.
Beating Retreat Ceremony
Beating Retreat Ceremony:

 The Beating Retreat ceremony is organized every year after the Republic Day Celebration on
January 29.
 The programme is organized in front of Rashtrapati Bhawan on Raisina Road.
 The ceremony marks a centuries old military tradition, when the troops ceased fighting, sheathed
their arms and withdrew from the battlefield and returned to the camps at sunset at the sounding of
the Retreat.
 The chief guest during the ceremony is the President.
 The ceremony began in 17th century England, when King James II ordered his troops to beat drums,
lower flags and organize a parade to announce the end of a day of combat.
 In India, the ceremony traces its origins to the early 1950s, when Major Roberts of the Indian Army
indigenously developed the unique ceremony of display by the massed bands.
 The ceremony is currently held by Armed Forces in the UK, US, Canada, New Zealand, Australia,
and India, among others.
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Jallikattu
What is Jallikattu?
 Jallikattu is a bull taming sport played in Tamil Nadu on Mattu Pongal day as a part of Pongal
celebrations i.e. harvest festival.
 It is one of the oldest (about 2000 years) living ancient tradition practiced in the modern era.
 Jallikattu has been derived from the words ‘calli’ (coins) and ‘kattu’ (tie), which means a bundle of
coins is tied to the bull’s horns.
 In Sangam literature the sport is called as ‘Yeru thazhuvuthal’ (means to embrace bulls).
 In older times Jallikattu was popular amongst warriors during the Tamil classical period.
 The bull tamer sought to remove this bundle from the animal’s head to win gold or silver coins to be
called ‘brave’ and ‘valourous’.
 All castes participate in the event and majority of jallikattu bulls belong to the pulikulam breed of
cattle.
Durga Puja
Durga Puja Festival:

 Durga Puja is an annual festival celebrated in September or October, most notably in Kolkata, West
Bengal.
 The festival marks the ten-day worship of the Hindu mother-goddess Durga.
 In the months preceding the festival, small artisanal workshops sculpt images of Durga using
unfired clay pulled from the Ganga River.
 The worship of the goddess then begins on the inaugural day of Mahalaya when eyes are painted
onto the clay images to bring the goddess to life.
 It ends on the tenth day, when the images are immersed in the river from where the clay came.
Thus, the festival has also come to signify ‘home-coming’ or a seasonal return to one’s roots.
 The festival is also characterized by large-scale installations of Goddess Durga in ‘pandals’ and
pavilions where people get together. Folk music, culinary, craft and performing arts traditions are
also part of the celebration.
Sattras
What are Sattras?

 Sattras are monastic institutions in Assam. They were created as part of the 16th century Neo-
Vaishnavite reformist movement. Movements started by the Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta
Sankaradeva(1449-1596).
 Why were they established? They were established to spread the Sankardeva’s unique “worship
through art” approach. They are doing it presently with music (borgeet), dance (sattriya), and theatre
(bhauna).
 Features:
o Each Satra has a naamghar (worship hall) as its nucleus and is headed by an influential
“Satradhikar”.
o Monks known as bhakats are inducted into Sattras at a young age. They may or may not be
celibate depending on the kind of Sattra they are inducted into.
 Satras in Assam: There are about 900 Sattras across Assam, but the main centers are Bordowa
(Nagaon), Majuli and Barpeta. These institutions are of paramount importance and lie at the heart of
Assamese culture.
_______________________________________________________________
What is Sankardeva’s philosophy?

 Srimanta Sankardev (1449–1568) was a 15th–16th century Assamese saint, scholar, poet, and social-
religious reformer.
 He propagated a form of Bhakti philosophy called Eka Sarana naam Dharma. The philosophy had
an influence on two medieval kingdoms—Koch and the Ahom kingdoms.Key Features of the
Philosophy:
 Components: The four important components of the philosophy were deva (god), naam (prayers),
bhakats (devotees), and guru (teacher).
 Society: The philosophy espoused a society based on equality and fraternity, free from caste
differences, orthodox Brahmanical rituals, and sacrifices.
 Teachings: The teachings of the philosophy rejected idol worship and focused on devotion (bhakti)
to Krishna. Devotion would be in the form of congregational listening and singing his name and
deeds (Kirtan) and (sravan).
Monpa handmade paper
Monpa Handmade Paper:

 It is an heritage hand paper art form of Arunachal Pradesh.
 This handmade paper is also called as Mon Shugu in the local dialect and is integral to the vibrant
culture of the local tribes in Tawang.
Origin: This art originated among the Monpas over 1000 years ago. Gradually this art became an integral
part of local custom and culture of Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh.
Why did it decline?

 Monpas paper used to be sold to countries like Tibet, Bhutan ,Thailand and Japan as no paper
making industry existed in these countries at that time.
 However, the local industry gradually declined and the indigenous handmade paper was taken over
by inferior Chinese paper.
How will it be made now? The fine-textured Monpa handmade paper will be made from the bark of a
local tree called Shugu Sheng, which has medicinal values too. Hence availability of raw material will not
be a problem.
Significance: The paper has great historic and religious significance as it is the paper used for writing
Buddhist scriptures and hymns in monasteries.
Why in News? Khadi and Village Industries Commission(KVIC) has revived the 1000 year old Monpa
Handmade Paper of Arunachal Pradesh by commissioning a Monpa handmade paper making unit in Tawang,
Arunachal Pradesh.
Hornbill Festival
 Hornbill Festival is celebrated in Nagaland every year in the first week of December.
 It is also called "Festivals of Festivals".
 It is one of the biggest indigenous festivals of the country.
 The festival is a tribute to Hornbill, the most admired and revered bird for the Nagas for its qualities
of alertness and grandeur.
 Organized by the State Tourism and Art & Culture Departments, supported by Union Government.
 Aim: To encourage inter-tribal interaction and to promote culture through colourful performances,
crafts, sports, food fairs, games and ceremonies.
_______________________________________________________________
 The Hornbill Festival provides a colourful mixture of dances, performances, crafts, parades, games,
sports, food fairs and religious ceremonies.
Sarna Tribes and Religion
What is the Sarna religion? Sarna followers are nature worshippers who do not consider themselves
Hindus and have been fighting for a separate religious identity for decades.At present, they are not classified
as a separate religious entity.
Nature Worship in Sarna: The holy grail of the Sarna faith is “Jal, Jungle, Zameen” and its followers pray
to the trees and hills while believing in protecting the forest areas.
Why in news? Jharkhand government has convened a special session and passed a resolution for the
provision of a separate ‘Sarna Code’ for tribals.
What does the resolution say? The resolution seeks a special column for followers of the ‘Sarna’ religion
in the Census 2021.
Was there a separate code before? The protection of their language and history is an important aspect with
tribals. Between 1871 and 1951, the tribals had a different code. However, it was changed around 1961-62.
Significance of Separate Code: The population of Sarna tribals in State has declined from 38.3% in 1931 to
26.02% in 2011.One of the reasons for this was tribals who go for work in different states not being
recorded in the Census. Therefore, the separate code will ensure recording of their population.
Turkish Coffee
Turkish Coffee made it to the UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2013. It is
celebrated in literature and songs and is an important part of ceremonies and festivals.
Turkish Coffee
 To make Turkish Coffee, Arabica beans are ground manually and boiled with water and sugar in a
special pot called cezve in Turkey and ibrik elsewhere.
 It is taken off the heat as soon as it begins to froth and before it boils over.
 It is traditionally served in individual porcelain cups called kahvefinjan.
 Sometimes the coffee may be flavoured with cardamom or other spices and served with a small piece
of Turkish delight.
Intangible Heritages from India

 Tradition of Vedic chanting
 Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana
 Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre
 Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas.
 Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala
 Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan
 Chhau dance
 Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh
region, Jammu and Kashmir.
 Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
 Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab
 Yoga
 Nawrouz
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 Kumbh Mela
Nuakhai Juhar
Nuakhai Juhar
 Nuakhai or Nuakhai is an agricultural festival mainly observed by people of Western Odisha and
Southern Chhattisgarh.
 It is celebrated at the time when the newly grown Kharif crop (autumn crop) of rice started ripening.
 According to the calendar it is observed on Panchami tithi (the fifth day) of the lunar fortnight of the
month of Bhadrapada or Bhadraba (August–September), the day after the Ganesh Chaturthi festival.
 This is the most important social festival of Western Odisha and adjoining areas of Simdega in
Jharkhand, where Odia culture is much predominant.
Bathukamma Festival
About the festival:

 Bathukamma festival is celebrated for nine days during Durga Navratri.
 The word Bathukamma means- ‘Mother Goddess come to life’.
 The festival represents cultural spirit of Telangana.
 It is the state festival of Telangana.
 The festival is celebrated to pray to the Goddess for health and achievements of each family.
 During the festival, flowers arranged and decorated on a big plat in conical shape in seven layers and
this arrangement is called as Bathukamma.
 All the women are dressed colourfully and form a circle around ‘Bathukamma’ and dance before
immersing it to the nearest water body.
Buddha Path (Atthamahathanani)
 It refers to eight great places of Buddhist Heritage (referred in Pali as Aṭṭhamahāṭhānāni).

 These places are connected with important events of life of Buddha from the time of his birth,
enlightenment, reaching dhamma to suffering humanity, till he passed away (Mahāparinirvāna) at the
age of 80 years.
 These are living heritage that still continues to inspire millions of people to walk and find out peace,
happiness, harmony and solace.
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Donyi-Polo Religion
 Donyi-Polo is an Animist religion, literally meaning “Sun-Moon” (where, sun is the female energy,
and moon being the male).
 It is followed by many of the tribal groups of Arunachal Pradesh, India like the Galos, Adis,
Apatanis, Nishis, Hill Miris, Mishings.
 The followers of Donyi-Poloism worship a variety of gods and goddesses that enliven nature.
Guru Padmasambhava
 Guru Padmasambhava was born in India and travelled all across Himalayan region in the 8th century
to spread Buddhism and Buddhist teachings.
 Guru Padmasambhava is highly revered in Bhutan.
 There is an image or painting of the Guru Padmasambhava in every Bhutanese home or temple.
 Guru Padmasambhava was also known as Guru Rinpoche is widely venerated as a “second Buddha”
by adherents of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, the Himalayan states of India, and
elsewhere.
 Guru Padmasambhava is also considered to be the founder of Nyingma tradition, oldest of the four
major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
Losar Festival
 The Losar festival marks the beginning of New year in Ladakh and Tibet region and falls in
December.
 Losar is Tibetan word for ‘new year’.
 It is considered to be the most important festival of the region.
 It is an important social and religious celebration in Ladakh.
 Ladakhi Buddhists make religious offering before their deities in the domestic shrines or in the
Gompas.
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 A medley of cultural events, ancient rituals and also traditional performances are performed during
this festival.
 There is blaring music events accompanied with dancing and celebration, dinner with relatives.
 Houses are decorated with good luck signs.
 Prayer flags are hoisted in important religious places to welcome the new year.
Mahamastakabhisheka
 Mahamasthakabhisheka is the head anointing ceremony is performed once in 12 years of 57 feet tall
monolithic statue of Lord Bahubali Gommateshwara at Shravanabelagola.
 It is one of biggest festivals for Jain community and it honors Lord Bahubali, a revered Jain icon.
 According to Jain texts, Bahubali had attained liberation from cycle of births and deaths (moksha) at
Mount Kailash and is revered as a liberated soul (Siddha) by Jains.
 Bahubali is also called Gommateshwara because of Gommateshwara statue dedicated to him and as
lord Kammateswara from an inscription.
 Gommateshwara statue was built by Ganga dynasty minister and commander Chavundaraya in
around 981 AD. It is a 57-foot monolith, making it one of largest free-standing statues in world.
Nabakalebara Festival
 Nabakalebara festival is an ancient ritual that is observed in the Shree Jagannath Temple at Puri,
Odisha at predefined time according to Hindu Calender.
 Naba means new and Kalebara is body.
 In this festival, the idols of Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra and Sudarshan are
replaced by new idols as it is believed that Lord Shree Jagannath adornes new body during
Nabakalebara.
 It is usually comes in every twelve to nineteen years based on the auspicious two months of
Ashadha in a year called as Purusottam month as per the Hindu calendar.
Kambala
What is Kambala?
 Kambala is an annual traditional Buffalo Race (he-buffalo) held in coastal districts of Karnataka to
entertain rural people of the area.
 Slushy/marshy paddy field track is used for Kambala.
 The sports season generally starts in November and lasts till March.
 The contest generally takes place between two pairs of buffaloes, each pair race in two separate wet
rice fields tracks, controlled by a whip-lashing farmer.
 In the traditional form of Kambala, buffalo racing is non-competitive and buffalo pairs run one by
one in paddy fields.
 Besides, there is also ritualistic approach also as some agriculturists race their he-buffaloes for
thanks giving to god for protecting their animals from diseases.
 But in recent times, Kambala has become an organised rural sport.
Sammakka-Sarakka/Saralamma Jatara Festival
 It is a major Tribal Festival held bi-annually in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district to honour

the twin goddesses Sammakka and her daughter Sarakka.
 Central government is likely to declare Medaram’s Sammakka-Sarakka/Saralamma Jatara a
national festival.
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 Union government had in 2015 declared Vanaj, a tribal dance and music festival, as national festival.
 Sammakka-Sarakka Jatara held by forest dwelling Koya tribe of Telangana and surrounding
States, is the biggest Tribal festival in Asia which is attended by one crore people on an average.
 Once declared a national festival, Jatara can be considered for ‘intangible cultural heritage of
humanity’ tag of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
 UNESCO had given the tag to Kumbh Mela, which is world’s biggest festival which sees
participation by up to 10 crore persons.
 Out of the huge congregation which comes to Medaram, 50 % are non-adivasi making the Jatara the
most popular Tribal festival in India.
 People from Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh come for the
festival.
 Several communities in Telangana society support Jatara as it is also a mythical narrative of two
tribal women leaders who fought against the Kakatiya rulers who tried to annex their land and
forests.
Sangai Festival
 It is grandest festival of the state to promote Manipur as a world class tourism destination.
 The festival showcases tourism potential of Manipur in field of arts & culture, handloom,
handicrafts, indigenous sports, cuisine, music and adventure sports of the state etc.
 ‘Ras Leela’, state’s classical dance form along with various other folk dance performances like
Bamboo dance, Maibi dance, Kabui Naga dance, Lai Haraoba dance, Khamba Thoibi dance etc.
which will be showcased at the festival.
 The festival is named after state animal, Sangai, the critically endangered brow-antlered deer found
only in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National Park, only floating national park in the world.
 It was started in 2010 and has grown over years into big platform for Manipur to showcase its rich
tradition and culture to the world.
Shondol Dance
 It is known as the ‘royal dance of Ladakh’.

 It is famous dance which was earlier used to be performed by artists for King of Ladakh on special
occasion.
 Ladakhi Shondol dance has created history by breaking into Guinness book of world records as the
largest Ladakhi dance.
 The dance performance was held on concluding day of the annual week long Buddhist carnival
Naropa festival, which was held near the Hemis Monastery.
 The Hemis Monastery is 11th-century world-famous monastery in Ladakh.
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple
 It is considered as one of the most important of the 108 main Vishnu temples (Divyadesams).
 It is Vaishnava temple built in Tamil or Dravidian style of architecture.
 It is located on an islet formed by twin rivers: Coleroon and Cauvery.
 The temple complex is situated in sprawling ground of more than 156 acres.
 The temple and 1000 pillared hall were constructed in the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) on the
site of an older temple.
 It has seven prakaras or enclosures.
 Its Gopuram also called as “Raja Gopuram is the biggest gopuram in Asia.
 It annually hosts 21-day festival during the Tamil month of Margazhi (between December and
January) which attracts over 1 million visitors.
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Tendong Lho Rumfaat
Tendong Lho Rumfaat (Prayer of the Tendong Mountain)

 It is a festival of the Lepcha people of eastern Nepal and north-east India.
 The festival occurs usually in the month of August.
 As per the Lepcha mythology, it was believed that the entire tribe was saved from 40 days and 40
nights of great deluge caused by continuous rain which drowned the entire Mayel Lyang, the modern
day Sikkim.
 During the festivities, people make a model of the Mountain in facade of their homes and worship it.
 It is exclusively made of nine stones and the people dance and sing wearing mask to get the blessings
of the almighty
Udvada Festival
 It is a traditional Parasi Festival celebrated in Udvada town of Gujarat

 The Udvada Atash Behram, also known as the Iran Shah, “King of Iran”, is a temple in Udvada,
Gujarat on the west coast of India.
 It is one of the eight fire temples (holy place of worship) of the Zoroastrian religion in the country.
 The Atash Bahram, meaning “Victorious Fire”, is one of the oldest fire temples in India, dated to the
eight century, and represents the historical cultural and religious links with Iran.
 The current temple was built in 1742 by Dinshaw Dorabjee Mistry from Bombay.
 The temple attracts Zoroastrian pilgrims from all parts of India, Pakistan and from around the world.
Monuments
Bamiyan Buddhas
Bamiyan Buddhas:
 The Bamiyan Buddha statues, cut from sandstone cliffs, are said to have dated back to the 5th
century AD, and were once the tallest standing Buddhas in the world.
 They are located in Mes Ayank, Afghanistan.
 In their Roman draperies and with two different mudras, the statues were great examples of
a confluence of Gupta, Sassanian and Hellenistic artistic styles.
 Called Salsal and Shamama by the locals, they rose to heights of 55 and 38 metres respectively.
 Salsal means “light shines through the universe”, while Shamama is “Queen Mother”.
 In 2003, UNESCO included the remains of the Bamiyan Buddhas in its list of world heritage sites.
 Significance:
o Bamiyan is situated in the high mountains of the Hindu Kush in the central highlands of
Afghanistan.
o The valley, which is set along the line of the Bamiyan River, was once integral to the early
days of the Silk Roads, providing passage for not just merchants, but also culture, religion
and language.
o When the Buddhist Kushan Empire spread, acting as a crucible of sorts, Bamiyan became a
major trade, cultural and religious centre. As China, India and Rome sought passage through
Bamiyan, the Kushans were able to develop a syncretic culture.
o In the rapid spread of Buddhism between the 1st to 5th centuries AD, Bamiyan’s landscape
reflected the faith, especially its monastic qualities.
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o The two colossal Buddhas were only a part of several other structures, such as stupas, smaller
seated and standing Buddhas, and wall paintings in caves, spread in and around surrounding
valleys.
Why in News?
 Taliban regime in Afghanistan has said it would protect the ancient Buddha statues in Mes Aynak.
 The Taliban’s position is in marked contrast to the time they ruled Afghanistan earlier, when, in
the face of global outrage, they brought down the centuries-old Buddha statues in Bamiyan using
artillery, explosives, and rockets.
Why Taliban destroyed Bamiyan Statues earlier?

