Onlyias World History Book 2020

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World History - Index
CHAPTER NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1 World before 18th Century 1
2 American Revolution 10
3 American Civil War 15
4 French Revolution 19
5 The Rise of Napoleon 25
6 Vienna Congress 29
7 Rise of Nationalism in Europe 32
8 Unification of Italy 34
9 Unification of Germany 38
10 Bismark war with Denmark 41
11 Industrial Revolution 42
12 Colonization and Imperialism 50
13 Decolonization 58
14 Capitalism 62
15 Socialism 65
16 Communism 69
17 World War 1 72
18 League of Nations 80
19 Russian Revolution 84
20 Inter War Period 93
21 Second World War 98
22 Cold War 104
23 Cuban Missile Crisis 107
24 Fall of the USSR 109
25 UN system 112
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CH-1 WORLD BEFORE 18TH CENTURY

ANCIENT EUROPE
 Ancient Europe saw great progress in development of human society in the form of Greek and Roman
civilizations. These two civilizations marked the advancement in Philosophy, literature, science, art, architecture
and culture.
The Greek civilization

 The Greek inhabited the area around the Aegean Sea during the end of 3rd millennium B.C.E. In due course of
time a number of city-states emerged there in form of Sparta, Athens, Macedonia, Corinth etc. These city states
reached the stage of urbanization as a result of advancement in trade and commerce which was facilitated by their
specific location.
 Greeks made major contribution in the fields of Literature, Philosophy, Science, art and architecture. Herodotus
often described as 'father of history’ was a Greek scholar. Likewise, Socrates, Aristotle, Ptolemy are some other
Greek scholars of the time. The most prevalent form of polity in today's world i.e. democracy evolved in its crude
form in Greece.
 But Greek city-states declined in 5th century C.E mainly due to conflict with Persian Empire and due to inter-state
conflicts among Greek states.
The Roman Civilization

 It was centered around Italy. The early Romans appropriated a lot of things from Greeks including their alphabets,
their religious belief and art. They reached their climax after the decline of Greeks.
 Romans too contributed in the fields of language, Philosophy, Literature, science, art and architecture. Latin
developed during this period and became the basis of several European Languages. Colosseum is an architectural
marvel of the Roman period. Roman calendar is still widely used with minor changes.
 It emerged into an empire. The luxuries of Rome were based on exploitation of slaves. These slaves flooded Roman
society mainly after the Punic wars.
 They declined mainly due to imperialism which they couldn't manage. Rise of Christianity too weakened the empire
due to its ideal of equality. The final blow came at the hands of northern invaders.
Division of Roman Empire

 It was divided into western and eastern part with Rome and Constantinople as their respective capitals. Western part
was further disintegrated by 476 C.E due to the invasion by the German barbarians. Eastern part continued till they
fell to Turks in 1453 C.E.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
 Also referred to as the 'Dark age' by some scholars, this period refers to the period between the decline of Roman
Empire and the beginning of Italian renaissance.
 Originally coined by an Italian scholar (Francesco Petrarch), the term 'dark age' had a negative connotation. He
used it to describe the lack of quality in literature of the period. Later, other scholars broadened the meaning of dark
ages to include lack of culture and advancement in Europe during the period.
 The period is described as 'dark' in relative terms as the preceding and succeeding periods saw comparatively
more advancement in human life, notably in science, polity, philosophy, art, and architecture.
 Rise of feudalism can be seen as a major factor responsible for the decline in various spheres of life during the
period. Social stagnation and religious superstition prevented any advancement. Scientific and cultural advancement
as pioneered by Greeks and Romans were opposed by Church. It was the 'age of faith' rather than 'the age of
reason and new, ideas'.
 But modern scholars either avoid the term 'dark age' or use it in a neutral way i.e. to denote the dearth of artistic
and cultural output including historical records compared to both earlier and later times. Also, as some scholars
argue, advancement can come out of vacuum.
 If 16th centuries is considered as the age of discovery then certainly its base was prepared somewhere in the early
middle ages. Moreover, the rise of archaeology and other specialties in 20 centuries shed more light on the period
and offers better understanding of its positive development.
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The dawn of 18th Century was characterized by:

 End of Feudalism in England (Feudalism ended much later in rest of Europe).
 Increase in the number of towns and cities.
 Increase in trade.
 Transition to a money-based economy from land-based economy of Feudalism.
 Rise of Merchant classes and Absolute Monarchs (*England had Democracy and after the Glorious Revolution
of 1688, there was supremacy of Parliament instead of Monarchy).
 Decline in power of the Catholic Church.
 Mercantile Capitalism.
 British-French rivalry at its zenith.
FEUDALISM
 Feudalization of administrative structure was one of the most important features of medieval Europe.
 Instead different chiefs preferred to establish their rule in different regions and continued to collect taxes from
peasantry. In absence of any organised state for securing protection even peasants submitted before local chiefs.
 Thus, emerged feudalism which was based on a hierarchy in which king was on the upper most level. The
king used to provide jagir to lords who in return rendered military service to the king.
 Feudalism was having an economic dimension too, Feudalism is marked ruralisation of economy in which trade
and money economy played an insignificant role. It is from 11th century onwards that once again revival of trade
and money economy urbanization started that gave a jolt to feudalism.
 Due to the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, a new socio-economic system emerged in Europe
known as Feudalism. This characterized the decentralization of power of king and emergence of local chiefs.
 These chiefs enjoyed absolute authority over a given area. This political set-up later emerged into a hierarchy
of power levels where each level had defined power and responsibility which couldn't be interfered with by any
other level.
 In this system land was provided by king to the lords who in return provided military service to the king. The
point to be noted here is that it was a rigid system where proper channel has to be followed.
 Feudal economy was basically a rural economy with agriculture as the main occupation. Trade and commerce
which flourished under the Roman Empire declined. Labour system in feudalism hindered upward social
mobility leading to a stagnant society. Further, the rise of Catholic Church had its own influence on society.
The Church
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 The Roman Catholic Church was as powerful as the institution of Feudalism. Once the rulers in Europe accepted
Christianity, the Pope, who headed the Church, became the head of the Christian world in Western Europe.
 By the 6th century, the Pope often wielded more power than the King and could make him follow his orders.
Initially, the Monasteries (the places where the Monks lived) were institutes of high learning. The monks worked
to uplift people’s moral life and for welfare of the poor. But soon, corruption crept into the monasteries.
Church’s Evils
In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church’s evils took the
form of:
 Money for Church posts.
 Money for every ritual.
 Money for removing sins. For example, the Church started
selling Letters of Indulgence which upon their purchase removed
the need for doing pilgrimages for removal of sins.
 Church owned & amassed huge property.
 The Church was the only institution for education in the
medieval time but becoming a Monk was the only future prospect
this education offered. They taught in Latin which was not understood by the common man.
 Church made “once in a year” confession of sins to the Father compulsory and the breach of this rule mandated
punishment.
 Logic, Reason and Science were discouraged. There was no education available in the disciplines of Science
and History. This is why the developments in Science and Technology that happened later are referred to as the
Scientific Revolution.
TOWARDS MODERN TIMES