 The hardline Taliban movement, which emerged in the early 1990s, was in control of almost 90% of
Afghanistan by the end of the decade.
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 While their governance supposedly curbed lawlessness, they also introduced so-called “Islamic
punishments'' and a regressive idea of Islamic practices, which included banning television, public
executions, and lack of schooling for girls aged 10 and above.
 The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas was part of this extremist culture.
 On 27th February 2001, the Taliban declared its intention to destroy the statues.
Konark Sun Temple
Konark Sun Temple:

 Konark Sun Temple is located in the East Odisha near the sacred city of Puri.
 It was built in the 13th century by King Narasimhadeva I (AD 1238-1264).
 Its scale, refinement and conception represent the strength and stability of the Eastern Ganga
Empire as well as the value systems of the historic milieu.
 The temple is designed in the shape of a colossal chariot.
 It is dedicated to the sun God.
 The Konark temple is widely known not only for its architectural grandeur but also for the intricacy
and profusion of sculptural work.
 Also called the Surya Devalaya, it is a classic illustration of the Odisha style of Hindu temple
architecture or Kalinga Architecture.
 This temple was called the “Black Pagoda” in European sailor accounts as early as 1676 because its
great tower appeared black.
 Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was called the “White Pagoda”. Both temples served as
important landmarks for sailors in the Bay of Bengal.
 Declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984, it remains a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, who
gather here every year for the Chandrabhaga Mela around the month of February.
 There are two rows of 12 wheels on each side of the Konark sun temple. Some say the wheels
represent the 24 hours in a day and others say the 12 months.
 The seven horses are said to symbolise the seven days of the week.
Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala
What are Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala?

 Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala were built in the 12th-13th century.
 They are represented here by the three components of Belur, Halebid and Somnathpur.
 The Hoysala temples have a basic Darvidian morphology though they reflect other influences
including that of Central India’s Bhumija mode, northern and western India’s Nagara traditions, and
Karnata Dravida modes of the Kalyani Chalukyas.
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 The Hoysala architect made selections of features from other temple styles, which they further
modified with their own particular innovations. This resulted in a new Hoysala Temple form.
 The ‘Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala’ have been on UNESCO’s Tentative list since 2014.
Chennakeshava Temple - Belur

 Chennakeshava Temple is also referred to as Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur.
 It is a 12th-century Hindu temple in Karnataka.
 The temple was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi
River in Belur also called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital.
 The temple is devoted to Vishnu.
 The richly sculptured exterior of the temple narrates scenes from the life of Vishnu and his
reincarnations and the epics, Ramayana, and Mahabharata. However, some of the representations of
Shiva are also included.
Hoysaleshwara Temple- Halebid

 Hoysaleswara temple also referred simply as the Halebidu temple is a 12th-century Hindu temple
dedicated to Shiva.
 The temple was built in 1121CE during the reign of the Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana
Hoysaleshwara.
 The temple is most well-known for the more than 240 wall sculptures that run all along the outer
wall.
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Keshava Temple- Somanathapura

 Keshava Temple is a Vaishnava temple on the banks of River Kaveri at Somanathapura, Karnataka.
 The temple was consecrated in 1258 CE by Somanatha Dandanayaka, a general of the Hoysala King
Narasimha III.
 The temple is enclosed in a courtyard with a pillared corridor of small shrines (damaged).The main
temple in the centre is on a high star-shaped platform with three symmetrical sanctums (garbha-
griha).
 The western sanctum was for a statue of Kesava (missing), the northern sanctum of Janardhana and
the southern sanctum of Venugopala, all forms of Vishnu.
Somnath Temple
Somnath Temple:
 Somnath temple is located on the western coast of Gujarat. It is believed to be the first among the
twelve jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.
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 It was reconstructed several times in the past after repeated destruction by several Muslim invaders
and rulers. This temple is also referred to as Ahilyabai Temple since it was built by Queen
Ahilyabai of Indore when she found that the old temple was in ruins.
 The present temple was reconstructed in the Chaulukya style of Hindu temple architecture and
completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was completed by Vallabhbhai Patel.
Reclining Buddha
What is Reclining Buddha?

 Reclining Buddha is a statue or image of Buddha lying down on his right side.
 It represents Buddha during his last illness i.e. about to enter Parinirvana.
 Parinirvana is the stage of great salvation after death that can only be attained by enlightened souls.
 The Buddha’s death came when he was 80 years old, in a state of meditation, in Kushinagar in
eastern Uttar Pradesh, close to the state’s border with Bihar.
Iconographic Representation of Reclining Buddha:

 The statues and images of the Reclining Buddha show him lying on his right side, his head resting on
a cushion or on his right elbow.
 It shows that all beings have the potential to be awakened and release from the cycle of death and
rebirth.
Origin of Depiction of Reclining Buddha:

 The Reclining Buddha was first depicted in Gandhara art which began in the period between 50 BC
and 75 AD. It peaked during the Kushana period from the first to the fifth centuries AD.
 However, since Buddha was against idol worship, his representation was through symbols, in the
centuries immediately following his parinirvana (483 BC).
 But as the devotional aspect subsequently entered Buddhist practice, the iconographic
representations of the Buddha also began.
Statues of Reclining Buddha Outside India: Reclining postures are more prevalent in Thailand and other
parts of Southeast Asia.
 The largest reclining Buddha in the world is the 600-foot Winsein Tawya Buddha built-in 1992 in
Mawlamyine, Myanmar.
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 The Bhamala Buddha Parinirvana in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province dates back to the
2nd century AD. It is considered the oldest statue of its kind in the world.
Statues of Reclining Buddha in India:

 Cave No 26 of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Ajanta contains a 24-foot-long and nine-foot-
tall sculpture of the Reclining Buddha. It is believed to have been carved in the 5th century AD.
 Kushinagar where the Buddha actually attained parinirvana has a 6-metre-long red sandstone
monolith statue of the Reclining Buddha inside the Parinirvana Stupa.
Other depictions of the Buddha in India:

 At the Mahabodhi temple, the Buddha is sitting in the bhoomi-sparsha mudra. His hand is pointing
towards the ground. It symbolises earth as being witness to his enlightenment.
 At Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon, the stone statue has a hand gesture called the
dharma-chakra mudra which signifies preaching. This is also the most popular depiction in India
along with the Bodhi tree depiction.
 The Walking Buddha is either beginning his journey toward enlightenment or returning after giving
a sermon. This is the least common of the Buddha postures and is seen mostly in Thailand.
Lingaraj Temple
About Lingaraj Temple

 Lingaraja Temple is a temple dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar,
Odisha.
 It represents the quintessence of the Kalinga Architecture and culminating the medieval stages of the
architectural tradition at Bhubaneswar.
 The temple is believed to be built by the kings from the Somavamsi dynasty, with later additions
from the Ganga rulers.
 It is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the
sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of
offerings), each increasing in the height to its predecessor.
 Why in news? The Odisha government has announced to give a facelift to the 11th century Lingaraj
Temple, akin to its pre-350-year structural status.
 Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraja was originally under a mango
tree (Ekamra) as noted in Ekamra Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit treatise.
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 The temple has images of Vishnu, possibly because of the rising prominence of Jagannath sect
emanating from the Ganga rulers who built the Jagannath Temple in Puri in the 12th century.
St George Orthodox church
 St George Orthodox church is believed to be established in AD 950 but some experts say it was built
in AD 1050 in Kerala.
 The church was rebuilt in 1952. But, the eastern part of the church was retained (not rebuilt) to
preserve the murals.
 The mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent
surfaces.
 Significance: The most attractive feature of the church is the murals paintings (around 47). These
paintings are considered to be over 600 years old. Further, they reflect the blend between traditional
Kerala mural art and Persian art.
 Why in news? It is recognised as a Centrally-protected monument of national importance by ASI.
Jagannath Temple
 Construction:
o It is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by King Anatavarman Chodaganga
Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
 Mythology:
o Jagannath Puri temple is called ‘Yamanika Tirtha’ where, according to the Hindu beliefs,
the power of ‘Yama’, the god of death, has been nullified due to the presence of Lord
Jagannath.
 Architecture:
o This temple was called the “White Pagoda” and is a part of Char Dham pilgrimages
(Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram).
o There are four gates to the temple- Eastern ‘Singhdwara’ which is the main gate with two
crouching lions, Southern ‘Ashwadwara’, Western 'Vyaghra Dwara and Northern
‘Hastidwara’. There is a carving of each form at each gate.
o In front of the entrance stands the Aruna stambha or sun pillar, which was originally at
the Sun Temple in Konark.
 Festival: The World famous Rath Yatra (Car Festival) & Bahuda Yatra.
Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple
 Location: This temple is located in Bengaluru, Karnataka.

 Meaning of the Name:
o The temple derives its name from the combination of topographical features and
mythology: gavi (cave), and Gangadhareswara (shiva) means the Lord who adorns
the Ganga.
 Establishment:
o It is believed to have been built by Kempe Gowda I in its present form.
 Architecture Features:
o Celestial Oriented Architecture: Built in Vijaynagar style, it has unique celestial oriented
rock cut architecture due to which Surya majjana occurs on Sankranti every year.
o Surya Majjana: Every year on the Makar Sankranti, the sun rays fall on the Shiv linga
located in the cave (gavi) making it shine for ten minutes.
o Two Monolithic Structures:
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 In the forecourt stand two monolithic structures, named Suryapana and

Chandrapana - each consisting of a massive disc atop a supporting pillar.
 They have engravings of sitting bulls on the discs face each other.
o Iconography of Shiva:
 The compound of the temple is adorned with monolith structures associated with the
iconography of Shiva - the trishula (trident) and the damaru (an hourglass-shaped,
two-headed drum).
 In between the two discs there is a brass dhwajasthambha (flagstaff), and a small
cubicle housing a statue of Nandi, Shiva’s bull carrier.
Rahim Khane Khanam Tomb
 Located in Nizamuddin, Delhi it was built by Rahim for his wife in 1598.
 Bulbous domes, canopies and arches, charbagh pattern and use of Red sandstone and marble are
important features.
About Rahim
 Rahim was one of the Navratnanas, a reputed military commander and a poet in the court of emperor
Akbar.
 He is known as the proponent of a secular all-embracing all-encompassing culture of inclusiveness.
 He wrote extensively in Braj, Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. He translated Babur’s autobiography
 Baburnama from Turkish to Persian.
Hampi Stone Chariot
Hampi Stone Chariot:

 It is an iconic monument located in front of Vijaya Vittala Temple in Hampi, Karnataka.
 Stone Chariot is a shrine dedicated to Garuda, the official vehicle of Lord Vishnu.
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 Stone Chariot in Hampi is one of the three most popular stone chariots in India. Other two are in
Konark (Odisha) and Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).
 Built in Dravidian style, the stone chariot reflects skill of temple architecture under the patronage of
Vijayanagara rulers who reigned from 14th to 17th century CE.
 Why in news? Archaeological Survey of India(ASI) has placed wooden barricades around it.
Related Facts:
 Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Vijaya Vittala Temple also known as Vittala Temple is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, an incarnation
of Lord Vishnu.
 The temple is located in Hampi, near the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
 Temple was built in the 15th century during the reign of King Devaraya II of the Vijayanagara
Empire.
 Several sections of the temple were expanded and renovated during the reign of Krishnadevaraya,
the famous ruler of the Vijayanagara dynasty.
Historic City of Hampi
Hampi:
 Its name is derived from Pampa which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose banks the
city is built.
 In 1336 CE, the Vijayanagara Empire arose from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom.
 It grew into one of the famed Hindu empires of South India that ruled for over 200 years.
 The Vijayanagara rulers fostered developments in intellectual pursuits and the arts, maintained a
strong military and fought many wars with sultanates to its north and east.
 They invested in roads, waterworks, agriculture, religious buildings and public infrastructure.
 The site used to be multi-religious and multi-ethnic; it included Hindu and Jain monuments next to
each other.
 The buildings predominantly followed South Indian Hindu arts and architecture dating to the Aihole-
Pattadakal styles.
 The Hampi builders also used elements of Indo-Islamic architecture in the Lotus Mahal, the public
bath and the elephant stables.
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Major attractions
 One of the major attractions of Hampi is the 15th Century Virupaksha temple which is one of the
oldest monuments of the town.
 The main shrine is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Lord Shiva.
 Hemkunta Hill, south of the Virupaksha temple contains early ruins, Jain temples and a monolithic
sculpture of Lord Narasimha, a form of Lord Vishnu.
 At the eastern end, there is the large Nandi in stone; on the southern side is the larger than life
Ganesha.
 Large single stone carvings seem to have been the fashion of the day in Hampi, for there is a large
image of Narasimha (6.7m high), the half-lion half-man incarnation of God, as well as a huge linga.
Ancient Monuments
What is an Ancient Monument?

The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 defines Ancient Monument as
any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock-sculpture,
inscription or monolith which is of historical, archaeological or artistic interest and which has been in
existence for not less than 100 years.
Criterion for the declaration of Monument of National Importance

The Archaeological Survey of India declares a site as Monument of National importance based on the
following criterion:
 The remains of an ancient monument
 The site of an ancient monument
 The land on which there are fences or protective covering structures for preserving the monument
 Land by means of which people can freely access the monument
Monuments of national importance declared in 2018

The six monuments declared as Monuments as Monuments of national importance in 2018 are:
 Old High Court Building in Nagpur, Maharashtra
 Haveli of Agha Khan in Agra
 Haveli of Hathi Khana in Agra
 Neemrana Baori in Rajasthan’s Alwar district
 Group of Temples at Ranipur Jharail in Odisha’s Bolangir district
 Vishnu Temple in Kotali, Pithoragarh district, Uttarkhand.
Brihadisvara Temple
 Rajarajesvaram or Peruvudaiyar Koyil, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Thanjavur,

Tamil Nadu.
 It follows Dravidian architecture.
 It is called as Dhakshina Meru (Meru of south).
 Built by Raja Raja Chola I between 1003 and 1010 AD, the temple is a part of the UNESCO World
Heritage Site known as the “Great Living Chola Temples”, along with the Chola dynasty era
Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple that are about 70 kilometres.
 Built out of granite, the vimana tower above the sanctum is one of the tallest in South India.
Lohagarh Fort
 Lohagarh Fort (Iron fort) is situated at Bharatpur in Rajasthan, India.

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 It was constructed by Bharatpur Jat rulers.

 Maharaja Suraj Mal used all his power and wealth to a good cause, and built numerous forts and
palaces across his kingdom, one of them being the Lohagarh Fort (Iron fort), which was one of the
strongest ever built in Indian history.
 The inaccessible Lohagarh fort could withstand repeated attacks of British forces led by Lord Lake
in 1805 when they laid siege for over six weeks.
 Of the two gates in the fort, one in the north is known as Ashtdhaatu (eight metalled) gate while the
one facing the south is called Chowburja (four-pillared) gate.
 The Gateway has paintings of huge elephants.
Mamallapuram
Mamallapuram
 The place is also known as Seven Pagodas or Mahabalipuram.
 Marco Polo and other Europeans named it Seven Pagodas.
 It is believed that 6 more temples stood along with the lone standing shore temple. Hence the name
Seven Pagodas.
 The 2004 Tsunami exposed an old collapsed temple built of granite and was a part of Seven Pagodas.
 It is a historic town and was a seaport in the 1st millennium.
 It was declared as UNESCO World Heritage site.
 The famous monuments in the town include temples in the form of chariots, giant open rock
sculpture, cave sanctuaries, Descent of the Ganges and a Shore temple.
Shore Temple
 The temple overlooks Bay of Bengal.
 It was built during the Pallava dynasty.
 It is a cave temple.
 Lord Vishnu shrine is placed between two shrines of Lord Shiva.
 The structures have multi – storied pyramidal superstructures typical of the Dravidian style.
Descent of the Ganges

 It is a monument at Mamallapuram.
 It is an open – air relief carved on two monolithic rocks.
 The monument depicts the story of descent of the sacred river Ganges to the earth from heavens.
 It also portrays Arjuna’s penance.
 The monument was sculpted in the period of Pallavas.
Sabarimala Temple
 The temple is situated atop a hill in the deep forests of the Periyar Tiger Reserve in the Western
Ghats in Pathanamthitta district.
 This ancient forest shrine, situated 210 km from Kochi, draws pilgrims from different parts of the
country.
 Recently, with the development of road transport and communication facilities, Sabarimala has been
witnessing a phenomenal increase in the number of pilgrims.
 The Travancore Devaswom Board, administers the temple.
 The Travancore Devaswom Board estimates that around 5 crore devotees had visited the temple
during the last pilgrim season.
 The season normally begins in mid-November and ends in January.
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Music
Thumri
 Thumri is common genre of semi-classical Indian music originated in eastern part of Uttar Pradesh.
 The term ‘thumri’ is derived from Hindi verb thumakna which means to walk with dancing steps so
as to make ankle-bells tinkle.
 Thumri is connected with dance, dramatic gestures, mild eroticism, evocative love poetry and folk
songs of Uttar Pradesh, though there are regional variations.
 Its text is romantic or devotional in nature and usually revolves around girl’s love for Krishna.
Trinities of Carnatic music
Trinities of Carnatic music are:

Saint Tyagaraja
 Saint Tyagaraja was a renowned composer of Carnatic music.
 He has composed thousands of devotional compositions, mostly in Telugu in the praise of
Lord Rama, many of which remain popular today.
 He saw the reigns of four kings of Maratha dynasty — Tulaja II (1763-1787), Amarasimha (1787-
1798), Serfoji II (1798-1832) and Sivaji II (1832-1855), but he served none of them.
Saint Muthuswami Dikshitar

 Saint Muthuswami Dikshitar was a South Indian poet and composer.
 His compositions are noted for their elaborate and poetic descriptions of Hindu gods and temples and
for capturing the essence of the raga forms through the vainika (veena) style that emphasises
gamakas.
 His compositions are predominantly in Sanskrit and he has also composed some of his Kritis
in Manipravalam (a mixture of Sanskrit and Tamil).
Saint Syama Sastri

 Saint Syama Sastri was a musician and composer of Carnatic music and was the oldest among
the Trinity of Carnatic music.
 Even though he did not compose so many Kritis, his compositions are still well known due to the
literary, melodic and rhythmic proficiency observed in them.
 He composed in a more formal form of Telugu which borrows heavily from Sanskrit and there are
also a number of Kritis in Tamil attributed to him.
 Most of his works propitiate the goddess Kamakshi.
Why in news? Tamil Nadu has announced the setting up of country’s first music museum with assistance
from the Central government in Thiruvaiyaru which is the birthplace of Saint Tyagaraja, one of the Trinities
of Carnatic music.
Architecture
Basic elements of a Hindu Temple
Basic elements of a Hindu Temple:

 Garbhagriha:
o Literally means womb-house.
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o It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple.

o In earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance.
o In later periods, it grew into a larger chamber.
 Mandapa:
o It is the entrance to the temple.
o It could be a portico or a collonaded hall where worshippers stand.
 Shikhara/Vimana:
o Noticed from the 5th century CE.
o It is a mountain-like spire on top.
o In north India, it is called Shikhara and is curving in shape.
o In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower and is called Vimana.
 Amalaka:
o Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple.
o Mostly found in north Indian temples.
 Kalasha:
o It is the topmost part of the temple.
o Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
 Antarala:
o It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
 Jagati:
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oThis is common in north Indian temples and is a raised platform where devotees can sit and
pray.
 Vahana:
o It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj which are
placed axialy
Dravida Vs Nagara Architecture
Dravidian Architecture
 Two broad orders of temples in the country are known as:
o Nagara in the north and
o Dravida in the south.
 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the selective mixing
of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some scholars.
Features of Nagara and Dravida Orders of Temples:

 Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall
has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that
rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
 In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of
the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola - this is equivalent to
the amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
 Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to find
images such as mithunas and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, in the south one will
generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple. It is
common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
Examples:
 Nagara Style: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho), Madhya Pradesh
 Dravidian Style: Brihadeshwara Temple and Mahabalipuram Temple, Tamil Nadu
Nagara or North Indian Temple Style
The Nagara or North Indian temple style:

 Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it.
 No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
 Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had many.
 The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.
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Subdivisions of Nagara Style

 Rekha-Prasada/Latina:
o Simple shikhara with square base and whose walls slope inwards to a point on top.
o Most common.
o In later periods, Latina type became more complex with several towers clustered together.
o The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
 Phamsana:
o Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the building’s centre.
o Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they slope upwards on a straight incline.
o Phamsana structures are generally broader and shorter than latina ones.
o In many temples, the latina type is used to house the garbhagriha whereas the mandapa has a
Phamsana style of architecture.
 Valabhi:
o Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
o Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.
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Nagara Style in Various Regions:

 Central India
o Mainly found in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
o Made of sandstone.
o Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP. They are small shrines
with four pillars to support a small mandapa. The mandapas are basically small porch-like
structures before the garbhagriha which are also rather small. Examples: temple at Udaigiri –
part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of Vidisha); temple at Sanchi
(which was a Buddhist site).
o This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.
o Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP
 Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
 Patrons are unknown.
 From the architecture and imagery, it is known that the temple was built in early 6th
century CE.
 Panchayatana Style of architecture.
 Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that
are smaller and at the 4 corners.
 Hence, there are a total of five shrines and hence the name, Panchayatana.
 This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
 It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
 Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right side
respectively.
 Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls:
Sheshashayana on the south; Nara-Narayan on the east; and Gajendramoksha on the
west.
 Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them, the
temple was mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.
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 Khajuraho Temples (MP)

o Built in the 10th century CE.
o It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o Patronised by Chandela Kings.
o All temples made of sandstone.
o From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the
development of the Nagara architectural style is visible here.
o These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though some
Jain temples are also present.
o There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship indicating
the rise and spread of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
o Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and
Lakshmana temple.
o Lakshmana temple:
 Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.
 Dedicated to Vishnu.
 Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
 Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.
 Has small temples in four corners.
 Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting balconies and verandas.
 West India
o Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.
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o Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th century
temples.
o Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a 15th
century temple at Ranakpur.
o Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are
found here.
o Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat
 Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
 Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known as the ‘Surya Kund’
in the front. This is a noticeable feature from earlier times – proximity of a sacred
water body. By the early 11th century, this was a common feature of many temples.
 The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its kind in the country.
108 miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
 A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or assembly hall that
is open on all sides.
 Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
 The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and every year at the time
of equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.
Hoysala Temple Architecture
 It is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysalas between 11th and 14th century and is
mostly concentrated in southern Karnataka.
 Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or vesara as their unique style seems neither
completely dravida nor nagara, but somewhere in between.
 They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples by their highly original star-like
ground-plans and a profusion of decorative carvings.
 The temples, instead of consisting of a simple inner chamber with its pillared hall, contain multiple
shrines grouped around a central pillared hall and laid out in the shape of an intricately-designed
star.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex with so many
projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square temple, that the plan of these
temples starts looking like a star, and is thus known as a stellate-plan.
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Martial Arts
Kalaripayattu
 Kalaripayattu is a Martial art which originated as a style in Kerala during 3rd century BC to the 2nd
century AD.
 The word kalari first appears in Sangam literature to describe both a battlefield and combat arena.
 It is also considered to be one of the oldest fighting system in existence.
 It is now practiced in Kerala, in contiguous parts of Tamil Nadu.
 Kalaripayattu techniques include a combination of steps (Chuvatu) and postures (Vadivu). Chuvatu
literally means ‘steps’, the basic steps of the martial arts. Vadivu literally means ‘postures’ or stances
are the basic characteristics of Kalaripayattu training. Named after animals, they are usually eight in
number.
 It has been included in Khelo India Youth Games 2021.
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Gatka
 It is a traditional martial art associated with Sikhism

 The Punjabi name gatka properly refers to the wooden stick used.
 It is a traditional South Asian form of combat-training in which wooden sticks are used to simulate
swords
 Gatka can be practiced either as a sport (khela) or ritual (rasmi). The sport form is played by two
opponents wielding wooden staves called gatka. These sticks may be paired with a shield
 It is believed to have originated when sixth Sikh guru Hargobind adopted ‘Kirpan’ for self defense
during Mughal era and tenth Guru Gobind Singh made it compulsory for everyone to use the
weapons for self defense
Traditional Combats in other states:

 Huyen langlon - Manipur
 Kalaripayatu - Kerala
 Khomlainai (Bodo wrestling) - Assam
 Mukna - Manipur
 Silambam - Tamil Nadu
Thang Ta and Sarit Sarak
 These two are the martial art forms from the Indian state of Manipur.
 In Manipuri language thang means sword and ta means spear.
 Thang Ta is name for the ancient martial practice known as Huyen Lallong .
 The unarmed aspect of Thang Ta is named as sarit sarak.
 It has been practised by the Meiteis.
 It is dedicated to fighting skill and worship.
 Thang-Ta has been included in Khelo India Youth Games 2021.
Mallakhamba
 It is a traditional sport from Indian subcontinent and has been well-known in Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
 It involves gymnasts performing aerial yoga or gymnastic postures and wrestling grips in concert
with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.
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Theatre
Yakshagana
 Yakshagana is a traditional theatre form of Karnataka.

 It is a temple art form that depicts mythological stories and Puranas.
 It is performed with massive headgears, elaborate facial make-up and vibrant costumes and
ornaments.
 Usually recited in Kannada, it is also performed in Malayalam as well as Tulu (the dialect of south
Karnataka).
 It is performed with percussion instruments like chenda, maddalam, jagatta or chengila (cymbals)
and chakratala or elathalam (small cymbals).
 The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah,
etc. and from Ramayana i.e. Rajyabhishek, Lav-Kush yuddh, etc.
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Related Facts:
 Tulu is a Dravidian language whose speakers are concentrated in the region of Tulu Nadu, which
comprises the districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka and the northern part of
Kasaragod district of Kerala.
 The oldest available inscriptions in Tulu are from the period between 14th to 15th century AD.
Major Theatre Forms
Theatre Forms State Theme

Nautanki Uttar Pradesh Often draws on romantic Persian literature for its themes.
Tamasha Maharashtra Evolved from the folk forms such as gondhal, jagran and
kirtan.
Bhavai Gujarat Subtle social criticism laced with humour.
Jatra West Originated in Bengal as a result of the Bhakti
Bengal/Orissa movement. Initially known as Krishna jatra due to
and eastern Bihar Chaitanya’s (spiritual founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism)
influence.
Koodiyattam Kerala Oldest traditional theatre forms of India, it follows the
performative principles of the ancient tradition of Sanskrit
theatre. In 2001, Koodiyattam was officially recognized
by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity.
Mudiyettu Kerala Traditional ritual theatre and folk dance drama from Kerala
that enacts the mythological tale of a battle between the
goddess Kali and the demon Darika. The ritual is a part of
the bhagavathi or bhadrakali cult.
Bhaona Assam A creation of Srimanta Sankardeva (an Assamese saint-
scholar), these plays were written in Brajavali, a unique
Assamese-Maithili mixed language, and are primarily
centered on Hindu deity, Krishna.
Maach Madhya Pradesh It is a sung folk theatre that has a semi sacred character,
blending religious and secular themes.
Bhand Pather Kashmir Satire, wit and parody are commonly used in this folk
drama that incorporates local mythological legends and
contemporary social commentary.
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Paintings
Kaavi Art
Kaavi Art:
 Kaavi is a form of wall art found in Konkan region, especially in temples of Goa, parts of
coastal Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 The art was introduced by the Portuguese who ruled Goa until 1961.
 The art takes its name from Kaav in Konkani which refers to Indian red pigment which is the only
color used in this painting. The red pigment is obtained from the laterite soil.
 The painting is done on wet plaster in a manner similar to frescoes.
 Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid (wet) lime plaster.
 The painting is done in bright red and white shades. It is usually done on the walls of temples and
homes that depicts the ancient history of India.
Sulawesi Island Cave Paintings
 These are Pleistocene-era rock paintings dating back to 45,000-20,000 years in Maros-Pangkep
region in Sulawesi Island of Indonesia.
 Some important artworks include:
o World’s oldest hand stencil (almost 40,000 years ago): It was created by pressing the hand
on a cave wall and spraying wet red-mulberry pigments over it.
o World’s oldest depiction of an animal (almost 45,500 years ago): The animal depicted is a
warty pig painted on the wall.
o Earliest known narrative scene in prehistoric art depicting a hunting scene.
 Why in News? They are degrading due to climate change.
Pattachitra Paintings
The Prime Minister has praised the Odisha ‘pattachitra’ painting in the Mann Ki Baat.
About Patachitra Painting

 Pattachitra or Patachitra Painting: The name Pattachitra has evolved from Sanskrit words patta
meaning canvas and chitra meaning picture.
 It is a traditional, cloth-based scroll painting based in Odisha and West Bengal.
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Odisha Pattachitra:
 Based on: These paintings are based on Hindu mythology. They are especially inspired by Jagannath
and the Vaishnava sect.
 Colours: All colours used in the Paintings are natural. Material like Gum of tree, shells, and lam soot,
etc. are used for making the color.
 Paintings are made fully in the traditional way by Chitrakaras, i.e. Odiya Painter.
 Style: The style is a mix of both folk and classical elements but leaning more towards folk forms.
The dress style has Mughal influences.
 Popular Themes: Some of the most popular themes represented through this art form are
o Thia Badhia – depiction of the temple of Jagannath;
o Krishna Lila – enactment of Jagannath as Lord Krishna displaying his powers as a child;
o Dasavatara Patti – the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu;
o Panchamukhi – depiction of Lord Ganesh as a five-headed deity.
Bengal Patachitra
 Pattachitra has been a component of an ancient Bengali narrative art. It originally served as a visual
device during the performance of a song.
 Based on: The paintings are mostly based on mythological, religious stories, folklore, and social.
The artist of the Bengal Patachitra is called Patua.
 Colour: Use of natural color is one of the characteristics of the Bengal Patachitra.
 The Kalighat Patachitra, the last tradition of Bengal Patachitra is developed by Jamini Roy.
 Buddhist Literature: Bengal Patachitra is referred to in the Buddhist literature in Haribansha(1st
century A.D), Abhigyan Shakuntalam(2nd century A.D) and Malavikagnimitra (4th century),
Harshacharita (6th Century).
Caves with Paintings in India
Caves with Paintings in India:

 Ajanta :
o This cave is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
o Famous fresco paintings of Ajanta are dying princesses, flying apsara and preaching Buddha.
 Ellora :
o It is located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
o It is famous for the largest monolithic excavation in the world- the great Kailasa.
 Elephanta :
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oIt is located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai.

oThere are seven cave excavations in the Elephanta group.
 Bhimbetka :
o It is located between Hoshangabad and Bhopal, in the foothills of the Vindhya Mountains.
o It has one of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
Literature
Tamil Literature
Tolkāppiyam:
 Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work.
 Some in the Tamil tradition place the text in the mythical second sangam, variously in 1st
millennium BCE or earlier.
 It is a unique work on grammar and poetics. It consists of three parts of nine sections each. The three
parts deals with Ezhuthu (letter), Col (word) and Porul (subject matter).
 Almost all levels of the human language, from the spoken to the most poetic, lie within the purview
of Tolkappiyar’s analysis.
 The Tolkappiyam in Hindi was translated by Dr. H. Balasubramaniam and Prof. K. Nachimuthu.
Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies): It consists of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,

Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls): It consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,

Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Madurai Kanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
Thiruvalluvar
About Thiruvalluvar:
 Thiruvalluvar, also called Valluvar, was a Tamil poet-saint.
 He is regarded as a cultural and moral icon for Tamils across caste and religious lines.
 The period when he lived is debated, as is his religious identity.
 Some place him in the third or fourth century; others put him in the eighth or ninth.
 Some call him a Hindu; some trace his past to Jainism; Dravidian groups count him as a saint, as he
dismissed the caste system.
 His primary work Thirukkural (contribution to Tamil Literature) contains 1330 couplets
(kurals).
 The text is divided into three parts with teachings on dharma, artha, and kama (virtue, wealth
and love).
Social Significance of Thiruvalluvar:

 A statue of the legendary Tamil poet was unveiled in Ulsoor, near Bengaluru, in 2009. A statue of
Valluvar was also erected outside the School of Oriental and African Studies in Russell Square,
London.
 A 133-foot tall statue of Thiruvalluvar stands at Kanyakumari as well.
 The Thiruvalluvar University was established in Vellore district of Tamilnadu by the Government
of Tamilnadu in October 2002.
 In 1976, a temple-memorial called Valluvar Kotam was built in Chennai and houses one of the
largest auditoriums in Asia.
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 In the early 16th century, a temple dedicated to Thiruvalluvar was built within the
Ekambareswarar temple complex in Mylapore, Chennai.
Miscellaneous Culture News
Surajkund Mela
Surajkund Crafts Mela:

 The Mela is organized since 1987 by the Surajkund Mela Authority & Haryana Tourism in
collaboration with Union Ministries of Tourism, Textiles, Culture and External Affairs.
 The Mela showcases the handicrafts, handlooms and cultural fabric of India and is the largest crafts
fair in the world.
 The fair was upgraded to an international level in 2013.
 Jammu & Kashmir is the ‘Theme State’ and Uzbekistan is the “Partner Nation” for the year
2022.
UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage
Intangible cultural heritage:

 It means the traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed through
generations as a way of life.
 These include oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events,
knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe and the knowledge and skills to
produce traditional crafts.
Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage : It was adopted by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2003 and entered
into force in 2006. India ratified it in 2007.
Purpose of the Convention
 to safeguard the expressions of intangible cultural heritage that are endangered by the
processes of globalization;
 to ensure respect for the intangible cultural heritage of the communities, groups and
individuals;
 to raise awareness at the local, national and international levels of the importance of the
intangible cultural heritage.
India's entries in list (Total 13):

 Koodiyattam: Sanskrit Theatre of Kerala.
 Mudiyett: theatre ritual of Kerala.
 Tradition of Vedic Chanting.
 Kalbelia: folk songs and dances of Rajasthan.
 Ramlila: Traditional Performance of the Ramayana.
 Sankirtana: singing, drumming and dancing ritual of Manipur.
 Ramman: religious festival and ritual theatre of Garhwal Himalayas.
 Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil of Thatheras: Punjab.
 Chhau dance: classical Indian dance originated in the eastern Indian states.
 Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in Ladakh region of Jammu
and Kashmir
 Yoga
 Nawroz
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 Kumbh Mela
 Durga Puja (Added in 2021)
National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage:

The Ministry of Culture has also launched the draft National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage
(ICH) of India.
 The National ICH List is an attempt to recognize the diversity of Indian culture embedded in
its intangible heritage.
 This initiative is also a part of the Vision 2024 of the Ministry of Culture.
Namda craft
Namda Craft:
 Namda craft is widely thought to have originated in the 11th century during the reign of Mughal
emperor Akbar.
 Namda craft is a rug made of sheep wool through a felting technique instead of the normal weaving
process.
 Namda Craft is extensively used in Kashmir households for floor covering and mattresses.
Reasons for Decline of Namda Craft

 Due to the low availability of raw materials, lack of skilled manpower and marketing techniques, the
export of Namda craft has declined almost 100% between 1998 and 2008.
Government Initiatives:
 Ministry of Skill Development is trying to revive this craft using its schemes.
 The projects will contribute towards preserving and reviving the rich heritage associated with Namda
craft in Kashmir.
 This will also improve the access of existing artisans of Namda crafts cluster in Kashmir and will
improve their prospects of employability.
Art & craft of Srinagar
Why in News?
 UNESCO has selected Srinagar as part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) under
the Crafts and Folk Arts category.
 Srinagar became one of 49 cities worldwide to join the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN).
Art & craft of Srinagar:

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Entire central Kashmir is known for its varied craft traditions. Srinagar, Ganderbal and Budgam districts of
Kashmir are known for ages in making handicrafts products. Such as textiles, carpets and rugs, crewel
embroidery, silverware, woodwork and papier-mâché (moulded, a repulped paper that has been mixed with
glue or paste).
 Wooden Crafts: The wood comes from walnut trees, which grow at 7,000 feet above sea level.
These woods are used to make tables, jewellery boxes and trays.
 Pashmina shawl: It is one of the best-quality shawls in the world, made up of wild Asian mountain
goats. Srinagar region is the epicentre of high-quality, intricately woven woollen material like shawls,
carpets and rugs.
 Papier-mâché: It is said to have been brought to Kashmir by saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani from
Persia in the 14th century. It is based primarily on creating colourful utility and decorative objects
using paper pulp - vases, bowls, cups, boxes, trays and lamp bases. The art is concentrated mainly
around downtown Srinagar and employs around 35,000 artisans.
Benefits of the UCCN tag to Srinagar

 The crafts have been struggling ever since the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019 put artisans in an
indefinite lockdown, followed by the Covid-19 lockdown. Besides, frequent Internet shutdowns have
cut artisans off from the rest of the country.
 The UCCN tag would not only give global recognition to Srinagar but also help it in getting
international funding, making tie-ups with craft universities, and pitching crafts as products.
Basaveshwara
Brief Profile:
 Basaveshwara (1134-1168) was an Indian philosopher, social reformer and statesman who
attempted to create a casteless society and fought against caste and religious discrimination.
 Basava Jayanthi is an annual event celebrated in the honour of the birth of Vishwaguru
Basaveshwara.
 He was born in Bagevadi (of undivided Bijapur district in Karnataka).
 The tradition of Lingayatism is known to have been founded by him.
Philosophy:
 His spiritual discipline was based on the principles of Arivu (true knowledge), Achara (right
conduct), and Anubhava (divine experience) and it brought social, religious and economical
revolution in the 12th century.
 This path advocates a holistic approach of Lingangayoga (union with the divine). This
comprehensive discipline encompasses bhakti (devotion), jnana (knowledge), and kriye
(action) in a well balanced manner.
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 He went to Kalyana (now called Basavakalyan) probably in the year A.D. 1154. His achievements
in the short span of twelve or thirteen years of his stay at Kalyana are striking.
 The Gates of Dharma were thrown open to all without any barriers of caste, creed or sex
(Kalyana Rajya - Welfare State).
 He established the Anubhava Mantapa, which was a common forum for all to discuss the
prevailing problems of socio, economic and political strata including religious and spiritual
principles along with personal problems.
 Thus, it was the first and foremost Parliament of India, where Sharanas sat together and discussed
the socialistic principles of a Democratic set up.
 He gave two more very important socio-economic principles. They are:
o Kayaka (Divine work): According to this, every individual of the society should take up the
job of his choice and perform it with all sincerity.
o Dasoha (Equal distribution):
o There must be an equal income for equal work.
o The worker (Kayakajeevi) may lead his day-today life by his hard earned income. But he
should not preserve the money or property for tomorrow.
o He must utilise the surplus money for the society and poors.
 Vachana Reformist Movement:
o The main aim of the Vachana (poetry) movement, led by Basaveshwara in 12th century, was
welfare of all.
o It attempted to address class, caste and to some extent gender issues in a given societal
milieu.
Mongolian Kanjur Manuscripts
Mongolian Kanjur
 Mongolian Kanjur is a Buddhist canonical text that has 108 volumes.
 It is considered to be the most important religious text in Mongolia.
 Meaning: In the Mongolian language ‘Kanjur’ means ‘Concise Orders’- the words of Lord Buddha
in particular.
 Language: Mongolian Kanjur has been translated from Tibetan. The language of the Kanjur is
Classical Mongolian.
 Importance:
o Mongolian Kanjur is held in high esteem by the Mongolian Buddhists.
o They worship the Kanjur at temples and recite the lines of Kanjur in daily life as a sacred
ritual.
 The Kanjur is kept almost in every monastery in Mongolia.
 Why in News? The Ministry of Culture has taken up the project of reprinting of 108 volumes of
Mongolian Kanjur under the National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM).
What are Manuscripts?