1. Political Development –
 A new development in Western Europe by 1000 C.E. was the formation of Holy Roman Empire. It extended
over the regions of Germany and Austria. This empire played an important role in crusades and in the promotion
of Christianity.
 Eastern Roman empire (Constantinople) fell to Turks in 1453 which had a major economic consequence as well
along with the political one.
2. Economic Development –
 The fall of Constantinople to Turks disrupted the trade link between the east and the west. Being Muslims the
Turks didn't allow Christians to trade in the region. But the Italian merchants although being Christians sidelined
their religion for time being and continued the trade with the East.
 Heavy demand of oriental goods in European cities pressed other merchants and rulers to look for alternative
ways to have a share in this trade. This prepared the background for discovery of new sea-routes.
3. Religious Development –
 By this time there were major interpolations in the teachings of Jesus. Medieval church system or Universal
Church System promoted priesthood and sacraments. Thus, the simple and ritual free religion preached by
Jesus turned into a complex one.
 This created a monopoly of the priest class over religious matters. This period also saw the emergence and
rise of a new religion i.e. Islam. It played a major role in shaping the politico-socio-economic structure of the
region.
4. Social Development –
 Feudal economy was a rural economy. But in due course of time certain factors led to the emergence of new
towns. Increase in demand of luxury goods by feudal lords was one such factor. Contact with the eastern world
during crusades led to increase in demand for oriental luxury goods.
 Further, the extension of cultivation and improvement in agricultural methods created surplus production.
Thus, now the peasants could exchange this surplus for other goods. This encouraged the growth of crafts and
trade and led to the emergence of towns. All these factors eventually led to the disintegration of feudal system.
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Disintegration of Feudal system

Reasons –
 Revival of trade and growth and towns
 Emergence of money economy or capitalist economy
 Emergence of middle class
 Discover a new sea routes and lands
 Revolts against feudal oppressions
Beginning of new Era

Reasons-
 Renaissance
 Reformation
 Voyages to discover new sea routes and land
 Emergence of Nation states
 Rise of Global Economy (commercial revolution)
RISE OF MODERN WEST

 th th
Between 14 century and 16 century, Europe underwent a phase of
material and ideological change as the result of which rise of modern
west became possible. Changes were not confined to Europe only but
there was revision of relationship west and rest.
 It was during this period European Nations pursued overseas expansion
and put its mark even and other continents. Following diagram reflects
the process of change in Europe:
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
 After the decline of Constantinople in 1453 the trade route between Europe and the Eastern world was disrupted.
The European economy was expanding by this time and it needed access to the east for luxury goods which
was in great demand in Europe.
 This led to initiatives for discovery of new land and sea routes. Thus, the continent of America was discovered
in 1492 and sea route to India was discovered 1498.
 Similarly, most of the world was discovered in due course of time. This gave rise to a global economy linking
America to Asia. This led to development of money economy and banking system in Europe. Various companies
started dealing in trade and commerce.
 This also led to the rise of new class known as mercantile or middle class.
Impact of Commercial Revolution
Impact of commercial revolution
Crusades - resulted into discovery Decline of Constantinople and

Agrarian surplus caused by new
of new routes disruption of trade between
technologies
Europe and Asia
MERCANTILISM
 Most of the voyages for discovery of sea routes and new land were sponsored by the monarchs of Europe. Thus,
they also got involved in trading activities.
 By 17 century the commercial revolution involved trade on larger scale. The monarch was controlling this
trade. This feature is known as mercantilism.
 In other words, mercantilism was an economic programme guided by political objective.
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 Mercantilism was based on certain peculiar assumptions –

o Accumulation of wealth in the form of precious metals would increase the strength of a nation.
o Favourable balance of trade was considered good for a country's economic health - This meant that there
was always a need of-more exports than imports.
o Mercantilism encouraged colonialism as well. The colonies were supposed to serve the mother country by
providing raw material and market. The policy of mercantilism continued till the American Revolution.
CRUSADES
 Three Crusades were fought between Christian and Islamic power (between Christian state of Europe and
Islamic power) in the period between 1095 and 1291. This was caused due to the expansionist policy of Islam on
one hand and changing political- economic condition of Europe on the other.
 In Europe, clergy and aristocratic class were seeking peace for promoting prosperity in Europe. So, internal conflict
was consciously exported outside and at the initiative of Byzantine emperor Alexious I and Pope Urban II
Christian army moved to Syria and Jerusalem which had remained to be sacred place for Jews, Christian and Islam
all.
RENAISSANCE
Introduction
The period between 14th century and 17th century is marked by
intellectual fermentation that was called renaissance. The literal meaning Curiosity
of Renaissance is 'reawakening'. Following features were associated
with this- Spirit of
Rationalism
 Humanism was at the core of Renaissance. It meant focus on enquiry
Humanity, rather than Divinity. It manifested in a shift in focus
towards study of man and nature, rather than theology.
 European scholars became largely attracted to Greek and Roman Secularism Humanism
classical literature which was full of Humanism. It was quite
antithetical to Christian perception of the world in which man was
portrayed as a sinful creature seeking the grace of God. Spirit of
Individualism
 Renaissance gave greater emphasis on the study of Humanities adventure
which included study of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral
philosophy. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion and emphasized skills developed by
individual through discussion and debate.
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 Church had given primacy to scholastic philosophy that believed that meditation is the source of knowledge.
However, renaissance presented an alternative view about Men, nature and
universe.
 According to renaissance, consciousness through observation, supervision and
experimentation knowledge can be attained. This understanding led to the
development of scientific ideas. Thus, emerged the great scientists of the age -
Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton.
 Humanist view of history was associated with Renaissance. Humanists thought that
they were restoring 'true civilization' after centuries of darkness. They believed that
'dark age' had set after the collapse of Roman Empire.
 The invention of Printing Press in first half of 15th century led to further spread
of education & new ideas. Though it had less impact on the poor who were illiterate.
 If we are exploring the causes for renaissance, we came to know that material change through which Europe was
undergoing during this period worked as a major factor. Italian City states are supposed to be the birthplace of
renaissance. Actually, commercial success of Italian States brought a shift in cultural attitude as well.
 Commercial activities gave birth to a new social class as mercantile class which latter came to be characterized
as the middle class, obviously with the rise of the new class a new attitude to life appeared. In one sense it was this
attitude which gave birth to renaissance consciousness.
 Without the support of Asian ideas and technology (printing which was invented in China) such an intellectual
fermentation in Europe was not possible. There was an exchange of ideas between Europe and Oriental world
and Arabian scholars worked as an intellectual bridge. Through sea voyages such exchange of ideas became
possible. In the meantime, application of printing press boosted wider circulation of ideas.
Emphasis of Renaissance
After retrospection we can underline that renaissance was not an intellectual revolution but rather an attitude of mind.
Its emphasis was on following factors-
o Curiosity and the spirit of enquiry-this factor encouraged scientific discovery.
o Spirit of adventure- this factor promoted great voyages.
o Humanism- Emphasis over dignity of man and a sense of this -worldliness.
o Individualism-greater importance attached to individual led to writing of autobiography.
o Secularism -An attack over those priests in whose 'word' and 'action' there was greater dichotomy.
Impact of Renaissance
Renaissance (Impact)
Reformation Through reviving