 A manuscript is a handwritten composition on paper, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf or any other
material dating back at least seventy-five years. They also have significant scientific, historical or
aesthetic value.
 Manuscripts are distinct from historical records such as epigraphs on rocks, farmans, revenue
records. These historical records provide direct information on events or processes in history.
 Further, Lithographs and printed volumes are also not considered manuscripts.
Putola Nach
Putola Nach:
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 Putola Nach is string puppetry of Assam. ‘Putul’ is a word that describes both a doll and a puppet in
Bengali while the word ‘Naach’ means Dance.
 Types: The puppetry is performed in three areas i.e Lower Assam, Mauli Island and North Assam
with each area having distinct characteristics.
 Episodes: The puppetry includes the episodes of the Ramayana, as well as scenes from the
Mahabharata.
 Puppeteers also add dialogues or chants taken from bhaona (the local traditional theatre of Assam).
String Puppetry:
 India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets also known as marionettes.
 The puppets in this form have jointed limbs, controlled by strings allowing for more flexibility. This
greater ability to control makes them the most articulate of all the puppets but also the most
challenging.
Types of String Puppetry:

 Kathputli – Rajasthan
 Kundhei — Odisha
 Gombeyatta — Karnataka
 Bommalattam — Tamil Nadu
Khajuraho Temple
 It is a group of Hindu and Jain Temples in Madhya Pradesh

 Built by Chandela Dynasty between 950 and 1050 AD.
 Situated : within the Vindhya Mountain range in Central India.
 It is a UNESCO World heritage Site.
 The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures
(about 10% of total sculptures).
 The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.
 The temples are categorized into three groups that are Eastern, Western and Southern.
 The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king
Ganda.
 All the towers or shikhara of temple rise high, upward in curved pyramidal fashion, emphasizing
temple’s vertical thrust ending in horizontal fluted disc called Amalaka topped with Kalasha or vase.
 The erotic expression of sculptures in these temples gives equal importance in human experience as a
spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
 Mentions:
o The first documented mention of Khajuraho was made in 641 by Xuanzang, a Chinese
pilgrim.
o Later, Khajuraho temples also found mention by Abu Raihan al Biruni in AD 1022 and the
Arab traveler Ibn Battuta in AD 1335.
 Government Initiatives: Ministry of Tourism included Khajuraho Temples as one of the sites
under the “Iconic Tourist Sites Initiative”.
Note: The 10th-century Bhand Deva Temple in Rajasthan was built in the style of the Khajuraho
monuments and is often referred to as ‘Little Khajuraho’.
Kumbh Mela
 KumbhMela is held four times over 12 years at four different locations across central and northern
India.
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 It is the largest religious congregation and largest peaceful gathering on planet.

 This vast celebration attracts tens of millions of Hindu pilgrims, including mendicant nagas.
 The first written evidence of the Kumbha Mela is mentioned in Bhagvat Purana.
 Another written evidence of Kumbha Mela is in works of Huen Tsang, who visited India in 629–645
AD, during reign of Harsha.
 The Samudra manthan episode also has mentioned in Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana,
Mahabharata, and Ramayana.
 Kumbh Mela is held every third year at one of four places by rotation:
o Haridwar on the Ganges in Uttarakhand
o Ujjain on the Shipra in Madhya Pradesh
o Nashik on the Godavari in Maharashtra
o Prayagraj at the confluence of the Ganges, the Yamuna, and the mythical Sarasvati in Uttar
Pradesh
 Thus, it is held at each of these four places every twelfth year.
 Ardha Kumbha Mela, which is next in sanctity, is held only at Haridwar and Allahabad.
 The rivers at these four places are Ganga at Haridwar, Prayag Sangam at Allahabad, Godawari at
Nashik, and Shipra at Ujjain.
 The largest crowd is held on Mauni Amavasya.
 In 2017, it was included in the list of “Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” by UNESCO.
Jaapi, Xorai and Gamosa
About Jaapi:
 Jaapi is a conical hat made of bamboo and covered with dried tokou leaves (Tokou is a palm tree
found in the rainforests of Upper Assam).
 Uses:
o Jaapi is most often used in official functions in Assam to felicitate guests.
o Jaapi is also used by farmers in Assam. They used them to protect themselves from the harsh
weather, both sun and rain, while working in the fields.
About Xorai:
 Xorai is essentially a tray with a stand at the bottom with or without a cover. It can be found in every
Assamese household.
 Uses:
o Xorai is primarily used as an offering tray during prayers. They are also used to serve tamale-
paan (betel-nut) to guests.
o It is also presented along with the jaapi and gamosa while felicitating someone.
o Made of: The bulk of xorai in Assam are made in the state’s bell metal hub Sarthebari in the
Bajali district.
About Gamosa:
 Gamosa is an article of significance for the people of Assam. It is generally a white rectangular
piece of cloth with primarily a red border on three sides and red woven motifs on the fourth.
 Made: Cotton yarn is the most common material used for making gamosa. But on special occasions,
they are also made from Pat silk.
 Uses: It can be used at home as a towel (uka gamosa) or in public functions (phulam/floral gamosa).
This is also used to felicitate dignitaries or celebrities.
Abanindranath Tagore
 Abanindranath Tagore: He was one of the most prominent artists of India.

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 Contributions:
o Abanindranath was the first major supporter of swadeshi values in Indian art.
o He first created the ‘Indian Society of Oriental Art’ and later went on to establish Bengal
school of art which led to the development of modern Indian painting.
o He also sought to modernise the Mughal and Rajput styles to counter the influence of
Western models of art, as taught in art schools under the British Raj.
 Famous Paintings: Ganesh Janani, Bharat Mata, The Victory of Buddha, The Passing of Shah Jahan.
 Famous Books: Aban Thakur, Rajkahini, Budo Angla, Nalak and Khirer Putul were important
books in Bengali language children’s literature and art.
Monuments of National Importance
 Nodal Authority: Monuments of National Importance are designated by the Archaeological Survey
of India (ASI).
 What is a National Monument? ‘Ancient Monument’ is defined under the Ancient Monument and
Archaeological Sites and Remains Act,1958. The Act defines Ancient Monument as any structure or
monument or any cave, rock-sculpture, an inscription that is of historical, archaeological interest.
Further, Ancient Monument has to be in existence for not less than 100 years.
 Maintained by: The Central Government is authorised to maintain, protect and promote the
Monuments of National Importance.
 Sites: Currently, 3,691 monuments nationwide are protected by the Archaeological Survey of
India(ASI). The highest number of them were in Uttar Pradesh followed by Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu.
Channapatna Toys
Channapatna Toys
 Channapatna toys are a particular form of wooden toys (and dolls) that are manufactured in the town
of Channapatna in the Ramanagara district of Karnataka.
 This traditional craft is protected as a geographical indication (GI) under the World Trade
Organization, administered by the state govt.
 As a result of the popularity of these toys, Channapatna is known as Gombegala Ooru (toy-town) of
Karnataka.
 Traditionally, the work involved lacquering the wood of the Wrightia tinctoria tree, colloquially
called Aale mara (ivory-wood).
 Their manufacture goes back at least 200 years according to most accounts and it has been traced to
the era of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 18th century.
 The toys are laced with vegetable dyes and colours devoid of chemicals and hence they are safe for
children.
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Bhimbetka
 It is a recognized world heritage site by UNESCO. It is located in the foothills of the Vindhya
Mountains in the State of Madhya Pradesh.
 The site spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods as well as the historic period.
 Bhimbetka is also known as Bhima’s Lounge (Bhima was the second of the five Pandava princes in
the Hindu epic Mahabharata).
 Most of the paintings here are in red and white with occasional dashes of yellow and green. Their
themes include events of everyday life, thousands of years ago.
 The scenes depicted are mainly of dancing, playing music, hunting, horse and elephant riding,
decorating bodies, and collecting honey. Household scenes too, constitute an occasional theme.
Tholpavakoothu
 Tholpavakoothu is a form of shadow leather puppetry that is practiced in Kerala. It is also known as
Nizhalkkoothu and Olakkoothu.
 Temple art form: It is a traditional temple art. It has roots in Palakkad and neighboring regions in
Kerala. It used to be performed in the Bhadrakali temples of Palakkad for telling tales from the
Ramayana.
 Origin: It is believed to have originated in the ninth century AD and uses Kamba Ramayana as its
basic text.
 Made up of: The puppets used to be made out of deerskin but are now typically made from goatskin.
The puppets are painted in vegetable dyes, as these dyes last long.
 Instruments used: The instruments used for the art form include Ezhupara, Chenda, and Maddalam.
 Puppeteer: The lead puppeteer is usually called a pulavar. It is an honorific given to a puppeteer
who is also a scholar.
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Dhokra Decorative Pieces
 Dhokra artefacts are metal figurines fashioned from bronze and copper based alloys using a ‘lost wax
casting’.
 The name is derived from the Dhokra Damar tribes, the traditional metal smiths of West Bengal.
 One of the oldest Dhokra artefacts is the ‘Dancing girl of Mohenjodaro'.
Orcha Town
Orchha in Madhya Pradesh have been included in the list of UNESCO’s world heritage cities urban
landscape city programme.
About Orcha Town

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 It is popular for its temples and palaces and was the capital of the Bundela kingdom in the 16th
century.
 Location: Orchha town is located in Niwari district of Madhya Pradesh’s Bundelkhand region. It lies
on banks of river Betwa (around 80 km from MP’s Tikamgarh district) and 15 km from Jhansi
district of UP.
 Built: It was built in 16th century during the reign of Bundela dynasty by its King Rudra Pratap
Singh.
 Unique: It is the only place in India where Lord Ram is worshipped as a king (not in God form) with
a dedicated temple in his name called Sri Ram Raja Mandir.
 Famous: The ancient town is famous for its two elevated minaret popularly called as Saavan
and Bhadon, and its four palaces named as Raj Mahal, Jahangir Palace, Rai Praveen
Mahal and Sheesh Mahal. It is also famous for its concept of open bungalows, stone work windows,
animal statues that depicts culture of Bundelkhand.
 Bundela Architectural delights: The Orchha town has a peculiar style of architecture used by
Bundela dynasty. Bundela architecture has had a Mughal influence. The town is famous for
its Orchha Fort complex, Chaturbhuj Temple and Raja Mahal among other architectural delights.
Sawantwadi Toy
Context- Online Release of Picture Postcard on Sawantwadi Toy by India Post.

What are Sawantwadi toys ?
 Sawantwadi toys refers to hand made works of art made of wood in Sawantwadi a town in
Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Most of these toys are made in the village of Kolgaon in
Sawantwadi taluka.
 These toys are made from the wood of the Indian Coral tree (Erythrina variegata).
 Craftsmen who make these toys belong to the Chittari community who came to Sawantwadi from
Karwar and Goa.
National Hispanic Heritage Month
The National Hispanic Heritage Month has begun in the US.

National Hispanic Heritage Month
 The annual event honours the history, culture and contributions of American citizens whose
ancestors hailed from Spain, Mexico, the Caribbean and Central and South America.
 It is marked every year from September 15 to October 15.
 The observation was started by President Lyndon Johnson in 1968 as Hispanic Heritage Week and
was extended to an entire month by President Ronald Reagan in 1988, the year it was enacted into
law.
Hispanics in the US
 With a population of over 5.7 crores, Hispanic Americans are currently the largest minority group in
the US, making up a fifth of the total US population.
 More than half– 3.5 crore– are of Mexican origin, followed by Puerto Rican (53 lakh), and about 10
lakh each of Salvadorans, Cubans, Dominicans, Guatemalans and Colombians.
 The community is referred to as Hispanic, Latino or Latinx– terms that refer to a person’s origin or
culture, without considering their race.
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Etikoppaka toys
 These are traditional toys of Andhra Pradesh

 These traditional toys are made by artisans in Etikoppaka village located on banks of river Varaha in
Visakhapatnam district of the state.
 They are provide GI Tag.
 The art of making traditional wooden Etikoppaka toys is more than 400 years old and it has been
traditionally handed over to them by their ancestors through generations.
 The art of this toy making is also known as turned wood Lacquer craft.
 The toys are unique in shape and form.
 They are made of wood and painted with natural dyes.
 The wood used is from ‘Ankudi Karra’ (Wrightia tinctoria) tree that is soft in nature.
 The natural dyes are prepared from seeds, lacquer, bark, roots and leaves.
 These dynes are unique as they do not have heavy metal or toxic content in it.
Jaipur
 The Walled City of Jaipur made an official entry into UNESCO World Heritage Site list.
 The decision was taken at 43rd session of UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
 It was founded in 1727 CE under the patronage of Maharaj Sawai Jai Singh II.
 The Pink City Jaipur was nominated for its architecture and town planning.
 The city shows an interchange of ancient Hindu, Mughal and contemporary Western ideas in town
planning that resulted in the form of city.
 On Being listed, will give a boost to state’s tourism and local economy will benefit along with
improving infrastructure.
 World Heritage Committee :
o It is composed of representatives of 21 States Parties to World Heritage Convention.
o Meets annually.
o As of date total 1092 sites in 167 countries have been inscribed on UNSECO’s World
Heritage List.
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Judaism
 Judaism is one of the oldest religions of the world, evolved in Egypt about 3,700 years ago.
 It believes in the unity and oneness of universal Creator.
 Judaism is the religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people.
 Jews have been living in India for over 2,000 years ever since they first landed on West coast of
India.
 Indian Jews are known as a peace-loving community.
 They follow Hebrew calendar.
 They have special thanks giving ceremony known as Eliyahoo-ha-Nabior i.e. ‘gratitude to Elijah the
Prophet’, on festive occasions.
 Indian Jews fall into five categories
1. Bene Israel – meaning Children of Israel. Marathi speaking. Arrived in Maharashtra 2,100
years ago.
2. Cochin Jews – arrived in India 2,500 years ago and settled down in Kerala as traders.
3. Baghdadi Jews – Jews who came to India as traders from West Asia, mainly from Baghdad.
They are settled mainly in Mumbai, Pune and Kolkata.
4. Bene Menashe – The Manipur Jews constitute a community which sees itself as descendants
of the Manasseh (Menashe) Tribe (which is one of the 10 lost tribes of Jews).
5. Bene Ephraim – also called “Telugu Jews”. They are a small group who speak Telugu. Their
observance of Judaism dates to 1981.
 Why in news?
o Gujarat Government has granted religious minority status to Jews living in the state.
o Gujarat is third state in India to grant religious minority status to Jews after West Bengal and
Maharashtra.
Kailasa temple
 The construction of the temple began during the rule of the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga (735-757
AD).
 Major work on the temple was done by King Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I (757-773 AD),
although work continued under many successive kings for more than a century.
 It is located in Ellora, Maharashtra.
Facts
 There are 34 caves in Ellora, numbered according to their age.
 Temples 1 to 12 in the Southern side are the 12 Buddhist caves.
 Temples 13 to 29 are the 17 Hindu caves.
 Temples 30 – 34 are the 5 Jain caves.
 The Kailasanatha temple (Cave 16) is one of the 34 cave temples and monasteries known
collectively as the Ellora Caves.
Features
 The carving of the temple started from the top of the mountain but a pit was later dug around the
temple on the sloping side of the hill
 Apart from the gopura , the main temple has a sabha griha ( hall), vestibules and a Nandi mandap
which leads to the garba griha (sanctum) with the Shiv linga, all of which are profusely carved and
with Dravidian shikharas (towers). A bridge connects the Nandi mandap to the gopuram .
Cultural Link
 The temple houses several intricately carved panels, depicting scenes from the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and the adventures of Krishna.
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 There are five detached shrines in the temple premises; three of these are dedicated to the river
goddesses: Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.
Kangla Fort
 Kangla Fort is one of the most important historic and archaeological site of Manipur located in the
heart of the capital city Imphal.
 It had served as tradition seat of past Meetei rulers of Manipur till 1891.
 The old Govindajee Temple is the largest Hindu, Vaishnav temple in Imphal city in Manipur.
 It is located next to Kangla Fort, palace of the former rulers of the then Manipur Kingdom.
 Its outer and inner moat and other relics are perfect reflections of the rich art and architectural
heritage of Manipur.
Walled City of Ahmedabad
 The Walled City of Ahmedabad was founded by Sultan Ahmed Shah I of Gujarat Sultanate in in
1411.
 It is the first city to get UNESCO's heritage city tag.
 It remained the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate and later important political and commercial centre of
Gujarat.
 It was established as a product of the Sultan’s ambitions to create a trading rival to the neighbouring
Hindu trade centre of Asaval.
 Further, he made Ahmedabad centre of his own line of dynasty and replaced the old capital of
Anhilvad Patan, located nearby.
 Ahmed Shah I had laid the foundation of Bhadra Fort starting from Manek Burj, the first bastion of
the city in 1411 which was completed in 1413.
 It presents rich architectural heritage from sultanate period, notably the Bhadra citadel, walls and
gates of Fort city and numerous mosques and tombs, as well as important Hindu and Jain temples of
later periods.
 During Mughal rule, Bhadra Fort served as the seat of Governor of Gujarat
 The richness of architecture present in Ahmedabad is enhanced by the cultural fusion of Hindu and
Muslim elements.
 The city also holds rare distinction of being one of the oldest trading points in India and also centres
of Indian freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi.
 Spread over 5.43 square kilometres, the city now has approximate population of four lakh, living in
century old wooden residences in around 600 pols or neighbourhoods.
 Today, despite having become extremely crowded and dilapidated, it still serves as the symbolic
heart of metropolitan Ahmedabad.
 It is located on the eastern banks of Sabarmati river.
 Why in news?
o It was declared World Heritage City by the World Heritage Committee (WHC) of UNESCO.
Related Facts:
 The walled city of Ahmedabad is first city in India to get World Heritage City status and third in
Asia after Bhaktapur (Nepal) and Galle (Sri Lanka).
 India now has total 36 World Heritage Inscriptions 28 cultural, 7 natural and 1 mixed site.
 India is second after China in terms of number of world heritage properties in Asia and Pacific
(ASPAC) region, and overall seventh in world.
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Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple
 It is one of the most illustrious Vaishnava temples in South India.

 It has been mentioned Tamil literature as early as Sangam era.
 The temple is treasure trove of India’s ancient history.
 It is constructed in the Tamil or Dravidian style of temple architecture.
 The legends call it one of eight self-manifested shrines of Lord Vishnu and one of the most important
108 main Vishnu temples.
 It is known by several names such as Thiruvaranga Tirupati, Bhoologa Vaikundam, Periyakoil,
Bhogamandabam.
 This temple lies on an island formed by twin rivers Cauvery and Coleroon.
 Its complex stretches over 156 acres with perimeter of 4,116 m.
 It is the largest temple in India and one of largest religious complexes in the world.
 The temple has over seven prakaras or enclosures, which are formed by thick and huge defensive
walls running around the holy shrine.
 It has over 21 magnificent towers inside all prakaras.
 The main entrance of temple known as Rajagopuram (royal temple tower) is 73m high and moves up
in eleven progressively smaller tiers. The temple annually hosts 21-day festival during the Tamil
month of Margazhi (between December and January) which attracts over 1 million visitors.
 Why in news? It has won UNESCO Asia-Pacific award for cultural heritage conservation
programme in the Awards of Merit category.
Various Mudras
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Natesa
Natesa:
 Natesa is a rare sandstone idol from the Pratihara Style of Rajasthan.
 It is originally from the Ghateswar Temple at Baroli, Rajasthan.
 Features: The sandstone Natesa figure stands tall at almost 4 ft in a rare and brilliant depiction of
Shiva.A beautiful depiction of Nandi is shown behind the right leg of the Natesa icon.”
 Why in News? Natesa, a rare sandstone idol has been retrieved after 22 years by the Rajasthan
police after it was smuggled to the UK.
Pratihara Style:
 It is a famous temple architecture belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty of Rajasthan.
 They ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century.
 The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.
 Important Rulers: Nagabhata II, Mihir Bhoj and Mahenedra pal I.
 Significance: They are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples.
 The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
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Modern History in News
Moplah Rebellion
Background of Moplah Rebellion:

 Muslims had arrived in Kerala in the 7th century AD as traders via the Arabian Sea even before
north India was invaded by Muslim armies from the west.
 They were given permission to carry on trade and settle by the native rulers. Many of them married
local women and their descendants came to be called Moplahs (which means son-in-law in
Malayalam).
 Before Tipu Sultan’s attack on Malabar, in the traditional land system in Malabar, the Jenmi or the
landlord held the land which was let out to others for farming. There were mainly three hierarchical
levels of ownership including the cultivator, and each of them took a share of the produce.
 The Moplahs were mostly cultivators of the land under this system and the Jenmis were upper-caste
Hindus.
 During Hyder Ali’s invasion of Malabar in the 18th century, many Hindu landlords fled Malabar to
neighbouring areas to avoid persecution and forced conversions.
 During this time, the Moplah tenants were accorded ownership rights to the lands.
 After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Malabar came under British
authority as part of the Madras Presidency.
 The British set out to restore ownership rights to the Jenmis who had earlier fled the region.
 Jenmis were now given absolute ownership rights of the land which was not the case previously.
 The peasants were now facing high rents and a lack of security of tenure.
 This caused a series of riots by the Moplahs starting from 1836. Between 1836 and 1896, they killed
many government officers and Hindu landlords.
Moplah Rebellion of 1921:

 The Khilafat Movement had started in 1919 in India in support of the restoration of the caliphate in
Turkey. The Indian National Congress (INC) was aligned with it.
 The Khilafat meetings in Malabar incited communal feelings among the Moplahs and it became a
movement directed against the British as well as the Hindu landlords of Malabar.
 There was large-scale violence that saw systematic persecution of Hindus and British officials. Many
homes and temples were destroyed.
 The prominent leaders of the rebellion were Ali Musaliyar and Variyankunnath Kunjahammed
Haji.
 From August 1921 till about the end of the year, the rebels had under their control large parts of
Malabar.
 By the end of the year, the rebellion was crushed by the British who had raised a special battalion,
the Malabar Special Force for the riot.
 In November 1921, 67 Moplah prisoners were killed when they were being transported in a closed
freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur. They died of suffocation. This event is
called the Wagon Tragedy.
Assessment of the Moplah Rebellion:

 The Moplah uprising is a widely debated one with some people arguing that it was a nationalist
uprising against the British while others say that it was a communally charged series of riots.
 Sir C Shankaran Nair, a former President of the INC, criticised Gandhi’s support of the Khilafat
Movement as one of the causes of the violence seen during the uprising.
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Pal-Dadhvav Massacre of Gujarat
Pal-Dadhvav Massacre of Gujarat::

 The Pal-Dadhvav massacre took place on 7th March, 1922, in the Pal-Chitariya and Dadhvaav
villages of Sabarkantha district, then part of Idar state (Now Gujrat).
 The day was Amalki Ekadashi, which falls just before Holi, a major festival for tribals.
 Villagers from Pal, Dadhvav, and Chitariya had gathered on the banks of river Heir as part of
the ‘Eki movement’, led by one Motilal Tejawat.
 Tejawat, who belonged to Koliyari village in the Mewad region of Rajasthan, had also
mobilised Bhils from Kotda Chhavni, Sirohi, and Danta to participate.
 The impact of the protest was felt in Vijaynagar, Dadhvaav, Poshina and Khedbrahma, which are
now talukas of Sabarkantha; the Aravalli districts, Banaskantha and Danta of Banaskantha district;
and Kotda Chhavni, Dungarpur, Chittor, Sirohi, Banswada and Udaipur of Rajasthan, all of which
were then princely states.
 The movement was to protest against the land revenue tax (lagaan) imposed on the peasants by
the British and feudal lords.
 The British Paramilitary force was on hunt for Tejawat. It heard of this gathering and reached the
spot.
 Nearly 200 bhils under the leadership of Tejawat lifted their bows and arrows. But, the
Britishers opened fire on them. Nearly 1,000 tribals (Bhils) fell to bullets.
 While the British claimed some 22 people were killed, the Bhils believe 1,200-1,500 of them died.
 Tejawat, however, escaped and later “returned to the spot to christen it ‘Veer Bhumi’.
 Why in News? Gujarat government marked 100 years of the Pal-Dadhvav killings, calling it a
massacre “bigger than the Jallianwala Bagh”.
Who was Motilal Tejawat?

 Born into a merchant (Baniya) family in the adivasi-dominated Koliyari village, Tejawat
was employed by a landlord, where he worked for eight years.
 During this period he saw closely how the landlords exploited tribals and would threaten to beat
them with shoes if they did not pay the tax.
 Outraged by the atrocities and exploitation of the tribal people, Tejawat quit the job in 1920 and
devoted himself to social work and reform. To this day, local tribals recount the Pal-Dadhvav
massacre in songs sung at weddings and fairs. One such song is ‘Hansu dukhi, duniya dukhi’.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar:

 He was an Indian independence activist, politician, lawyer and writer.
 He is also known as Swatantryaveer Savarkar.
 Birth: Born on 28th May,1883 in Bhagur, a village near Nashik in Maharashtra.
 Related Organisations and Work:
o Founded a secret society called Abhinav Bharat Society.
o Went to the United Kingdom and was involved with organizations such as India House and
the Free India Society.
o He was the president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943.
o Savarkar wrote a book titled ‘The History of the War of Indian Independence’ in which he
wrote about the guerrilla warfare tricks used in 1857 Sepoy Mutiny.
o He also wrote the book ‘Hindutva: who is hindu?’.
 Trial and Sentences:
o Arrested in 1909 on charges of plotting an armed revolt against the Morley-Minto reform
(Indian Councils Act 1909).
o Arrested in 1910 for his connections with the revolutionary group India House.
_______________________________________________________________
o One of the charges on Savarkar was abetment to murder of Nashik Collector Jackson and the
second was waging a conspiracy under Indian Penal Code 121-A against the King emperor.
o Following the two trials, Savarkar was convicted and sentenced to 50-years imprisonment
also known as Kala Pani and transported in 1911 to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
 Death: He died on 26th February 1966 due to fasting on his own wish of death.
Related Topics:
 Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society)
o It was a secret society founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother Ganesh
Damodar Savarkar in 1904.
o Initially founded at Nasik as Mitra Mela, the society was associated with several
revolutionaries and political activists with branches in various parts of India and London.
 India House
o It was founded by Shyamji Kishan Verma in 1905 in London.
o It was opened to promote nationalist views among Indian students in London.
 Free India Society
o Savarkar went to London in 1906. He soon founded the Free India Society, based on the
thoughts of the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini (Savarkar had written a biography of
Mazzini).
 Hindu Mahasabha
o Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha is one of the oldest organizations of India as it
was formed in 1907. Eminent leaders extended this Organization in 1915 on ALL India
basis.
o The Eminent personalities who founded this Organisation and who presided over the ALL
INDIA Sessions held include Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lal Lajpat Rai, Veer Vinayak
Damodar Savarkar, etc.
Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati
Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati:

 Birth:
o Swami Dayanand Saraswati was born on 12th February 1824 in Tankara, Gujarat in a
Brahmin family. His parents, Lalji Tiwari and Yashodhabai were orthodox Brahmin.
o He was earlier named Mool Shankar Tiwari as he was born during Mool Nakshatra.
o He wandered as an ascetic for fifteen years (1845-60) in search of truth.
o Dayananda’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True
Exposition).
 Contribution to the Society:
o He was an Indian philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj.
o He was a self-taught man and a great leader of India leaving a significant impact on Indian
society. During his life, he made a prominent name for himself and was known among a wide
array of Prices and the public.
o His vision of India included a classless and casteless society, a united India (religiously,
socially and nationally), and an India free from foreign rule, with Aryan religion being the
common religion of all.
o He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be ‘India’s Rock of Ages’, the
infallible and the true original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas”.
o He subscribed to the Vedic notion of chaturvarna system in which a person was not born
in any caste but was identified as a brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya or shudra according to the
occupation the person followed.
 Contribution to the Education System:
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o He introduced a complete overhaul of the education system and is often considered as one of
the visionaries of modern India.
o The DAV (Dayanand Anglo Vedic) schools came into existence in 1886 to realize the vision
of Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
o The first DAV School was established at Lahore with Mahatma Hansarj as the headmaster.
What is Arya Samaj?

 Arya Samaj is a reform movement of Vedic dharma and he was the first to give the call for
Swaraj as "India for Indian" in 1876.
 It aims to re-establish the Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, as revealed truth. He rejected all
later accretions to the Vedas as degenerate but, in his own interpretation, included much post-Vedic
thought.
 The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by him at Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1875 and later
the headquarters of the Samaj were established at Lahore.
 During the 1920s and early 1930s tension grew around a number of issues. Muslims were
angered by “music-before-mosque”, by the cow protection movement, and by the efforts of the
Arya Samaj to bring back to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had recently converted to Islam.
 The Arya Samaj has always had its largest following in western and northern India.
 The Samaj opposes worship of murtis (images), animal sacrifice, shraddha (rituals on behalf of
ancestors), basing caste upon birth rather than upon merit, untouchability, child marriage,
pilgrimages, priestly craft, and temple offerings.
 It upholds the infallibility of the Vedas, the doctrines of karma (the accumulated effect of past
deeds) and samsara (the process of death and rebirth), the sanctity of the cow, the importance of the
samskaras (individual sacraments), the efficacy of Vedic oblations to the fire, and programs of social
reform.
 It has worked to further female education and inter caste marriage, has built missions,
orphanages, and homes for widows, has established a network of schools and colleges, and has
undertaken famine relief and medical work.
Ahom Kingdom
Ahom Kingdom:
 Founder:
o Chaolung Sukapha was a 13th century ruler who founded the Ahom kingdom that ruled
Assam for six centuries.
o The Ahoms ruled the land till the province was annexed to British India in 1826 with the
signing of the Treaty of Yandaboo.
 Political Setup:
o Ahoms created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans
(landlords).
o The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were
called paiks.
 Society:
o Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. A khel often controlled several villages.
o Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods, yet they accepted the Hindu religion and the
Assamese language.
o However, the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting
Hinduism.
o Intermarriage with local also increased assimilation processes of Ahoms in Assamese
culture.
 Art and Culture:
o Poets and scholars were given land grants and theatre was encouraged.
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o Important works of Sanskrit were translated into the local language.

o Historical works, known as buranjis, were also written, first in the Ahom language and
then in Assamese.
 Military Strategy:
o The Ahom king was the supreme commander of the state as well as the Military.
o The Ahom king himself led the state forces in the time of wars.
o The Paiks were the main army of the state.
o There were two types of Paiks i.e. serving and non serving.
o The non-serving Paiks constituted a standing militia which could be mobilized at a short
notice by the kheldar (an expert military organizer).
o The full contingent of the Ahom Army consisted of infantry, navy, artillery, elephantry,
cavalry and spies.
o The main war weapons consisted of bows and arrows, swords, Javelins discus, guns, match-
locks and cannons.
o The Ahoms sent spies to the enemy’s camp to study the strength and the war strategies of the
enemies before leading an expedition.
o The Ahom soldiers were experts in guerilla fighting. Sometimes they allowed the enemies
to enter the country, then cut off their communications and attack them in front and rear.
 Few important forts: Chamdhara, Saraighat, Simlagarh, Kaliabar, Kajali and Pandu.
 They also learnt the technique of constructing boat bridges in the Brahmaputra.
 Above all, the mutual understanding among the civil and military wings, unity among the nobles
always worked as strong weapons of the Ahoms.
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Tarapur Massacre of Bihar
Tarapur Massacre:
 On 15th February, 1932, a group of young freedom fighters planned to hoist an Indian national flag
at Thana Bhawan in Tarapur.
 Police were aware of the plan, and several officers were present at the spot.
 A 4,000-strong crowd pelted the police with stones, injuring an officer of the civil administration.
 The police responded by opening indiscriminate fire on the crowd. After about 75 rounds were
fired, 34 bodies were found at the spot, even though there were claims of an even larger number of
deaths.
 But only 13 of the dead could be identified.
 Why in news? Bihar Chief Minister has announced that 15th February would be commemorated
as “Shahid Diwas” in memory of the 34 freedom fighters who were killed by police in Tarapur
Massacre.
What Triggered the Protest?

 The hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru in Lahore on 23th March, 1931, sent
a wave of grief and anger around the country.
 Following the collapse of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the Mahatma was arrested in early 1932.
 By this Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference (the Congress had
boycotted the first Round Table Conference) in London and the government agreed to release the
political prisoners.
 The Congress was declared an illegal organization, and Nehru, Patel, and Rajendra Prasad were
also thrown into jail.
 In Munger, freedom fighters Srikrishna Singh, Nemdhari Singh, Nirapad Mukherjee, Pandit Dasrath
Jha, Basukinath Rai, Dinanath Sahay, and Jaymangal Shastri were arrested.
 A call given by the Congress leader Sardar Shardul Singh Kavishwar to raise the tricolour over
government buildings resonated in Tarapur.
Maharaja Surajmal
Maharaja Surajmal:
 He ruled in the 18th century and was the son of the Jat chieftain Badan Singh.
 He was a great leader, a great fighter, a great diplomat and a great statesman of his time.
 He was described as "the Plato of the Jat people" and by a modern writer as the "Jat Odysseus",
because of his political sense, steady intellect and clear vision.
 He united various factions of Hindus and Muslims and kept them together.
 He took care of the historical monuments built by the kings of other religions and employed
people according to their abilities in higher posts, irrespective of their races.
 He believed that humanity is the only religion of man.
 He visualized “India as one nation” and devoted his life in forging national integration.
 Maharaja Surajmal considered farmers as the most important section of the society and had a lot
of respect for them.
 He personally identified the problems of the farmers and introduced reforms to rectify them.
 It is believed that the Maharaja died in battle in December of 1763 beside the Hindon river, after
being ambushed by the army of Mughal chief Najib-ad-Dawlah.
 Why in news? PM paid tribute to Maharaja Surajmal.
Military Career of Maharaja Surajmal:

 He had a good relationship with Maharaja Jai Singh of the princely state of Jaipur.
 After the death of Jaisingh, his sons Ishwari Singh and Madho Singh started fighting over the
princely status as the heirs.
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 Surajmal wanted to make the elder son Ishwari Singh the next heir of the princely state,
while Maharana Jagat Singh of Udaipur state was in favor of making the younger son Madho
Singh the King.
 In the event of this difference, the fight over the throne started. Ishwari Singh won the struggle in
March 1747. The battle did not completely end here.
 Madho Singh returned to the battlefield with the Marathas, Rathores, and Sisodia Kings of Udaipur.
In such an environment, king Surajmal reached the battlefield with 10,000 soldiers to support Ishwari
Singh.
 In this war, Ishwari Singh was victorious and he got the royal text of Jaipur. After this battle, the
dunk of Maharaja Surajmal started ringing all over India.
 Later on 1st January 1750 Maharaja Surajmal crushed the Mughal army of Salabat Khan and forced
the latter to accept all his terms.
 Later during the civil war among the Mughal Maharaja Surajmal plundered old Delhi in support
of Safdar Jung.
 By 1753, Maharaja Surajmal had extended his jurisdiction to Delhi and Feroz Shah
Kotla. Angered by this, the Nawab of Delhi, Ghaziuddin instigated the Maratha chieftains against
Surajmal.
 The Marathas attacked Bharatpur. He surrounded the fort of Kumher for several months.
 The Marathas could not capture Bharatpur in this attack, but they had to pay the price of this attack
in the form of the death of Khanderao Holkar, son of Maratha Sardar Malharrao. After some time the
Marathas made a treaty with Surajmal.
 Surajmal had built the impregnable Lohagarh Fort, which the British could not penetrate even after
attacking 13 times.
 This is the only fort in the country, which has always been impenetrable.
Relation between Maharaja Surajmal and the third Battle of Panipat:

 The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between the Marathas and the invading armies of
Afghan general Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1761.
 The battle, fought about 90 km north of Delhi, was won by the Afghans and left about 40,000 troops
of the Marathas dead.
 Maharaja Surajmal was among those who played key roles in the battle.
 After the battle, the Marathas lost their preeminent position in north India, which ultimately
paved the way for British colonial powers to take over.
State Reorganisation Commission
State Reorganisation Commission:

 Having achieved India’s independence from British rule, reorganization of more than 500 princely
states into effective provincial units was one of the biggest tasks.
 In pursuance of the same, S. K. Dhar commission (1948) and JVP Committee (1948) advocated
for reorganization of states based on geographical contiguity, administrative convenience,
financial self-reliance and potential for development.
 However, with the sudden death of Potti Srirammalu following hunger strike in demand for
Andhra state created a volatile situation.
 The Fazl Ali Commission (1953) was set up and its recommendation for reorganization of state
based on linguistic criteria (other criteria were also included) was accepted.
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Lala Lajpat Rai
Lala Lajpat Rai:

 Birth: He was born on 28th January, 1865 in a small village named Dhudike in Punjab’s Ferozepur
district.
 Lala Lajpat Rai was one of the greatest freedom fighters of India.
 He was also called ‘Punjab Kesari’ and 'Lion of Punjab'.
 He studied law at the Government College, Lahore.
 Was influenced by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and joined the Arya Samaj in Lahore.
 He believed that the ideals in Hinduism combined with nationalism will lead to the establishment
of a secular state.
 Along with Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he formed the Lal-Bal-Pal trio of
extremist leaders.
 He was also involved with the Hindu Mahasabha.
 He fought against untouchability.
Contributions:
 Political:
o He joined the Indian National Congress (INC) and participated in many political agitations
in Punjab.
o For his political agitation, he was deported to Burma without trial in 1907 but returned
after a few months because of lack of evidence.
o He was opposed to the partition of Bengal.
o He founded the Home Rule League of America in 1917 in New York. In the US, he worked
to get moral support for the Indian independence movement from the international
community.
o He was also elected President of the All India Trade Union Congress.
o He supported the non-cooperation movement of Gandhi at the Nagpur session of the
Congress in 1920.
o He protested against the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that followed.
o He was elected deputy leader of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1926.
o In 1928, he moved a resolution in the assembly refusing cooperation with the Simon
Commission since the Commission had no Indian members.
o Social:
o He founded Hindu Relief movement in 1897 to provide help to the famine -stricken people
and thus prevent them falling into the clutches of the missionaries.
o He founded the Servants of People Society in 1921.
 Literary:
o His important literary works include Young India, England’s Debt to India, Evolution of
Japan, India’s Will to Freedom, Message of the Bhagavad Gita, Political Future of India,
Problem of National Education in India, The Depressed Glasses, and the travelogue ‘United
States of America’.
 Institutional:
o He founded several institutions and organizations such as Hisar Bar Council, Hisar Arya
Samaj, Hisar Congress, National DAV Managing Committee.
o He was the editor of the Arya Gazette, which he had founded.
o He co-founded the Punjab National Bank in 1894.
 Death:
o In 1928, he was leading a silent protest against the Simon Commission in Lahore when he
was brutally lathi-charged by Superintendent of Police, James Scott. He died of injuries
sustained a few weeks later.
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Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan:
 Born in November 1750, Tipu Sultan was Haidar Ali’s son and a great warrior, also known as
the Tiger of Mysore.
 He was a well-educated man fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu.
 Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from
1761 to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799).
 Tipu introduced a number of administrative innovations during his rule, including his coinage, a
new Mauludi lunisolar calendar, and a new land revenue system which initiated the growth of
Mysore silk industry.
 Embracing western military methods like artillery and rockets alongside traditional Indian weapons
including war elephants, he ensured his forces could overwhelm his Indian rivals and match the
British armies sent against him.
Maintenance of Armed Forces:

 He organised his army on the European model with Persian words of command.
 Though he took the help of the French officers to train his soldiers, he never allowed them
(French) to develop into a pressure group.
 He was well aware of the importance of a naval force.
 In 1796, he set up a Board of Admiralty and planned for a fleet of 22 battleships and 20 large
frigates.
 He established three dockyards at Mangalore, Wajedabad and Molidabad. However, his plans did
not fructify.
Fought Against Marathas:

 In 1767, Tipu commanded a corps of cavalry against the Marathas in the Carnatic (Karnataka)
region of western India, and he fought against the Marathas on several occasions between 1775 and
1779.
Role in Anglo-Mysore Wars:

 The British saw Haidar and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous – rulers who had to be
controlled and crushed.
 Four wars were fought with Mysore.
o 1767-69: Treaty of Madras.
o 1780-84: Treaty of Mangalore.
o 1790-92: Treaty of Seringapatam.
o 1799: Subsidiary Alliance.
 Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam – did the Company ultimately win a victory. Tipu
Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam.
 Mysore was placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a subsidiary alliance
was imposed on the state.
Other Related Points:

 He was also a patron of science and technology and is credited as the ‘pioneer of rocket
technology’ in India.
 He wrote a military manual (Fathul Mujahidin) explaining the operation of rockets.
 Tipu was a great lover of democracy and a great diplomat who gave his support to the French
soldiers at Seringapatam in setting up a Jacobin Club in 1797.
 Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobin Club and allowed himself to be called Citizen Tipu.
 He planted the Tree of Liberty at Seringapatam.
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Tiruppur Kumaran
Tiruppur Kumaran:
 Kumaran or Kumarasamy Mudaliyar also known as Tiruppur Kumaran was an Indian
revolutionary and freedom fighter who participated in the Indian independence movement.
 Tirupur Kumaran had continued to hold the flag even after he fell prey to the lathis of the British
police.
 Though he may not have played a major part in the country’s independence, his national pride,
patriotic fervour and selfless commitment garner credit.
Marudhu Pandiyars
Marudhu Pandiyars:
 The Marudhu Pandiyars were Diarchal Kings of Sivagangai, Tamil Nadu, during the end of the
18th century.
 They were known for fighting against the East India Company.
 The two brothers - Chinna Marudu and Periya Marudu - were hanged at Tirupattur after they
were defeated by the British.
Azad Hind Government
 Azad Hind Government was founded in Singapore on October 21, 1943.

 It was India’s first independent government established by Indian nationalists-in-exile during later
part of WWII in Singapore with monetary, military and political assistance from Imperial Japan.
 It was a part of political freedom movement originating in 1940s outside India with purpose of
allying with Axis powers during Second World War (WWII) to free India from British Rule.
 It was inspired by ideas of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who was leader of Azad Hind
Government and also Head of State of this Government-in-exile.
 This government was recognized by the countries such as Germany, Japan, Philippines, Korea,
China, Italy and Ireland.
 Japan provided the Andaman and Nicobar islands to this temporary government, later these islands
were renamed Shaheed Island (Andaman) and Swaraj Island (Nicobar).
 It was also having its armed force Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA), whose
purpose was to free India from British control.
 Subhash Chandra Bose was the supreme commander of this army.
 Ras Bihari Bose had played important role in its establishment.
 This force had played crucial role in bequeathing a much needed impetus to India’s struggle for
Independence.
 It had proclaimed authority over Indian civilian and military personnel in Southeast Asian British
colonial territory and prospective authority over Indian territory to fall to Japanese forces and INA
during Japanese thrust towards India during WWII. This government had its own currency, court and
civil code.
 Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose gave a famous slogan Delhi Chalo (Come to Delhi) after formation of
this government.
 Azad Hind Fauj along with this slogan reached India on March 21, 1944.
 Why in News? A senior member of a political party has asked the Union government to
recognise Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose as the first Prime Minister of the country as he headed the
Provisional Government of Free India formed in October 1943.
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Women Freedom Fighters
Union Minister of State for Culture has released a pictorial book on India’s Women Unsung Heroes of
Freedom Struggle as part of Azadi ka Mahotsav. The book has been released in partnership with Amar
Chitra Katha.
Who are the Women Freedom Fighters mentioned in the Book?

Women Contribution to Freedom Movement
Freedom
Fighters
Rani Abakka She was the Queen of Ullal, Karnataka. She fought and defeated the mighty
Portuguese in the 16th century.
Velu Nachiyar She was the Queen of Sivaganga and was the first Indian queen to wage war
against the British East India Company.
Matangini She was a brave freedom fighter from Bengal, who laid down her life while
Hazra agitating against the British.
Gulab Kaur She was a freedom fighter who abandoned her own hopes and dreams of a life
abroad to fight for and mobilise the Indian people against the British Raj.
Chakali She was a revolutionary woman who fought against the injustice of zamindars
Ilamma during the Telangana rebellion in the mid-1940s.
Subhadra One of the greatest Hindi poets, who was also a prominent figure in the freedom
Kumari movement.
Chauhan
Durgawati Brave woman who provided safe passage to Bhagat Singh after the killing of
Devi John Saunders and much more during her revolutionary days.
Sucheta A prominent freedom fighter who became the independent India’s first woman
Kripalani Chief Minister of UP Government.
Accamma She is an inspirational leader of the freedom movement in Travancore, Kerala.
Cherian She was given the name ‘Jhansi Rani of Tranvancore’ by Mahatma Gandhi.
Aruna Asaf Ali She was an inspirational freedom fighter who is perhaps best remembered for
hoisting the Indian National flag in Mumbai during the Quit India Movement in
1942.
Durgabai She was a tireless worker for the emancipation of women in Andhra Pradesh
Deshmuk and was also an eminent freedom fighter and member of the Constituent
Assembly.
Rani Gaidinliu Naga spiritual and political leader, she led an armed uprising against the British
in Manipur, Nagaland and Assam.
Usha Mehta She was a freedom fighter from a very young age, who is remembered for
organising an underground radio station during the Quit India Movement of
1942.
Parbati Giri She was one of Odisha’s most prominent women freedom fighters who was
called the Mother Teresa of Western Odisha for her work in the upliftment of
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her people.
Tarkeshwari She was a prominent freedom fighter during the Quit India Movement. She went
Sinha on to become an eminent politician in the early decades of independent India.
Snehlata She was a freedom fighter and tireless worker for the education and upliftment
Varma of women in Mewar, Rajasthan.
Tileshwari She was one of India’s youngest martyrs. She was shot at the age of 12 by the
Baruah British, during the Quit India Movement, when she and some freedom fighters
tried to unfurl the Tricolour atop a police station.
Jhalkari Bai She was a woman soldier who grew to become one of the key advisors to the
Rani of Jhansi and a prominent figure in the First War of Indian Independence,
1857.
Padmaja She was the daughter of Sarojini Naidu and a freedom fighter in her own right,
Naidu who would later become Governor of West Bengal and a humanitarian after
Independence.
Bishni Devi She inspired a large number of people in Uttarakhand to join the freedom
Shah movement.
Verrier Elwin
Verrier Elwin:
 He was a British scholar who came to India in the 1920s.
 He fought for rights of Adivasis Odisha and MP.
 He was the first foreigner to be granted Indian citizenship after 1947.
 His autobiography, The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin won him the 1965 Sahitya Akademi Award.
Gujarat Tribal Massacre 1922
Gujarat Tribal Massacre 1922:

 In 1922 in Pal and Dadhvaav villages of North Gujarat’s Sabarkantha district, the
Britishers massacred about 1,200 tribals who had assembled under the leadership of Motilal
Tejawat, to protest against the land revenue system imposed by the British and the feudal lords.
 Soldiers from Mewad Bhil Corps under direction from its officer, Major H.G. Saturn, indulged
in unprovoked firing on the tribals.
 This incident is considered worse than Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
 Why in news? The state of Gujarat will highlight this incident on its Republic Day Parade tableau.
The tableau aims to present the story of bravery and sacrifice of the tribals.
Merger of Meghalaya with India
Merger of Meghalaya with India:

 In 1947 the rulers of the Garo and Khasi region acceded to the newly independent country of India.
 Meghalaya, a small hilly state located in the North Eastern Region of India, came into existence as
an autonomous state within the state of Assam on 2nd April 1970 comprising the United Khasi and
Jaintia Hills and the Garo Hills districts.
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Merger of Tripura with India
Merger of Tripura with India:

 Tripura was a princely state till the merger with the Indian union on 15th November, 1949.
 The last king Bir Bikram who was on the throne, immediately before India's independence, died on
17th May, 1947.
 After his demise, his minor son Kirri Bikram Mannikya took the throne of Tripura kingdom, but he
could not rule as he was minor.
 So his widow queen Kanchan Prabha took the charge of regency of Tripura and took over the
administrative charges.
 She was instrumental for Merger of the Tripura kingdom in the Indian Union.
Merger of Manipur with India
Merger of Manipur with India:

 Before 15th August 1947, peaceful negotiations had brought almost all states whose territories were
contiguous to the new boundaries of India, into the Indian Union.
 The rulers of most of the states signed a document called the ‘Instrument of Accession’ which meant
that their state agreed to become a part of the Union of India.
 A few days before Independence, the Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the
Instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of
Manipur would be maintained.
 Under the pressure of public opinion, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 and the
state became a constitutional monarchy. Thus Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election
based on universal adult franchise.
 In the Legislative Assembly of Manipur there were sharp differences over the question of merger of
Manipur with India. The Government of India succeeded in pressuring the Maharaja into signing a
Merger Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected Legislative
Assembly of Manipur.
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose:

 Subhas Chandra Bose was born on January 23, 1897, in Cuttack, Orissa. He was affectionately called
Netaji.
 In England, he appeared for the Indian Civil Service competitive examination in 1920 and came out
fourth in the order of merit.
 However, Bose was deeply disturbed by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and left his Civil Services’
apprenticeship midway to return to India in 1921.
 23 Jan is celebrated as Parakram Diwas.
Contribution to Indian Freedom Movement:

 After returning to India, Netaji joined the Indian National Congress.
 He started working under Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das whom he later acknowledged as his political
guru.
 Netaji along with Jawaharlal Nehru opposed the Motilal Nehru Report, which spoke for dominion
status for India. They asserted that they would be satisfied with nothing short of complete
independence for India.
 In 1938, Subhas Chandra Bose was elected President of the Haripura Congress Session.
_______________________________________________________________
 In 1939 at the Tripuri Session, Netaji again won the presidential elections against Gandhi’s candidate
Pattabhi Sitaramayya. But due to ideological differences with Gandhi, Bose resigned and left
congress.
 He then founded a new party named ‘the Forward Bloc’. The purpose was to consolidate the political
left and major support base in his home state, Bengal.
Indian National Army:

 In 1941, Bose reached Germany via Afghanistan. On the maxim that “an enemy’s enemy is a friend”,
he sought the cooperation of Germany and Japan against the British Empire.
 In 1943, he arrived in Singapore. Here he took over the reins of the Indian Independence Movement
in East Asia from Rash Behari Bose and organized the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army)
composed mainly of Indian prisoners of war.
 Azad Hind Fauj then proceeded towards India to liberate it from British rule.
 However, the defeat of Japan and Germany in the Second World War forced INA to retreat, and it
could not achieve its objective.
Guru Gobind Singh
Guru Gobind Singh:

 Guru Gobind Singh was the 10th Sikh guru.
 He was born in Patna, Bihar in 1666.
 He became the Sikh guru at the age of nine, following the demise of his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur,
the ninth Sikh Guru.
 He founded the Sikh warrior community called Khalsa in 1699.
 He introduced the turban to cover the hair along with the principles of Khalsa or the five ‘K’s.
 He laid the rules of Khalsa warriors, like abstaining from tobacco, alcohol, halal meat, and imbibing
the duty of protecting innocent people from prosecution.
 He named Guru Granth Sahib as the religious text of the Khalsa and the Sikhs.
 He fought against the Mughals in the Battle of Muktsar in 1705.
 He also wrote the Zafarnama which was a letter to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Maharaja Bir Bikram
Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Debbarman:

 Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Debbarman (1908-1947) was the king of Tripura State till
1947.
 He played an important role in the development of Tripura and is known as Father of modern
architecture in Tripura.
 During his rule, the entire planning of present-day Tripura was initiated.
 He was also a pioneer in land reforms.
 In 1939, he reserved land for the local Tripura tribals.
 Later, this step was instrumental in the creation of the Tripura autonomous district council.
Rani Velu Nachiyar
Rani Velu Nachiyar:

 Rani Velu Nachiyar is the 18th century queen from Sivagangai district in Tamil Nadu, who fought
against British rule to recapture her kingdom.
 She was known as the first queen to fight against the colonial power during that time.
 She is widely known as Veeramangai (brave woman).
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 Velu Nachiyar was born in 1730. She was the princess of Ramanathapuram. As she was the only
child, she was trained in archery, horse riding, martial arts, and even handling different weapons.
 At the age of 16, she was married to Sivagangai Mannar Muthuvaduganathur following which they
had a daughter who was named Vellachi.
 In 1772, the British troops and the Nawab of Arcot came together and invaded Sivagangai. During
the Kalaiyar Koil war, her husband died fighting for his kingdom.
 Velu Nachiyar somehow escaped with her daughter Vellachi and lived in Dindigul for a few years.
During this time, she formed an alliance with other kingdoms and plotted her revenge against the
British.
 Following a strong fight, Velu Nachiyar was successful in recapturing her kingdom and hence
becoming the queen of Sivagangai again.
 She proudly ruled Sivagangai for more than 10 years. During her reign, the queen also created
a women’s only army called Udaiyaal.
Aurobindo Ghosh
Aurobindo Ghosh:
 Aurobindo Ghosh was an Indian philosopher, yoga guru, poet and Indian nationalist.
 He was born on 15th August 1872 at Calcutta.
 At the age of seven, Aurobindo was sent to England by his father to insulate him against any Indian
influence.
 In England, he organized a secret society called ‘Lotus and Dagger‘ for the uplift of his
motherland.
 In 1890, Aurobindo competed for Indian Civil Service(I.C.S) and won the position but was later
disqualified as he came purposefully late to the horse-riding practical exam as he had no interest in
the ICS.
 In 1893, he came back to India and joined Baroda state service as a professor of English at Baroda
College.
 In 1906, he joined as principal of National College, Calcutta but resigned from the post in 1907 to
join the National Freedom Movement.
 He associated himself with Journals and periodicals like the ‘Jugantar‘ and Bande
Mataram through which he made stern criticism of British imperialism.
 Aurobindo attended the 1906 Congress meeting headed by Dadabhai Naoroji and participated as a
councilor in forming the fourfold objectives of “Swaraj, Swadesh, Boycott, and national education”
 In 1908, he was arrested on the charge of the Alipore bomb conspiracy case but was acquitted in
1909 after a long trial.
 Once out of the prison, he started two new publications, Karmayogin in English and Dharma in
Bengali. He also delivered the Uttarpara Speech hinting at the transformation of his focus to
spiritual matters.
 In 1910, he left active politics and stayed in Pondicherry as a Yogi till his death on 5th December
1950. At Pondicherry, Sri Aurobindo developed a spiritual practice called Integral Yoga. The
central theme of his vision was the evolution of human life into a divine life in the divine body
 Some of his important writings are – The Life Divine, Savitri, Essay on the Gita, The Ideal of
Human Unity, Defence of Indian Culture etc.
Tai Khamti war
Tai Khamti war:

 The Tai Khamti war took place in 1839 between the Tai Khamti people and the British.
 The theatre of this war was some 2,400 km east of Meerut in Uttar Pradesh where the mutiny began.
 During the war, Tai Khamtis resisted colonization by the British.
_______________________________________________________________
 Some 80 British soldiers, including Col. Adam White, were killed in the resultant conflict.
Tai Khamti people:

 Tai Khamti people follow Theravada Buddhism.
 Their population is a little more than 1,00,000, and they live in areas straddling Arunachal Pradesh
and Assam.
Other revolts of Arunachal Pradesh:

 Arunachal Deputy CM also asked for recognition of battles between other communities of Arunachal
Pradesh and the British.
 The battles include a series of Anglo-Abor wars from 1858 to 1911 and the Wancho-British war in
Tirap district’s Ninu in 1875.
Rani Bhabani
Rani Bhabani:
 Rani Bhabani was from Bengal. She was married to Raja Ramkanta Ray, the zamindar of the Natore
estate in Rajshahi (present-day Bangladesh).
 After the death of her husband in 1748, the zamindari passed on to the hands of Bhabani, making her
one among the very few women zamindars of the time.
 Bhabani is remembered most for her philanthropic efforts.
 She is known to have built schools, roadways and water tanks across the Rajshahi district.
 She is believed to have built more than 350 temples.
 She is also known to have built the Durga Kund Mandir in Varanasi.
 She also desired to build a Kashi in Bengal and, consequently, in 1755 a complex consisting of a
dozen temples was built in Murshidabad.
 Why in News? Mentioned by PM in his speech
Maharaja Chait Singh
Maharaja Chait Singh:

 Maharaja Chait Singh was a ruler of the Kingdom of Benaras. He acquired the throne of Banaras in
1771 with the help of British authorities.
 In 1773, the Maharaja transferred the domain to the East India Company, under the control of
Warren Hastings.
 Under British terms, the Maharaja was forced to contribute cavalry and maintenance grants for the
company’s sepoy battalions. But he refused to comply with the British orders.
 After this, British soldiers were deployed at the Raja’s fort at the Shivala Ghat. But the soldiers were
killed in the conflict and the governor-general was forced to retreat.
Salar Masud
Salar Masud:
 Salar Masud was also known as Ghazi Mian.
 He acquired popularity as a warrior in the 12th century.
 He was the nephew of the 11th-century Turkik invader, Mahmud of Ghazni.
 His tomb at Bahraich in Uttar Pradesh stands as a place of pilgrimage for a large number of Muslims
as well as Hindus.
_______________________________________________________________
 The most comprehensive source of information about Ghazi Mian is the Mirat-e-Masaud (Mirror of
Masaud), a 17th-century Persian hagiography written by Abdur Rahman Chisti, a Sufi saint of the
Chisti order.
 Abdur Rahman had also asserted that Masud was the disciple of Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti, the
founder of the Chistiya order of Sunni mysticism.
 Mughal emperor Akbar is known to have made a land grant in 1571 CE for maintaining Ghazi
Miyan’s shrine.
 Link between Maharaja Suheldev and Salar Masud: Maharaja Suheldev was the erstwhile ruler
of Shravasti in Uttar Pradesh’s Bahraich district who ruled in the 11th century. He is known to have
defeated and killed Ghazi Salar Masud in battle in Bahraich in 1034 AD.
Dadabhai Naoroji
Dadabhai Naoroji
 He was an Indian nationalist, educationist, first Indian MP in British Parliament, an Economist, a
mentor and belonged to a Parsi community
 As an educationist: He began his career as a professor and work towards equality and state-
supported universal education.
 As a British MP: He used the British institution to fulfil Indian interests. He passed a resolution in
British Parliament to bring reforms in the Indian Civil Service.
 As an Economist: Dadabhai Naoroji put forward the ‘drain of wealth‘ theory in which he stated
that Britain was completely draining India. He calculated that the British drain one-fourth of India’s
revenue every year.
 His theory facilitated alliance with other anti-imperialists and socialists. Karl Marx briefly dabbled
with the idea of the drain of wealth. Socialists like Henry Hyndman applied it in their critiques of
capitalists.
 As a mentor: He mentored Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozesha Mehta, Romesh Chunder Dutt and
other leaders.
 For his contribution, he is described as the “Grand Old Man of India”.
 Naoroji stuck only to constitutionalist politics, while things changed after World War I. Before the
1920s, advocating self-government for India was a radical idea while this is not the same case after
the 1920s. In the 1920s, nationalism changed fundamentally, after the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi.
Paika Rebellion
Who were Paikas?

Paiks were the traditional landed militia of Odisha, used to perform policing functions. They owned rent-
free land that was given to them for their military service to Kingdom of Khurda. However they were
rendered landless by the policies of British East India Company.
Paika Rebellion:
 Paika Rebellion of 1817 is an armed rebellion against British colonialism.
 The revolution was in response to the tinkering of the revenue system by the British in 1803.
 In response, the farming community of Odisha rose in rebellion.
 At that juncture, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, the military chief of the King of Khurda, led the
army of Paikas and forced the British to retreat. This came to be known as Paika Bidroh (Paika
rebellion).
 The landed militia of Khurda was called Paiks.
 Paika Rebellion of 1817 has various social, economic and political reasons.
_______________________________________________________________
 The main cause of the revolution was the takeover of the rent-free land that had been given to the
Paiks for their military service to the Kingdom of Khurda.
 Though the revolution occurred before the first war of independence in 1857, the revolution did not
get similar recognition like that of the Revolt of 1857.
 Why important?
o 200 years completed in 2017.
o PM Modi announced setting up of a Chair on the Paika Rebellion, in Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar.
Rani Gaidinliu
Rani Gaidinliu:
 Rani Gaidinliu was born on January 26, 1915, in the present-day Tamenglong district of Manipur.
She belonged to the Rongmei Naga tribe.
 Heraka Movement:
o At the age of 13, Rani Gaidinliu joined the Heraka Religious movement of her cousin Haipou
Jadonang.
o Heraka was a socio-religious movement that arose in the 1920s in the Zeliangrong territory. It
was started by Jadonang to resist the infiltration of Christian missionaries as well as the
reforms imposed by the British government.
o However, in 1931, Jadonang was arrested by the British and was hanged for opposing
colonial rule. To ensure the movement does not die down, Gaidinliu took up the movement.
o She openly rebelled against British rule by telling the Zeliangrong people not to pay taxes.
She also received donations from the local Nagas, many of whom also joined her as
volunteers.
o She was then arrested in 1932 and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers.
Between 1932 and 1947, the Naga freedom fighter was kept at several prisons across the
Northeast.
o Acknowledging her role in the struggle against the British, Jawaharlal Nehru called her the
“Daughter of the Hills” and gave her the title “Rani” or queen.
 Post-independence:
o In independent India, Gaidinliu was against the Naga National Council(NNC) demand for
sovereignty and independence of Naga territory from India. She, in fact, demanded a separate
Zeliangrong area within the Union of India.
o Since she faced opposition from other Naga leaders for her demand, she was forced to go
underground in 1960. She later reached an understanding with the Government of India and
dismantled the underground movement.
o She was awarded with the Tamra Patra, an award bestowed upon distinguished individuals
for their contribution to the Indian freedom struggle, in 1972 and the Padma Bhushan in 1982.
o In 1993, Rani Gaidinliu passed away. The government of India issued a postal stamp in her
honour in 1996, and a commemorative coin in 2015.
o The Indian Coast Guard commissioned a Fast Patrol Vessel “ICGS Rani Gaidinliu” in 2016.
Chola Dynasty
Chola Dynasty:
 The Chola Dynasty is a Tamil dynasty.
 It ruled primarily in southern India until the thirteenth century.
 Founder: The Chola Empire was founded by Vijayalaya. He took over the Tanjore kingdom in the
8th century by defeating Pallavas. Tanjore was hence made the first capital of the Chola Empire.
_______________________________________________________________
 Important Ruler: Rajendra Chola was the important ruler of Chola Empire. He succeeded Rajaraja
Chola. He was the first to venture to the banks of the Ganges. Furthermore, he was popularly called
the Victor of the Ganges. His new empire capital was called the Gangaikondacholapuram where he
received the title of ‘Gangaikonda’.
Culture and Roots:

 Society and its culture saw massive developments in the reign of the Cholas. In this era, the temple
was the main center for all social and religious meetings.
 Several gods and goddesses were worshipped with Shiva being a popular source of strength for the
faithful.
Great Living Chola Temples

 The Great Living Chola Temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation for a group of
Chola dynasty-era Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu. The temples were completed between the early
11th and the 12th century CE. The monuments include:
o Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur
o Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
o Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Gopal Krishna Gokhale:

 Gopal Krishna Gokhale(1866 –1915) was an Indian liberal political leader and a social reformer
during the Indian Independence Movement.
 He was born on 9 May 1866
Contributions of Gopal Krishna Gokhale:

 Role in Indian a National Congress(INC):
o Gokhale became a member of the Indian National Congress(INC) in 1889.
o He was associated with the Moderate Group of Indian National Congress.
o He became president of INC in 1905 in the Banaras session.
 Role in Legislatures:
o In 1899, Gokhale was elected to the Bombay Legislative Council.
o He was also elected to the Imperial Council of the Governor-General of India in 1901.
o He also played a key role in framing the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909.
 Related Societies:
o He served as Secretary of the Deccan Education Society.
o He established the Servants of India Society in 1905. This society trained people to be selfless
workers so that they could work for the common good of the people.
o Gokhale was a mentor to both Mohammed Jinnah and Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi
even wrote a book called, ‘Gokhale, My Political Guru’.
o In 1908, he founded the ‘Ranade Institute of Economics’.
 Journals:
o He started an English weekly newspaper, The Hitavada (The people’s paper).
o Gokhale also published a daily newspaper Jnanaprakash
o He was also associated with the Sarvajanik sabha journal started by Govind Ranade.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He was an Indian nationalist, teacher and an independence activist. He was
also conferred with the title of Lokmanya.
_______________________________________________________________
 As Educationist:
o He founded the Deccan Education Society in 1884 along with his associate Gopal Ganesh
Agarkar and others to create a new system of education that taught young Indians nationalist
ideas through an emphasis on Indian culture.
o The Society also established the Fergusson College in 1885 for post-secondary studies.
 Indian National Congress(INC):
o Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890.He opposed moderate attitude. He along
with Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal was part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio of leaders with
extremist outlooks.
 Home Rule League: Tilak helped found the All India Home Rule League in 1916–18 with G. S.
Khaparde and Annie Besant.
 Tilak’s Home Rule League worked in Maharashtra, Central Provinces and Karnataka and Berar
region. Besant’s League was active in the rest of India.
 Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English)
 Books: Shrimadh Bhagvad Gita Rahasya and Arctic Home of the Vedas.
 Significance:
o The declaration of Tilak “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it” served as an inspiration
for future revolutionaries during India’s struggle for freedom.
o A book ‘Indian Unrest’ written by Valentine Chirol, an English journalist stated Tilak the
‘father of Indian unrest’.
Pagri Sambhal movement
Pagri Sambhal Movement:

 The Pagri Sambhal movement was a successful farm agitation against British government. It forced
the British government to repeal three laws related to agriculture back in 1907.
 The three farm-related were the Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900, the Punjab Land Colonisation Act
1906, and the Doab Bari Act.
 These acts would reduce farmers from owners to contractors of land. Moreover, it would have given
the British government a right to take back the allotted land if the farmer even touched a tree in his
field without permission.
 Led by: The movement was led by Bhagat Singh’s uncle Ajit Singh. He wanted to channel people’s
anger over the farm laws to bring down the British government.
 Anthem of the movement: Pagri Sambhal Jatta, a song by Banke Dayal, the editor of Jhang Sayal,
became an anthem of the movement.
 Bharat Mata Society: It was formed by Bhagat Singh’s father Kishan Singh and uncle Ajit Singh
with their revolutionary friend Ghasita Ram. The society aimed to mobilise this unrest into a revolt
against the British government.
Impact of the movement on British Government:

 The British made minor amendments to the laws. However, the movement did not end.
 Further, the movement also couldn’t remain non-violent after Ajit Singh was booked for sedition for
his speech at a public meeting.
 Hence, the British government repealed the three controversial laws in May 1907.
Tileswari Barua
Context:
The Prime Minister went the historic martyr town of Dhekiajuli in Assam and recognised the freedom
fighters of that town. The town was associated with the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Dhekiajuli’s connection to the Quit India movement:
_______________________________________________________________
 Dhekiajuli was home to possibly the youngest martyr of the Indian freedom struggle, (Tileswari
Barua).
Sequence of Events:
 On September 20,1942, as part of the Quit India movement, parades of freedom fighters marched to
various police stations across several towns in Assam.
 These squads were known as ‘Mrityu Bahini’ or death squads. The Mrityu Bahini had wide
participation including women and children. They went to unfurl the tricolour on the top of police
stations, as police stations were seen as the symbols of colonial power.
 However, British administration came down heavily on them and open fired them. Due to which at
least 15 people were shot dead in Dhekiajuli including the 12-year-old girl Tileswari Barua. This
made Tileswari Barua possibly the youngest martyr of the freedom movement.
Impact of this incident :

 This incident led to an increase in women’s participation in the Freedom Struggle. Several important
women icons were Kanaklata Barua, Pushpalata Das, Tileswari Baru among others.
 They not only started picketing but were also leading the ‘death squads’, presiding over meetings
among others.
Prabuddha Bharata journal
 Prabuddha Bharata is an English monthly journal of the Ramakrishna Order founded in 1896, by
Swami Vivekanand.
 Ramakrishna Order: It is the monastic lineage that was founded by Ramakrishna. It gave birth to
twin organizations Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission both headquartered at Belur Math
in Kolkata.
 Purpose: The journal carries articles on social sciences and humanities comprising historical,
psychological, cultural, and social sciences themes.
 Significance: The journal has been a significant medium for the outreach of the knowledge and
message of India’s ancient spiritual wisdom.
 Personalities like Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sister Nivedita, Sri Aurobindo,
Former President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, have contributed to the Journal over the years.
Khudiram Bose
 He was born in 1889 in Midnapore district, West Bengal.

 He was one of the youngest leaders of the Independence movement and actively participated in
protests against the British in 1905 when Bengal was partitioned.
 He joined the Anushilan Samiti (organisation that propounded revolutionary activities in Bengal).
 He is most remembered for Muzaffarpur Conspiracy Case (1908), along with Prafulla Chaki for his
attempt to assassinate the British judge, Magistrate Douglas Kingsford.
Merger of Manipur with India
 Before 15th August 1947, by peaceful negotiations, the rulers of most of the states
signed the ‘Instrument of Accession’ which meant that their state agreed to become a part of the
Union of India.
 The Maharaja of Manipur, Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession with the Indian
government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.
 Under the pressure of public opinion, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 and the
state became a constitutional monarchy.
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 Thus, Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election based on universal adult franchise.
 The Government of India succeeded in pressuring the Maharaja into signing a Merger Agreement in
September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur.
 On 21st January 1972, Manipur along with Meghalaya and Tripura became full-fledged states under
the North Eastern Region (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.
 The political map of Northeast India underwent a major change and the two Union Territories of
Manipur and Tripura and the Sub-State of Meghalaya got statehood.
‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ Movement
Sardar Ajit Singh Sandhu, the brain behind the ‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ movement is now being remembered
in the ongoing agrarian resentments in Punjab.
‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ Movement
 In 1879, the British constructed the Upper Bari Doab canal to draw water from the Chenab river and
take it to Lyallpur (now in Pakistan and renamed Faisalabad) to set up settlements in uninhabited
areas.
 Promising to allot free land with several amenities, the government persuaded peasants and ex-
servicemen from Jalandhar, Amritsar and Hoshiarpur to settle there.
 In 1907, in Lyallpur, Ajit Singh Sandhu also Bhagat Singh’s uncle headed the movement that
articulated this discontent.
 The catchy slogan, Pagdi Sambhal Jatta, the name of the movement, was inspired by the song by
Banke Lal, the editor of the Jang Sayal newspaper.
 The agitated protestors ransacked government buildings, post offices, banks, overturning telephone
poles and pulling down telephone wires.
Who was Ajit Singh?

 He was a revolutionary and a nationalist during the time of British rule in India.
 With compatriots, he organised agitation by Punjabi peasants against anti-farmer laws known as the
Punjab Colonization Act (Amendment) 1906 and administrative orders increasing water rate charges.
 He was an early protester in the Punjab region of India who challenged British rule and openly
criticized the Indian colonial government.
 In May 1907, with Lala Lajpat Rai, he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma.
 Due to great public pressure and apprehension of unrest in the Indian Army, the bills of exile were
withdrawn and both men were released in November 1907.
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Kanaklata Barua
A Fast Patrol Vessel (FPV) named ICGS Kanaklata Barua was commissioned in the Indian Coast Guard
on Wednesday, in Kolkata. It is named after a teenage freedom fighter who was shot dead in Assam during
the Quit India Movement.
Who was Kanaklata Barua ?
 One of the youngest martyrs of the Quit India Movement, Kanaklata Barua has iconic status in
Assam. Barua.
 Then 17, led the Mukti Bahini, a procession of freedom fighters to unfurl the Tricolour at Gohpur
police station on September 20, 1942. When police did not let them move forward, an altercation led
to firing, killing Barua at the head of the procession.
 She had joined the Mrityu Bahini [a kind of a suicide squad] just two days before the incident. The
squad strictly admitted members aged 18 and above but Kanaklata was an exception. She wanted to
lead the procession and after much persuasion she was allowed to.
 Even as Barua fell to bullets, she did not let go of the flag. She did not want it to touch the ground.
Another woman volunteer behind her — Mukunda Kakoty — came and held the flag, and she, too,
was shot.
How important is her legacy ?

 1940’s was a time where you saw a lot of women coming to the fore, leading processions, patriotic
fervour was at its peak — and Kanaklata was a product of this time.
 There are schools named after her, there are two statues, there is a ship. While we see her as an icon
now, people in her village hated her then — she was a rebel, who questioned patriarchy.
Pritilata Waddedar
Pritilata Waddedar (1911-1932)

 She was a Bengali revolutionary nationalist from the Indian subcontinent who was influential in the
Indian independence movement.
 After completing her education in Chittagong and Dhaka, she attended Bethune College in Kolkata.
 She graduated in philosophy with distinction and became a school teacher.
 Pritilata joined a revolutionary group headed by Surya Sen. She is known for leading fifteen
revolutionaries in the 1932 armed attack on the Pahartali European Club, during which one person
was killed and eleven injured.
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 The revolutionaries torched the club and were later caught by the British police. To avoid arrest,
Pritilata consumed cyanide and died.
Subramania Bharatiyar
Subramania Bharati
 Bharati was a Tamil writer, poet, journalist, Indian independence activist, social reformer and
polyglot.
 Popularly known as “Mahakavi Bharathi”, he was a pioneer of modern Tamil poetry and is
considered one of the greatest Tamil literary figures of all time.
 His numerous works included fiery songs kindling patriotism during the Indian Independence
movement.
Literary works
 As a working journalist, Bharati necessarily employed prose to communicate, and his writings in
Swadesamitran and India made an important contribution to Tamil political vocabulary.
 He wrote stories, commentaries, and was also the pioneer of column writing in Tamil.
 Active participation in the day-to-day politics of the nationalist movement notwithstanding, Bharati
never lost sight of the future, the dream of how a free India should look like.
 Aspects of this dream form part of his fantasy story, Gnanaratham (The Chariot of Wisdom), written
when he was still in his late 20s.
Noor Inayat Khan
World War II spy Noor Inayat Khan is now the first woman of Indian origin to be commemorated by the
distinct blue London plaque.
Noor Inayat Khan
 A descendant of Tipu Sultan, Noor Inayat Khan became a secret agent during the Second World War.
 She was the first woman radio operator to be infiltrated into occupied France in 1943 and worked
under the code name ‘Madeleine’.
 Renowned for her service in the Special Operations Executive, an independent British secret service
set up by Winston Churchill in 1940.
 Noor was Britain’s first Indian Muslim war heroine in Europe and the first female radio operator sent
into Nazi-occupied France.
 She was killed at the Dachau concentration camp in 1944 and was posthumously awarded the
George Cross in 1949.
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What are Blue Plaques?