Sea voyages and
(Started Encourage Scientific New learning, Roman court of Law,
Discovery of New
questioning on the Discovery literature, art etc. it gives support to
region
orthodoxy) powerful monarchy
REFORMATION
Introduction
 Alongside, the 16th Century also witnessed Reformation which can be classified into Protestant Reformation
& Catholic Reformation
Reformation
Protestant Reformation Catholic Reformation
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 Reformation was a movement against the practices and authority of the radical Catholic Church. It resulted in
the rise of Protestantism and in their opposition, the Protestant leaders started setting up Protestant Churches in
different countries of Europe.
 Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters of Indulgence and other Church evils, the first Protestant
Church was setup in Germany (from 1520-1545) under the King’s support.
 The German rulers supported Luther due to political reasons as well. They desired freedom from authority of Pope
and control on wealth of Monasteries. Soon after, the Protestant Reformation spread to rest of Europe.
 Nationalism also played a role as the people now despised the authority of Catholic Church located in Rome.
 In England, King Henry VII declared himself the head of the Church. Then the Queen Elizabeth I made the Church
of England, the official church by declaring its independence from the Church in Rome and adopting some
Reformation principles.
 Protestant churches adopted the use of language spoken by the people, rather than the elitist Latin. The Bible was
translated into local languages. (This was similar to ascendance of local languages in place of Sanskrit during
Indian Renaissance). The use of local languages further increased national consciousness & thus Renaissance
and Reformation can said to be a precursor to nationalism in Europe.
 Reason was popularized as more important than Religion.
 By 17th century, half of Europe had setup their own Protestant Churches.
Cause of Reformation
1. Religious Factor:
 Religious cause was definitely the important cause and religious corruption put a big question mark to a legitimacy
of the church system but it is equally true as internal reform have already started so it was not a big issue that’s
why the economic and political factors played more decisive role than the religious factor.
2. Economic factor:
 Roman Catholic Church discouraged money lending which was not favourable for the merchant class which was
a dominant force now. Thus they got alienated from the Church.
 Church owned the best land of the country, which the rulers saw as means to increase their wealth by confiscating
it. Thus the ruler supported the protestant movement.
 Rise of Nationalism also played a role. Taxes collected by church went to Rome. People from other countries saw
this as a drain of wealth from their country.
3. Political factor:
 Rise of Nationalism
 Rise of absolutisms (as against dual sovereignty) – As the Church interfered in political matters as well so some
ambitious monarchs encouraged the protestants movement to make the decline of Universal Church System faster
and gain absolute control over political matters.
THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618-1648)

 This was a struggle between the catholic power and protestant power. It started in Germany as a result of
conflict of interest of Roman Catholics and Protestants. One important aspect to be noted here is that although
it started as a religious conflict it ended with political consequences thus changing the balance of power in
Europe.
 A major cause of this conflict was the rivalry between Bourbon and Habsburg dynasties.
 Habsburg dynasty (Austria, Spain) held the post of Holy Roman Empire.
 Bourbon dynasty (France) was powerful and envied this privilege of Habsburg. Thus, although being a catholic
power, it opposed the Holy Roman Empire. Finally as a result of this conflict Holy Roman Empire declined and
new factors came into play in European politics.
Treaty Of Westphalia (1648)

This was signed at the end of the thirty years war and is a landmark in European history. This treaty resulted in the
formation of nation-states in Europe. Main provisions of the treaty were-
 German states were given autonomy to conduct their foreign policy, i.e. to declare war and conclude peace.
 Equality of all European nations, irrespective of their size was recognized in international relations.
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 Diplomacy appeared to be a substitute for war.

 Maintenance of balance of power became an important concept in European politics this also acted as a
substitute for war.
Nation – state of Europe in 19th century
ENLIGHTENMENT
“Enlightenment is……….the liberation of man from his self-caused state of immaturity. Immaturity is the incapacity of
using one’s understanding without the guiding direction of another…….Sapere aude! (Dare to know). Dare to use your
understanding: this is the motto of Enlightenment” - (Immanuel Kant, 1784)
 After the rise of modern west, modern west moved to another stage of ideological fermentation that was known
as enlightenment. Literal meaning of enlightenment was ‘Dawn of light after long night of darkness’ i.e. darkness
of ignorance, that of superstition, that of intolerance and that of servitude of the past.
Origin and spread of Enlightenment

 Although there is a controversy about exact beginning of Enlightenment but it is largely supposed that the age of
enlightenment started when French thinker ‘Voltaire’ visited Britain as he started to compare the open British
society with closed society. Then Enlightenment continued throughout 18th Century.
 Later it was given challenged by French revolutionaries and German nationalist.
Basis of Enlightenment
1. Social Basis:
 The rise of middle class as a result of the commercial revolution played an important role in facilitating
enlightenment. Enlightenment represented the middle class interest. This ambitious class presented a ‘code
of conduct’ before monarchy aristocratic class and church.
 So we can say that this code of conduct was enlightenment. For instance, the middle class wanted a share in
political power. So limited monarchy was most suitable to them.
 As under this system, on one hand they get a say in the government and on the other hand the monarch still
had enough power to maintain law and order. Free economy too was beneficial for the merchant class.
Freedom to profess their religion without any interference from church was also liked by them.
2. Technological/ Scientific Basis:
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 In 16th Century, Renaissance has encouraged scientific ideas. Up to 17th century there started a scientific
revolution when the theoretical knowledge of Scientists and the practical knowledge of a technician came near
to each other, then even a formula of Mathematics came to be used in physics also.
 As the result of such changes, there was a formation of a number of scientific societies like, ‘Royal Society of
London’, ‘French Academy of Science’ etc.
 The scientific revolution removed Veil from the mysteries of the nature. The scholar came to realize that
god is not running the nature rather nature functions according to its own internal laws.
 This realization influence human conscious as well, then scholar started the question, if God does not
intervene in to the function of the nature then why the King or Aristocratic Class or Church will intervene the
functioning of Political, Social and Religious structure.
Emphasis of Enlightenment
 Rationalism is the basis of knowledge.
 The future of a man guided by rationalism is bright in other words through this rationalist method one can reach up
to the point of his / her perfection. On this basis Enlightenment was optimistic in its approach.
 Through using scientific method the fundamental Political, Economical, Social and Religious problems could be
solved.
 It gives emphasis over material happiness and neglected Salvation or Nirvarna Concept.
Thinkers during the Age of Enlightenment:

Many leading thinkers of enlightenment period either belonged to the 'middle class' or were patronised by the
middle class. Thus their ideas represented middle class interest. Nevertheless, they all wanted change. Famous
philosophes', as they were called, included –
John Locke He believed that human happiness lies in education. As per him man is malleable and through
proper education he can be moulded into the desired shape. Locke gave the concept of limited
monarchy.
Voltaire His visit to England is considered as the start of enlightenment. He was impressed with Newton
and Locke. He was against absolute monarchy and ridiculed church and its superstitious
beliefs. In his text 'Philosophical letters' (1733) he skilfully contrasted the rationality of
Newton's scientific methods and reasonableness of the English way of life with the superstitious
and ignorant life of French society.
Denis Diderot He too emphasised on the importance of rational education. He is best known as the co-
author of the Encyclopaedia.
Montesquieu He, in his text 'Spirit of Laws', emphasized on the separation of power in government. He
considered it essential for its efficient functioning. This concept is used even in modern times
in many constitutions like the U.S.A.
Adam Smith His area of work was economics that is known as classical economics. He gave the concept of
Laissez faire i.e. Free trade policy and discarded mercantilism as detrimental to
international trade.
J.J. Rousseau He, although a great philosopher of his time, had a different set of ideas as compared to his
contemporaries. He believed that modern society is the main cause of all miseries of man and
man was in the best position when he was in the 'state of nature'. Unlike others, he gave more
importance to emotions rather than rationalism. In the same way he advocated for complete
democracy when others were content with limited monarchy.
Immanuel Kant Rationality was the key word for him to get rid of all of man's problems. He emphasised that
it is only through reasoning that one can justify his actions to be right or wrong.
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CH-2 AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1765-1783)

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with
certain unalienable rights that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” - The Declaration of
Independence, 4 July 1776
Introduction and background

 The American Revolution also known as American war of independence, stands as one of the significant
landmarks in the history of the modern world as it was the world's first anti-colonial struggle.
 As a result of this revolution, a new nation-the United States of America-was born and the Americans were able
to escape of the clutches of British imperialism.
 American continent was discovered in the last decade of 15th century. By 16th century European countries began
to make settlements there. In North America, colonies were developed by France, Holland, Spain and England.
 After the end of the Seven Years War by the second treaty of Paris (1763), England drove out France from the
eastern part of the continent and Canada. Earlier, England took New Netherlands from the Dutch and named it New
York.
 By the middle of 18th century, there were 13 English colonies along the Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, traders,
people seeking religious freedom and profiteers settled there.
 The 13 colonies that eventually became United States were - New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina
and Georgia.
 They varied in size and were multi-cultural. Majority of population consisted of independent farmers. Infant
industries developed in farm products like wool, flax and leather.
 In the north, fishing and ship building industries were set up while south indulged in plantations of tobacco
and cotton. These plantations sustained on slaves from Africa.
 Although these colonies were under the control of British crown, but they exercised considerable autonomy in
internal matters.
 Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters and headed by a governor.
 Though the colonist enjoyed considerable political autonomy, in economic matters they were subject to various
British mercantilist restrictions.
 Initially these restrictions were quite loose, but after 1763 the British monarch George III assisted by his ministers
Grenville and Townshend tightened these controls.
Reasons for American resentments against the British
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 While the British Mercantilism or Mercantile capitalism created an environment of resentment among the White
Americans, the Seven Year War created conditions, which became the immediate trigger for the American
Revolution.
 Seven Year War laid the ground for American Revolution (1765-83).
1. Economic issue –
 In one sense American Revolution was conflict between British Mercantilism and American capitalism.
 As an economic ideology, mercantilism try to subordinate colonial economy to the economic interest of
metropolitan state. Under its influence following step were taken:
a. Navigation act of 1651 was introduced to promote the interest of the shipping industry of Britain at the
cost American shipping industry.
b. Americans were compelled to sell three important products - Rice, Tobacco and Cotton only to the British
merchants.
c. British government consciously discourages Industrialization in America, so that America could work
as the market for British product.
2. American colonies were a Nation in making-

 Status of American colonies was gradually rising but British is not in position to recognize such status.
 Once American intellectual and leader Benzamine Franklin’ give the hint to the British government about the
new identity of America but the British did not pay heed to it.
3. Class interest favored Revolution-

 Merchants favoured revolution against Britain in the hope of economic freedom
 Smuggler favoured revolution as they were hoping free movement in Atlantic Ocean after liberation.
 Political leaders advocated for revolution as they could manifest their bright future in independent America.
 Students and intellectuals supported revolution as they were inspired by republican ideas.
 Tobacco growers of Virginia enthusiastically participated in revolution as British had restricted their westward
expansion.
4. Constitutional Issue-
 Between Britain and American colony even constitutional issue was involved.
 The British gave primacy to Parliamentary supremacy (Sovereignty) and they try to emphasis that all other
institutions were sub-ordinated to the British Parliament
 American (Judicial Supremacy) placed the natural right of man above all the laws including Parliamentary
laws.
5. No Representation in British Parliament –

 The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed stamp taxes on all business
transactions in the British colonies in USA.
 Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the American leaders opposed the right of
Britain to levy any taxes on them.
 In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered and adopted the slogan of “No
Taxation without Representation”.
 The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a protest against the Tea tax.
6. Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure –

 The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they decided to make up for the costs of war
by taxing the people in British colonies in North America, the latter opposed it.
7. Role of Enlightenment Thinkers –

 Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and demanding freedom and liberty for the
people.
 They placed before the people, the idea of a democratic form of governance.
 They helped in development of ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militated against colonialism.
 Montesquieu had described the principle of Separation of Powers in 1748.
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 The Enlightenment thinkers in mid-1700s in France gave following ideas, which influenced both, the American
Revolution and the French Revolution:
o Reason: Enlightenment thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical
thinking.
o Nature: They believed that there were natural laws of economics and politics, just as there were natural
laws of motion.
o Happiness: Philosophers were impatient with the medieval notion propagated by the Church that
people should accept misery in this world to find joy in the life after death.
o Progress: The philosophers were the first Europeans to believe in progress for society. With a scientific
approach, they believed, society and humankind could be perfected.
o Liberty: The philosophers envied the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious
Revolution (1688).
8. Immediate factor -
 Differences already existed between Britain and American colonies but it reached up to breaking point when
having been encouraged by over ambitious King George III. The different British ministries started to
intervene in to the economic matter of American colonies.
 It was the government of Grenville (Britain PM in 1763) who started to examine the American account and
to augment the British income in America. He imposed several taxes like Stamp Act, Sugar Act etc. and also
tries to enforce navigation act forcefully.
Events of the revolution

The Americans initially were not looking for complete independence but for an independent relationship between
the colonies and the mother country. But as events unfolded, it finally returned out to be a war of independence. Major
events in chronological order were as follows:
1.The
The Boston Tea The Philadelphia Declaration of The War of
Massachusetts
Party (1773) Congress Independence Independence
Assembly (1765)
1. The Massachusetts Assembly (1765):

 Leaders of all the colonies assembled in the colony of Massachusetts to discuss their common problems. They
insisted on 'No taxation without representation' and threatened to stop the import of British goods.
 This threat led to the repeal of the Stamp Act. But the British parliament made it a point that it's their right to
levy taxes by taxing consumer goods coming into colonies like paper, glass, tea and paint.
 Again, the colonist opposed by stressing that it is only their local assemblies which had the right to raise
money via taxes from them and in protest the Americans cut down the English imports by one-half.
 The English again back tracked but to assert their right to levy taxes, didn't abolish the tax on tea.
2. The Boston Tea Party (1773):

 It gets its name from the place this event took place in, Boston. Colonies refused to unload the tea coming in
English ships. In Boston, when the governor ordered unloading of a ship, a group of citizens led by Samuel
Adams, boarded the ship dressed as American Indians and dumped the tea crates into the water.
 This incident is known as 'Boston tea party'. The government in England ordered the closure of the port for all
trade, thus further fanning the resentment.
3. The Philadelphia Congress and the Declaration of Independence:

 All the colonies (except Georgia), sent delegates to the first continental congress held in Philadelphia in
September 1774.
 This congress appealed to the British king to remove restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose
any tax without their consent.
 It also organized a continental association and decided to start military - preparations. The British king,
taking their action as mutiny ordered to send British troops to America.
 The colonists too planned for military defence with local troops. The first clash occurred in Massachusetts in
1775.
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 After the initial skirmishes the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia and chose George
Washington as the commander-in-chief of the American forces.
 It again reiterated its demand to the British king But the British decision to continue fighting led continental
congress to adopt the “Declaration of Independence” on 4 July 1776, it was drafted by Thomas Jefferson.
4. Declaration of Independence
 The declaration asserted on the equality of all men and held that the people are the source of authority.
 It affirmed people’s right to set up their own government. Up to the declaration of independence the colonists
had been fighting for their rights as English men. But after the declaration in 1776 they fought for their right
to be an independent nation.
5. The War of Independence:

 The declaration of Independence marked the formal beginning of the American war of Independence that
was to last more than six years with fighting in every colony.
 Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a military turning point of the revolution. The British forces under General
Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans.
 However further the Americans faced several defeats until France came to their help in 1778 after concluding a
Treaty of alliance. France declared war against England and in 1779, Spain entered the fray as an ally of
France.
 Finally, with the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at New York town in 1781 the revolutionary war was over and
with the “Treaty of Paris” causes of American success.
Second Treaty of Paris 1783

It ended the American War of Independence. Some of its important clauses were:
1. Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain
2. All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent states, with Britain giving up all claims
on government, property and territory.
3. US would give back confiscated lands of Loyalists.
4. Spain signed a separate treaty with Britain and it got back Florida (lost to Britain after the 1st treaty of Paris,
1763)
Causes of American Success

Though British forces were stronger than the American side led by George Washington, the British were defeated. The
American success in the revolutionary war was due to a variety of factors:
1. From the beginning, the British authorities did not attach much importance to the revolutionary effort of the
Americans and they mainly relied on mercenary soldiers to suppress them.
2. The remoteness of the American continent and British ignorance of American geography also contributed to
the success of the Americans.
3. The British authorities failed to rally the loyalist Americans.
4. The fierce spirit of liberty drove the Americans to success.
5. The military success owed its origin to the extraordinary military leadership of George Washington.
6. The international situation also helped the American revolutionaries.
Significance of the American Revolution

 American colonies were the first colonies which got independent so it became symbol for colonial liberation.
 In 1789, the United States Constitution came into effect. It was the first written Republic Constitution. The Bill
of Rights is the set of first ten amendments to the USA constitution and includes freedom of speech, press,
religion and justice under the law.
 The American Revolution established the first democratic Republic in the world and the USA soon embarked
on Industrial Revolution.
 American federation became the model for those countries which were much larger in size, multi rationales and
multi religious.
 The most important contribution of American Revolution was its contribution to ideas of Liberty, Equality,
Fundamental Rights, Nationalism and anti-colonialism.
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 American Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the future events, the most
prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789.
 Lastly, after the liberation of American colonies, it emerged as the stronger Nation and it has played a very
decisive role in world history after 150 years.
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CH-3 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861 – 1865)

Hardly did any destructive events produce such a constructive impact as the American Civil war did. If as American
Revolution made USA an independent Nation, American civil war made USA modern Nation. After the civil war
United States of America was more economically and culturally unified.
Background
 When American won Independence from England in 1776, there were 13 colonies which formed a federal
government.
 Colonies expanded from east coast to west forming 34 states by 1861.
 American civil war is the biggest conflict in the history of America. Around 3000 battles were fought. About 7 lakh
Americans died. More than 15 lakhs injured and displaced.
 American civil war was biggest challenge to the integration of America.
 There were differences between states in the north and states in the south – which resulted in the American Civil
War.
Northern States
Relied upon a workforce where people worked

and got paid. Did not have slavery dominating
their society (Industrialised)
Southern States
Relied heavily upon a slave workforce in the

field to help harvest crop (Plantation)
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Cause behind the Civil War

The difference in the attitude towards slavery can be seen as the root cause of the American Civil War. This had
rippling effects in the economic and political sphere too. The factors which led to the outbreak of the Civil War in
America can be consolidated as below.
1. Slavery Issue
 At the heart of the divide between the North and the South was slavery. The South relied on slavery for labor to
work the fields.
 Many people in the North believed that slavery was wrong and evil. These people were called abolitionists. They
wanted slavery to be illegal throughout the United States.
 Abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, John Brown, Harriet Tubman, and Harriet Beecher Stowe began to
convince more and more people of the evil of slavery. This made wealthy landowners in the South fearful that their
way of life would come to an end.
2. Economic Issue
 In northern American states, Industrialization started but slavery system was antithetical to industrial economy
as a demand of industrial economy was movement of free labour.
 On the other hand, in southern states, the plantation agriculture was the backbone of an economy. This
plantation agriculture could not survive without the slave labour that’s why southern states widely supported the
slavery system.
3. Constitutional Issue
 It was the time American federation was making a west ward expansion under its famous slogan of ‘Manifest
Destiny’. But whenever region was inducted into the Union as the new state, fresh controversy started between
northern states and southern states, whatever this region concern, should be inducted as a ‘free state’ or a ‘slave
state’
 This question was much important because of the fact that in a slave state, number of slaves had to be counted
that indicates the number of representation in the House of Representative.
 The northern free states were worried about the fact that, if more or more region would be inducted as slave state,
the slave state would form majority in House of Representative.
 At every occasion of integration of new region, slave state persistently pressurizes the federation to induct as the
region as slave state. For example – at the time of integration of Texas and later California, like was even at the
time of integration of Kansas and Nebraska, fresh controversy stared.
4. Bleeding Kansas
 The first fighting over the slavery issue took place in Kansas.
 In 1854, the government passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act allowing the residents of Kansas to vote on whether
they would be a slave state or a free state.
 The region was flooded with supporters from both sides. They fought over the issue for years. Several people were
killed in small skirmishes giving the confrontation the name Bleeding Kansas. Eventually Kansas entered the
Union as a free state in 1861.
5. Fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and Republican party