 The idea of placing commemorative plaques on historically significant buildings was first mooted in
1863.
 The idea was to honour important people and organisations that have lived or worked in London
buildings.
 Currently, the blue plaque scheme is being run by the charity organisation, English Heritage that
takes care of historic sites and buildings in England.
 While Khan is the first woman of Indian origin to be honoured with a blue plaque, it has been erected
on houses and venues associated with several Indian men including Mahatma Gandhi, Raja Ram
Mohun Roy, B R Ambedkar, Sardar Patel and Swami Vivekananda among others.
Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis
A bronze statue of Indian doctor Dwarkanath Kotnis is unveiled in China.

Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis
 He is revered in China for his contributions during the Chinese revolution headed by its founder Mao
Zedong and World War II.
 He hailed from Sholapur in Maharashtra came to China in 1938 as part of a five-member team of
doctors sent by the Indian National Congress to help the Chinese during World War II.
 He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1942 and died the same year at the age of 32.
 Kotnis’ medical assistance during the difficult days of the Chinese revolution was praised by Chinese
leader Mao Zedong.
 His statues and memorials were also set in some of the Chinese cities in recognition of his services.
A revered personality in China

 Late Chinese leader Mao Zedong was deeply affected by his death.
 Mao wrote in his eulogy that “the army has lost a helping hand; the nation has lost a friend. Let us
always bear in mind his internationalist spirit”.
 Kotnis is remembered not only as a symbol inspiring medical students to work hard, but also an
eternal bond between the people of China and India.
Story of our National Flag
The final design of the Indian National Flag, hoisted by PM Nehru on August 16, 1947, at Red Fort, had a
history of several decades preceding independence.
(1) Public display for first time

 Arguably the first national flag of India is said to have been hoisted on August 7, 1906, in Kolkata at
the Parsee Bagan Square (Green Park).
 It comprised three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green, with Vande Mataram written in the
middle.
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 Believed to have been designed by freedom activists Sachindra Prasad Bose and Hemchandra
Kanungo, the red stripe on the flag had symbols of the sun and a crescent moon, and the green strip
had eight half-open lotuses.
(2) In Germany
 In 1907, Madame Cama and her group of exiled revolutionaries hoisted an Indian flag in Germany in
1907 — this was the first Indian flag to be hoisted in a foreign land.
(3) During the Home Rule Movement
 In 1917, Dr Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule
Movement.
 It had five alternate red and four green horizontal stripes, and seven stars in the saptarishi
configuration.
 A white crescent and star occupied one top corner, and the other had Union Jack.
(4) Final version by Pingali Venkayya
 The design of the present-day Indian tricolour is largely attributed to Pingali Venkayya, an Indian
freedom fighter.
 He reportedly first met Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa during the second Anglo-Boer War (1899-
1902), when he was posted there as part of the British Indian Army.
 Years of research went into designing the national flag. In 1916, he even published a book with
possible designs of Indian flags.
 At the All India Congress Committee in Bezwada in 1921, Venkayya again met Gandhi and
proposed a basic design of the flag, consisting of two red and green bands to symbolise the two
major communities, Hindus and Muslims.
(5) During Constituent Assembly
 On July 22, 1947, when members of the Constituent Assembly of India, the first item on the agenda
was reportedly a motion by Pandit Nehru, about adopting a national flag for free India.
 It was proposed that “the National Flag of India shall be horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (Kesari),
white and dark green in equal proportion.”
 The white band was to have a wheel in navy blue (the charkha being replaced by the chakra), which
appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka.
Shyamji Krishna Varma
Shyamji Krishna Varma:

 SK Varma (1857–1930) was an Indian revolutionary fighter, a patriot, lawyer and journalist who
founded the Indian Home Rule Society, India House and The Indian Sociologist in London.
 He was a noted scholar in Sanskrit and other Indian languages.
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 He pursued a brief legal career in India and served as the Divan of a number of Indian princely states
in India.
 He had, however, differences with Crown authority, was dismissed following a supposed conspiracy
of local British officials at Junagadh and chose to return to England.
 An admirer of Dayanand Saraswati’s approach of cultural nationalism, and of Herbert Spencer,
Krishna Varma believed in Spencer’s dictum: “Resistance to aggression is not simply justified, but
imperative”.
First Flag Hoisting by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
 Subhash Chandra Bose on December 30, 1943 had hoisted Tricolour for first time on free Indian soil
at Cellular Jail of Port Blair during his visit to Andaman and declaring the island as the free territory
from the British rule.
 It was much before India attained Independence in 1947.
 On same occasion, he had announced freedom of Andaman & Nicobar Islands (making it first Indian
Territory) from the British rule and renamed them as “Shaheed-dweep” (Martyr Island) and “Swaraj-
dweep” (Self-rule Island).
 The island at that time was liberated from British rule by Japan which captured it during World War
– II.
 Major General Arcot Doraiswamy Loganadan of Indian National Army (INA) was made the
Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Why in news? Union Ministry of Finance has announced to release Rs 75 commemorative coin on
occasion of 75th anniversary of hoisting of Tricolour for first time by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
at Cellular Jail, Port Blair.
Hicky’s Bengal Gazette
 Hicky’s Bengal Gazette (Original Calcutta General Advertiser) was an English language weekly
newspaper published in Kolkata (then Calcutta), the then capital of British India.
 It was founded by James Augustus Hicky.
 It began publication on January 29, 1780 and was published for two years.
 It was the first newspaper printed in Asia.
 The newspaper in its time was strong critic of administration of Governor General Warren Hastings.
 It was important for its provocative journalism well before its time and its fight for free expression in
India.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
 Born on 11 November 1888 and died on 22 February 1958.

 He was senior Muslim leader of Indian National Congress during Indian independence movement.
 He is commonly remembered as Maulana Azad (word Maulana is honorific meaning ‘Our Master’)
and he had adopted Azad (Free) as his pen name.
 He was first Minister of Education of Independent India.
 He had played important role in foundation of Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh.
 He assisted in shifting campus of university from Aligarh to New Delhi in 1934.
Freedom Movement
 During his young age, he rose to prominence through his work as journalist, publishing works
critical of British Raj and espousing causes of Indian nationalism.
 He became leader of Khilafat Movement, during which he came into close contact with Mahatma
Gandhi.
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 He later became enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi’s ideas of non-violent civil disobedience and
worked to organise the non-co-operation movement in protest of the 1919 Rowlatt Act.
 He was committed to Gandhi’s ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (indigenous) products and
cause of Swaraj (Self-rule) for India.
 In 1923, at age of 35, he became youngest person to serve as President of Indian National
Congress.
 He was one of main organizers of the Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931 and emerged as one of the most
important national leaders of the time, prominently leading causes of Hindu-Muslim unity as well as
espousing secularism and socialism.
 He served as Congress president from 1940 to 1945, during which Quit India rebellion was launched.
 He also worked for Hindu-Muslim unity through the Al-Hilal newspaper.
Why in news?
National Education Day of India is celebrated every year on 11 November to commemorate the birth
anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first education minister of independent India.
Quit India Movement
 Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan or August Movement or August Kranti) was an
important milestone in the Indian freedom struggle.
 It was civil disobedience movement launched at Bombay session of the All-India Congress
Committee (AICC) by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 demanding an end to British Rule of
India.
 It was launched after Mahatma Gandhi had made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech
delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan on 7 August 1942.
 The movement called for India’s immediate independence and aimed to force British Government to
negotiating table by holding Allied war effort hostage.
 By launching this movement, Gandhiji hoped to bring British government to negotiating table as
Cripps Mission had failed and give strong footing against sending Indians to fight on behalf of
Britain in World War II.
 Quit India Resolution drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru and was moved by him on 8th August 1942 in
AICCC session and Sardar Patel seconded it.
 Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, people across India came together to uproot imperialism.
Rajkumar Shukla
 Raj Kumar Shukla was born on 23rd August 1875 in Satwaria village of Champaran in Bihar.
 He a famous Indigo cultivator of Champaran and he was a money lender as well.
 He rose to fame for his close association with Gandhiji during the Champaran Satyagraha.
 Raj Kumar Shukla convinced Mahatma Gandhi to visit Champaran, which was a turning point in
India’s struggle for independence.
 Why in news? Department of Posts has issued a Commemorative Postage Stamp on Rajkumar
Shukla
Hunter Commission Report
 The Legislative Council of the Government of India constituted the Hunter Commission to
examine the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in 1919.
 The investigating committee was led by Lord William Hunter.
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 In its report, the majority of the members concluded that General Dyer firing at the mob was justified
and they only reprimanded General Dyer for not following appropriate procedures before the firing.
Martial law declared in Punjab was justified.
 A minority report was submitted by the Indian members of the Commission who questioned the need
for martial law at that time.
 There were widespread protests against the findings of the Hunter Committee.
 Why in news? Symbolic protests in country against it.
Ancient History in News
Ramanujacharya
Ramanujacharya:
 Sri Ramanujacharya was born in 1017 in SriPerumbudur, Tamil Nadu.
 He was one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism.
 He is famous as the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita subschool of Vedānta.
 He was also referred to as Ilaya Perumal, which means the radiant one.
 He worked tirelessly against casteism and social hierarchies, proclaiming that all living beings had
the right to Realization.
 He also enacted several reforms in temple administration. For instance, at one time the entire
administration in the Srirangam Temple in Tiruchirappalli was controlled by a specific caste. He
included persons from different castes in the Temple administration. A number of responsibilities
were given to women also.
 He wrote nine works that came to be known as the Navratnas including three major commentaries,
the Vedartha-Sangraha, the Sribhasya and the Bhagavadgita-bhasya aimed at providing a
philosophical foundation for devotional worship.
What is Vishistadvaita?
 Vishishtadvaita is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is non-dualism of the qualified
whole, in which Brahman alone is seen as the Supreme Reality, but is characterized by multiplicity.
 It can be described as qualified monism or qualified non-dualism or attributive monism. It is a school
of Vedanta philosophy that believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity.
Guru Ravidas
About Guru Ravidas:

 Ravidas was a 14th-century saint and reformer of the Bhakti movement in North India. It is believed
that he was born in Varanasi in a cobbler’s family.
 Guru Ravidas Jayanti: It is celebrated on Magh Purnima. (It is the full moon day in the Hindu
calendar month of Magha).
 Disciple of: He is believed to be a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda. He was also
contemporary to the bhakti saint-poet Kabir.
 Spiritual Guru: The Guru Ravidas is considered as a spiritual Guru of the Meera Bai.
Teachings of Guru Ravidas

 Abolition of Caste: Guru Ravidas dedicated his whole life to the abolition of the caste system. He
openly disliked the notion of a Brahminical society.
 One God: He gained prominence due to his belief in one God and his unbiased religious poems. He
also rejected the idea that people considered lower caste cannot meet God.
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 Guru Granth Sahib: The devotional songs of Guru Ravidas made an instant impact on the Bhakti
Movement. Around 41 of his poems were included in the religious text of the Sikhs ‘Guru Granth
Sahib’.
 Begumpura: His idea of “Begampura” was considered as his moral and intellectual achievement.
Begampura was a city conceived by him. In that city, there will be no sorrow, no caste and class.
 Ravidassia Religion: His teachings resonated with the people leading to the birth of the Ravidassia
religion or Ravidassia Dharam.
Palaeolithic Age
Palaeolithic Age:
 Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’, which means old and ‘lithic’ meaning stone.
Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old Stone Age.
 Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases: Early or Lower Palaeolithic (50,0000 – 100,000
BC), Middle Palaeolithic(100,000 – 40,000 BC) and Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 – 10,000 BC).
Bhakti Movement
 The development of the Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and ninth
centuries.
 It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees
of Vishnu).
 These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love
between the worshipped and worshipper.
 In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slow process.
 A more effective method for spreading the Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages.
 The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages.
 They also translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider audience.
 Examples include Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva
popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in
Hindi and Rajasthani.
Krishnadevaraya
Krishnadevaraya:
 He was the ruler of the Tuluva dynasty of Vijayanagar empire (1509-29 AD).
 His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
 He is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important
south Indian temples.
 He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagar called Nagalapuram after his mother.
 He composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known as the Amuktamalyada.
Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara Empire
 Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire.
 The empire was founded in the fourteenth century (1336 AD) by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty.
 It stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.
 Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties and they are:
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o Sangama
o Saluva
o Tuluva
o Aravidu
 Krishnadevaraya (ruled 1509-29) of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous ruler of Vijayanagar.
His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
 He is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important
south Indian temples. He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagar
called Nagalapuram after his mother.
 He composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known as the Amuktamalyada.
 Dravidian architecture survives in the rest of Southern India spread through the patronage of the
Vijayanagara rulers.
 Vijayanagara architecture is also known for its adoption of elements of Indo Islamic
Architecture in secular buildings like the Queen’s Bath and the Elephant Stables, representing a
highly evolved multi-religious and multi-ethnic society.
Maharaja Suheldev
Maharaha Suheldev:
 Maharaja Suheldev was the erstwhile ruler of Shravasti in Uttar Pradesh’s Bahraich district who
ruled in the 11th century.
 He is known to have defeated and killed Ghazi Salar Masud in battle in Bahraich in 1034 AD. Ghazi
Salar Masud was the nephew of Mahmud of Ghazni.
 Further, He is also mentioned in the 17th-century historical romance Mirat-i-Masudi. It was written
by Abd-ur-Rahman Chishti in Persian-language. The book was written during the reign of the
Mughal emperor Jahangir.
 People of the Rajbhar and Pasi community consider him as their descendant. These communities
have a significant presence in Uttar Pradesh.
Chittaura Lake:
 Chittaura Lake is located in Uttar Pradesh. The lake is also known as Ashtwarka jheel.
 A small river named Teri Nadi flows from this lake. Apart from that, The lake is home to many
migratory birds.
 The lake is believed to be the place where the fight between Maharaja Suheldev and the Muslim
invader Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud.
 A statue of Raja Suhaldev and a temple dedicated to Goddess Durga is present near the lake.
Kempe Gowda I
Kempe Gowda I
 Kempe Gowda I was a feudatory king under Vijayanagar empire.
 He founded the city of Bengaluru in 1537 and named it after their family deity’s consort,
Kempamma.
 He is also credited with the construction of several lakes or keres for the purposes of drinking water
and irrigation eg. the Dharmambudhi lake.
Indus Valley Civilisation
 The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other
contemporary civilizations.
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Urban Features:
 Most cities had similar patterns.
 There were two parts:
o a citadel and
o the lower town showing presence of hierarchy in society.
 Most cities had a Great Bath.
 There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent
stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
 A large number of seals have been discovered.
Agriculture:
 The first civilization to cultivate cotton.
 Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
 Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
 Trade was conducted with the Sumerians (Mesopotamia).
Metal Products:
 These were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also
known.
 Iron was not known to them.
Religious Beliefs:
 No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
 The people worshipped male and female deities.
 A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed
figure.
Pottery:
 Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated.
 Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.
Art Forms:
 A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years
old.
 A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro.
Other Points:
 Lothal was a dockyard.
 Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins.
 The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
Meat residue in Indus Valley
 A new study has found the presence of animal products, including cattle and buffalo meat, in ceramic
vessels dating back about 4,600 years at seven Indus Valley Civilisation sites.
 Indications of meat of non-ruminant animals like pigs, ruminant animals like cattle or buffalo and
sheep or goat, as well as dairy products.
 These sites are situated in present-day Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
_______________________________________________________________
Theravada Buddhism
 Theravada Buddhism emphasises attaining self-liberation through one's own efforts.

 The follower is expected to "abstain from all kinds of evil, to accumulate all that is good and to
purify their mind".
 This school of Buddhism believes that it has remained closest to the original teachings of the Buddha.
 However, it does not over-emphasise the status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way - they
are seen as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having merit of their own.
 It is strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Myanmar. It is sometimes
called 'Southern Buddhism'.
 The name means 'the doctrine of the elders' - the elders being the senior Buddhist monks.
 The ideal of Theravada Buddhism is the arhat, or perfected saint, who attains enlightenment as a
result of his own efforts.
 Meditation is one of the main tools by which a Theravada Buddhist transforms themselves, and so a
monk spends a great deal of time in meditation.
Hoysala
 During the 12th and 13th centuries, Hoysalas of Karnataka grew to prominence in South India
and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
 They ruled almost all the present day Karnataka.
 Their capital was Belur which was later shifted to Halebidu.
 The period was an important era for the growth of the art, architecture and religion in South India.

IAS4Sure Culture & History Notes For Prelims 2022

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IAS4Sure Culture & History Notes For Prelims 2022

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Merger of Manipur with India ............................................................................................................................76

New Year in different Parts of the Country

Beating Retreat Ceremony:

Durga Puja Festival:

What are Sattras?

What is Sankardeva’s philosophy?

Monpa handmade paper

Monpa Handmade Paper:

Why did it decline?

Sarna Tribes and Religion

Intangible Heritages from India

About the festival:

Buddha Path (Atthamahathanani)

 It refers to eight great places of Buddhist Heritage (referred in Pali as Aṭṭhamahāṭhānāni).

Sammakka-Sarakka/Saralamma Jatara Festival

 It is a major Tribal Festival held bi-annually in Jayashankar Bhupalpally district to honour

 It is known as the ‘royal dance of Ladakh’.

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple

Tendong Lho Rumfaat

Tendong Lho Rumfaat (Prayer of the Tendong Mountain)

 It is a traditional Parasi Festival celebrated in Udvada town of Gujarat

Why Taliban destroyed Bamiyan Statues earlier?

Konark Sun Temple

Konark Sun Temple:

Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala

What are Sacred Ensembles of Hoysala?

Chennakeshava Temple - Belur

Hoysaleshwara Temple- Halebid

Keshava Temple- Somanathapura

What is Reclining Buddha?

Iconographic Representation of Reclining Buddha:

Origin of Depiction of Reclining Buddha:

Statues of Reclining Buddha in India:

Other depictions of the Buddha in India:

About Lingaraj Temple

St George Orthodox church

Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple

 Location: This temple is located in Bengaluru, Karnataka.

 In the forecourt stand two monolithic structures, named Suryapana and

Rahim Khane Khanam Tomb

Hampi Stone Chariot

Hampi Stone Chariot:

Historic City of Hampi

What is an Ancient Monument?

Criterion for the declaration of Monument of National Importance

Monuments of national importance declared in 2018

 Rajarajesvaram or Peruvudaiyar Koyil, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Thanjavur,

 Lohagarh Fort (Iron fort) is situated at Bharatpur in Rajasthan, India.

 It was constructed by Bharatpur Jat rulers.

Descent of the Ganges

Trinities of Carnatic music

Trinities of Carnatic music are:

Saint Muthuswami Dikshitar

Saint Syama Sastri

Basic elements of a Hindu Temple

Basic elements of a Hindu Temple:

o It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple.

Dravida Vs Nagara Architecture

Features of Nagara and Dravida Orders of Temples:

Nagara or North Indian Temple Style