 The final straw for the South was election of Abraham Lincoln to President of the United States.
 Abraham Lincoln was a member of the new anti-slavery Republican Party. He managed to get elected without
even being on the ballot in ten of the southern states.
 The southern states felt that Lincoln was against slavery and also against the South.
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6. Immediate Causes
 Firstly, the victory of Lincoln was one of the immediate causes of the Civil War.
 In the Presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln as its candidate. Abraham
Lincoln had an objective to regarded slavery as an evil in society and abolish it anyhow.
 The disunity of the opposing Democrats, led by Stephen A. Douglas, helped the Republican Party to win the
election of 1860.
 Secondly, the secession of the Southern states served as another immediate cause of the war. The secession
from the Union, if Lincoln were elected, was a foregone conclusion.
 Once the election returns were certain, a specially summoned South Carolina convention declared 'that the Union
now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the "United States of America" is
hereby dissolved'.
 Other southern states promptly followed South Carolina's example, and on 8 February 1861, they formed the
Confederate States of America under the leadership of Jefferson Davis.
Contribution of Abraham Lincoln

 In 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the USA as a Republican Candidate.
 Abraham Lincoln was president of the United States during the Civil War. Though he had little military
experience, he pursued the war to the end, thus reuniting the North and the South.
 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in the rebellious Southern states. This set
the precedent for ultimately freeing the slaves through the 13th Amendment after Lincoln's death.
 Abraham Lincoln not simply promoted American Capitalism and republican ideas through abolition of slavery
but also, he successfully preserves the Union.
 Abraham Lincoln changed the world using his powerful moral rhetoric and by taking action in the fight to end
slavery and win the Civil War.
 Lincoln also expanded the role of the federal government in his efforts to keep the union together.
 After the civil war, citizens of all states of the USA were granted citizenship and equal rights.
 It was Abraham Lincoln who gave the famous principle of democracy – i.e. government of the people, by the
people and for the people.
Significance/impact of the American Civil War

 The war put an end to the institution of slavery (13th amendment).
 The war abolished the secession of states for all times to come.
 In the economic sphere, the war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries.
 More area came under cultivation – particularly in the western regions on North America.
 Use of more machines – which enhanced production, so the employment opportunities.
 Regulation of banking system (National Banking Act) and use of paper currency contributed to the growth of the
nationwide business.
 New weapons were used.
 Improvement in transport and communication
 Inspiration to other countries to abolish evil practice of the slavery.
 While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of
nation it would be.
Previous years Questions

1) “No taxation without representation” Comment.
2) “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government can not endure permanently half slave and
half free” Explain Abraham Lincoln’s perspective.
3) “American revolution seems to have come with remarkable suddenness. A roster of talented leaders emerged during
1763 to 1775 to make it happen” Elucidate.
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4) “The American revolution was essentially an economic conflict between American capitalism against British
Mercantilism” Critically examine.
5) The American war of Independence “deprive Great Britain of one empire, but it strengthened the foundation of
another” Comment.
6) “Why is American Revolution is called the middle-class Revolution” Comment.
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CH-4 FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)
Introduction
 By the end of the eighteenth century Europe had undergone profound change under the influence of
Enlightenment.
 Philosophers and artists promoted reason and human freedom over traditions and religion.
 The rise of a middle class and availability of printed material encouraged political awareness, and the American
Revolution had turned a former English colony into an independent republic.
 France, one of the largest and richest countries in Europe was still governed by Ancient Regime, a three-level
rigid social class system.
 The French Revolution will pose challenge to the Ancient regime, and will finally lead to the formation of a new
republic. But this phenomenon was not restricted to France, rather it proved to be a widespread upheaval which
shook all institutions in other parts of Europe as well.
Background
 To understand how and why French Revolution occurred, we have to understand French society of the time.
 Quite surprisingly, conditions in France were no worse than the conditions that existed in other parts of Europe but
still revolution occurred in France.
 France was a strong and powerful state in the 18th century which was characterized by autocratic nature,
extravagant rulers, privileged nobles and clergy, landless peasants, jobless workers. However, despite its
outward strength, the French monarchy was facing a crisis which was to lead to its destruction.
Social condition in the 18th century France

 The political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution was called the
Ancient regime.
 The Ancient regime was characterized by autocratic monarchy, privileged
aristocracy and feudal socio-economic setup.
 French society was divided into classes or Estates. The clergy constituted the First
Estate, the aristocracy comprised the Second Estate, and the rest of the population
formed the Third Estate.
 The first two Estates were privileged while the third Estate was unprivileged.
 Progress in trade and commerce in 18th century Europe gave rise to a new social class
called the bourgeoisie or the middle class.
 The French revolution can be seen as an example of a “bourgeois revolution” which
sprang from such societal unease.
Causes behind French Revolution
Political Cause
 The word ‘revolution’ generally means a fundamental change in a social system, or structural, and a shift from
one type of social system or structure to another.
 The French Revolution of 1789 can therefore be branded a “total revolution”.
 The very thrust of the revolution aimed at the destruction of the feudal social system which had developed in
Europe over the last thousand years or so and the establishment in its place of a capitalist or bourgeois social
system.
 In fact, revolution is usually pre-conditioned by growing grievances and discontent within elements of society.
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 The long-standing discontent of the French people found an outlet in this revolution and their revolutionary
spirit found expression in the writings of the intelligentsia.
 In eighteenth-century Europe, autocratic and hereditary monarchies were in power, and France was no exception.
Louis XIV, a French king of the Bourbon dynasty, reinforced autocratic monarchy by centralizing his power.
 In France, the king headed the Judiciary, so he had the power to sanction a punishment meted out and
imprisonment without trial.
 The parliament was the highest royal court of justice, the most powerful of which was the parliament of Paris.
 The king did not have the power to dismiss the magistrates or judges of parliament but the delayed justice,
complexities of judicial process, and legal expenses made the judicial system corrupt. Besides, the earlier impartial
judicial system as prevalent during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI completely broke down.
 The prime objective of the parliaments was to retain the special privileges of the aristocracy to the point that they
even began to challenge the king's power to introduce reforms.
 Ultimately, the attempt by the autocratic monarchy to centralize power failed. However, despite the decadence
and inefficiency of the monarchy, the people of France felt drawn towards it, and they were not in favour of its
dissolution and led the cause of French Revolution.
Social Cause
 The French society was divided into three Estates. The top two Estates were the privileged ones. They didn't
pay any tax and the king's laws were not applicable to them. This led to rise of discontentment among non-privileged
classes.
 The clergy, who formed 1% of the population, was in control of 10% of total land, from which it extracted a
tithe (tax), enabling them to lead a luxurious life.
 Corruption was rampant in the church. Even the clergymen were divided into upper clergy, who were socially and
economically aristocratic, and the lower clergy, who belonged to the third Estate. The people of 18t century lost
respect for the church and the clergy.
 The aristocracy formed about one- third of the total population of the country and it also enjoyed many privileges
like the clergy. It owned huge tracts of land and, without paying any taxes it lived at the expenses of the peasant's
labour.
 Majority of the population of France belonged to the Third Estate. It comprised of rich businessman,
industrialists intellectual on one hand and the labouring men and peasants on the other. Thus socio-economic
division and disparity was more pronounced here.
 The people of the Third Estate were broadly divided into three groups- the bourgeoisie, the peasants, and the San-
culottes (town men).
 The bourgeoisie or the middle class, although a minority, wielded the greatest influence and considerable financial
power. They included some of the most enlightened and most intelligent member of the French society, yet
they were excluded from politics and administration by the privileged Estates. It was this incongruence which
fuelled the bourgeois revolution.
 The urban working class included the workers and skilled labourers. They were badly paid. Their wages didn't rise
in proportion to the rise of living expenses. Thus price hike was major cause of their discontent and led them
towards Revolution
Economic Cause
 The main cause of the economic crisis in France was the disparity in taxation.
 The structural and economic crisis of the Ancient regime deepened with the coronation of Louis XVI in 1774. With
the participation of France in the American War of Independence.
 The decline in the French economy started in the first half of the eighteenth century.
 The economic reforms undertaken Louis XVI met with failure because of his weak personality and opposition
from the aristocracy. Despite all this, the king and the aristocracy continued to maintain their privileged way of life
as before.
 The French economy meant that the exploitation of farmers by feudal lords gained in intensity. The French
historian Taine shows that four-fifths of a farmer’s income would be spent in payment of state tax, religious tax
imposed by Church and dues to feudal lords.
 The internal tariff barrier stood in the way of trade, commerce, and industry run by the bourgeoisie.
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 However, it was the social humiliation, more than the economic hardship of bourgeoisie class which paved the
support of revolution.
 The depression of 1778 and the failure of crops in 1787, on the eve of the French Revolution, was an utter disaster
for the French economy.
 Prices of commodities decreased following the depression and as a result, the profits went down and the labour
tells on bad days.
 Following the failure of crops in 1787-89, food production fell dramatically, leading to an increase in the
prices of foodstuff. The hardship of peasants, workers, and the weaker classes therefore intensified.
 The ministers in the council of Louis XVI-Turgot, Necker, and Calonne proposed a restructuring of the tax system
to tide them over the economic crisis and the only solution was to impose tax on aristocratic. But aristocracy made
it impossible. This resulted in the 'aristocratic revolt'-the beginning of the French Revolution.
Immediate cause
 Economic bankruptcy of government became the main reason for onset of the Revolution.
 To come out from bankruptcy situation, king appointed many economic advisers like Turgot, Necker and
Calonne, but all issue of economic reforms were just obstinacy of the aristocratic class which was deadly opposed
to taxing the privileged class.
 So French monarch Louis XVI was compelled to summon the session of state general. In this state general, it was
on the issue of voting that Revolution started.
Events in French Revolution of 1789

 In May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates
General to pass proposals for new taxes. The first and second estates
sent 300 representatives each, while there were 600 members of the third
estate. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly.
 Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according
to the principle that each estate had one vote.
 This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice.
But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted
by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote.
 This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers
like Rousseau. When the king rejected this proposal, members of third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.
 The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation. In June they
assembled at Tennis Court and declared themselves a National
Assembly and decided not to disperse till the drafting of the constitution.
 While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a
constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil.
 A severe winter led to a bad harvest and the price of bread rose.
Crowds of angry women stormed into the shops. In July, the agitated
crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille (a fortress prison symbol of
despotic powers of the king).
 In the countryside, rumours spread from village to village. They looted
hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of
manorial dues. A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many
of them migrating to neighboring countries.
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The Role of Philosophers

Montesquieu (1689–1755)
 The most prominent of the exponents of Enlightenment thought was Montesquieu.
 He was an admirer of the state and social system of England.
 His greatest work can be seen in The Spirit of dhe Laws (De l'esprit des Lois) came
out in 1734.
 In this book, be expounded his famous theory of the 'separation of powers'.
 He held that distinct separation of power among the legislature, judiciary, and
administrative wings of government was desirable for without which, it would be
impossible to curb an autocracy.
 He never spoke about the abolition of privileges of the Church and aristocracy
and he also remained silent about the rights of common people.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
 Voltaire was famous for his multi- faceted genius in the world of political thought.
Like Montesquieu he too was an admirer of the English model.
 The target of his attack was the Roman Catholic Church.
 For him Church was synonymous with religious bigotry yet far from being an atheist,
he was a believer in God.
 He had faith in the institution of monarchy and his ideal form of government was
'enlightened despotism'. He also neither supported democracy nor cared for the
interests of the people.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)

 The greatest thinker among contemporary French philosophers was Jean-Jacques
Rousseau.
 His ideology and thought was more extremist and revolutionary in character than
those of all other contemporary philosophers.
 His well-known works were - A Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, A Discourse on
the Origins of Inequality, The Social Contract, A Discourse on Political Economy,
Emile, etc.
 According to Rousseau, man was honest and happy in his natural condition but it
was society, which by way of creating division among men, became the source of
unhappiness and disquiet.
 He held that the state and society should evolve out of a social contract between all members of that society and that
sovereign power should lie not in the rights of kings, but in the 'general will' of the people.
 Rousseau's ideal political form was direct democracy. Rousseau set forth this theory in “The Social Contract”.
 He believed that in order to ensure social equality and freedom, there was little alternative but to hand over power
to the people.
 Rousseau's thoughts deeply influenced contemporary France and according to Napoleon, Rousseau was
responsible for the French Revolution more so than anyone else.
France become Constitutional Monarch

 The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers
of the monarch.
 These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person were now separated and assigned to
different institutions – the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. Fig
explains how the new political system worked.
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The Political system under the Constitution of 1791
 The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. Their leader was
Maximilian Robespierre. A large group among the Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers similar
to those worn by dock workers.
 In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king‘s guards and held the
king himself as hostage.
 Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held. From now on all men of 21 years
and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote. The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On
21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
 Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. In January 1793 he was executed publicly.
The queen met with the same fate shortly after.
Impact of French Revolution

Pros
 The French revolution had an important impact not just on France, but rest of the world
 Monarchy was abolished and Republic took its place.
 Political sovereignty introduced at individual and nation-state level with a centralized government.
 Serfdom, Feudalism, Slavery (USA banned it in 1865) were abolished and the influence of Church decreased
in personal lives.
 The privileged classes i.e. the first and the second estate, were abolished.
 Idea of separation of public and private realm emerged.
 The French revolution ushered in the new economic system of Capitalism as against the prevalent Feudalism.
 The French Revolution inspired movements against colonialism in colonies around the world, while movements
for democracy and self-rule rose in whole of Europe.
 Some Shortcomings: Limited suffrage, especially women were excluded, Slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon.
The Jacobian constitution, which although never came into effect, was the first genuinely democratic constitution.
It gave the right to vote to all, and even the Right to Insurrection, which implies the right to revolt or rise against the
government. The Government under the Jacobin constitution had the responsibility to give work to all and
‘Happiness’ of people was to be overarching state policy.
Cons
 Post-revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were the main force during the
uprising of 1789, and only the peasants benefited (as they became owners of land confiscated from the privileged
classes).
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 The revolution failed to bring in democratic rule and the Reign of Terror under the Jacobians started.
 Napoleon, due to his continuous warfare resulted in rise of nationalism in the invaded territories and he came to
be perceived, not as a liberator, but a conqueror. This Nationalism was to prove advantageous to the unification
of Germany and Italy in 1870s.
The Declaration of “Rights of Man and Citizens”

 Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
 The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are
liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
 The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not
come from the people.
 Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
 The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
 Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or
through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
 No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by law.
 Every citizen may speak, write and print freely. He must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases
determined by the law.
 For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable, it
must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.
 Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public
necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.
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CH-5 THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON

WHO WAS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE?
 Napoleon Bonaparte (1761 – 1821), also known as Napoleon I, was a French military
leader and emperor who conquered much of Europe in the early 19 th century.
 Born on the island of Corsica, Napoleon rapidly rose through the rank of military during
the French Revolution (1789 – 1799).
 After seizing political power in France in a 1799, he crowned himself emperor in 1804.
Shrewd, ambitious and skilled military strategist, Napoleon successfully waged war against
various coalitions of European nations and expands his empire.
 However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the
throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba.
 After crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (1815), he abdicated once again and was
exile to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.
RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER

Rise of Napoleon marked the end of the French Revolution, he was really a child
of the revolution. Within his empire, Napoleon tried to spread the ideas of the
French Revolution.
 Napoleon Bonaparte was born into an aristocratic family of Corsica on 15
August 1769. His lineage helped him study at the Ecole Militaire.
 He joined the French artillery as a Second Lieutenant at the age of 16. A
product of the revolution, Napoleon returned to Corsica to engage in politics,
only to be banished with his family in 1793. His belated return to the volatile
French political scene was marked by utmost caution.
 After returning to the army, Napoleon seized control of Toulon from the English and Spanish invaders in 1793
and re-established French supremacy there.
 This development was a watershed in his growing ascendancy for the military expertise he displayed in the battle
earned him a promotion to Brigadier general.
 The fall of Robespierre led to Napoleon's dismissal and arrest but Barras, the leader of Thermidorian Reaction,
released him. In 1795, he saved the National Convention from the rampaging supporters of monarchy and he was
thus elevated to the rank of General.
 The rule of the Directory failed to deal with the internal problems adequately, but its success in foreign affairs was
due to the military genius of Napoleon.
 He took on the might of the European coalition, defeated Sardinia. Then, forcing Austria to sign the Treaty of
Campo Formio in 1797. Napoleon annexed a large part of Italy.
 Under the Consulate, power was invested in three Consuls but Napoleon as the First Consul, was all-powerful. He
was appointed Consul for life following a national plebiscite. In 1804, Napoleon declared himself to be the
Emperor of France.
CAUSE FOR THE SUCCESS OF NAPOLEON

 To a large extent, Napoleon’s career resulted from the military and political forces he inherited from the
Revolution and exploited for his own purposes.
 Politically, France had suffered a full decade of revolutionary turmoil by 1799, making the government unstable
and corrupt.
 Church policies were unpopular, especially since they had triggered rampant inflation. People were sick of this
turmoil and longed for a more stable government that would make their lives more secure.
 Therefore, the interplay of military innovations that made Napoleon a national hero and the longing for a strong,
secure government that Napoleon promised led to his seizure of power in 1799.
 Further military victories, once again against the Austrians in Italy allowed Napoleon to consolidate his hold on
power and declare himself emperor of France in 1804.
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 Napoleon was also a very active administrator, and his internal reforms did a great deal as far as both
consolidating some accomplishments of the French Revolution and suppressing others.
 He centralized the tax system (still used today) and established the Bank of France to stabilize the economy of
France.
 The Revolution’s system of free but mandatory education was kept and expanded with military uniforms and
discipline being imposed.
 Napoleon also consolidated many of the Revolution’s social and legal advances into five law codes.
 Napoleon largely suppressed civil and political liberties with strict censorship and the establishment of a virtual
police state in order to protect his power.
 However, Napoleon saw equality as a politically useful concept that he could maintain with little threat to his
position.
 One of his main accomplishments as a ruler was the establishment of the Napoleonic Civil Law Codes, which
made all men equal under the law while maintaining their legal power over women
 Napoleon saw nationalism as indispensable to maintaining the loyalty of the French people to his regime.
Napoleon inadvertently weakened the inspirational force of nationalism and thus his own power.
 The key to Napoleon's success, besides his military genius, his uncommon personality and soaring ambition.
That is why he could take over the reins of power in France, despite his humble was beginnings as an ordinary
soldier.
THE NAPOLEONIC REFORM

 He carried out administrative reforms in such a way that power was largely centralized in his hands.
 The highest forum of the administration, the Council of States, was the source of legislation, and had judicial
functions as well.
 Every department was monitored by a Prefect who was appointed by the First Consul (Napoleon).
 The Judges were appointed by the government and they had security of tenure to ensure independence of judiciary.
 The police organization was strengthened.
 The bank of France was set up in 1800 to try to restore economic order.
 Napoleon followed a mercantile policy and laid more stress on agriculture than on trade and commerce.
 The Napoleonic education System aimed at producing able administrators and skilled technicians for the benefit
of the state. However, he showed indifference to the education of women. Even primary education was ignored.
 Napoleon was liberal and tolerant in religious matters. The Concordat of 1801 between the Pope and Napoleon
settled the dispute involving Church and the Revolution.
 Napoleonic code, the French civil code is considered the best achievement of Napoleon. It comprised of civil,
criminal and trade sections.
 Code also incorporated the ideas of individual liberty, equality before law, the secular character of the state,
freedom of thought and freedom of profession. However, its curbed women rights.
THE NAPOLEONIC CODE (FRENCH CIVIL CODE)

 The Napoleonic Code was originally drafted as the French Civil Code. Before revolution,
French law was based on the whims of its kings. Laws were the product of each individual
Freedom
monarch. They were lengthy, complicated, and different from region to region. Before
Napoleon, there was no single law or document to unify them.
 The purpose of the French Civil Code was to collect all of the French laws into a single volume
that would be simple and easy to understand. Reason Equality
 More than 70 countries around the world had adopted Napoleonic Code or had used them as
the basis for their own laws.
 It took four years for the country’s top jurists – with the help of Napoleon himself – to draft its 2,281 Articles.
 Enacted on 21 March 1804, the code concerns individual and group civil rights, as well as property rights
compiled with a mix of liberalism and conservatism.
 So, while all male citizens were granted equal rights, the code established women, in keeping with the general law
of the time, as subordinate to their fathers or husbands.
 Legal equality for everyone.
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 No recognition of nobility or titles of birth.

Key concepts of the  Freedom of religion.
Napoleonic Code  Separation of church and state.
 Freedom to work in any occupation.
 Protection of the family.
At the heart of the code  Laws should be based on reason and common sense
were three ideas from the  All men should be treated equally under the law
revolution:  They should have certain freedoms
 The major flaw in the Napoleonic code was that he considered women
inferior to men and women should not be allowed to have much influence
Flaws in Napoleonic Code in a society.
 The Women could not vote.
 Husbands had complete control over their wives and their personal property.
 Children and unmarried women had few rights.
THE CAUSES BEHIND THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

 Weaknesses of the Napoleonic System - defects of dictatorship; too much dependence on one person; its
militaristic nature (War face cannot be continued for ever); Adoption of his tactics of warfare by the opponents from
1819, etc.
 Spirit of Nationalism - Spread of Nationalism in the conquered territories and the growing hatred among the
subject people for the foreigners.
 Naval superiority and strong finances of Great Britain.
 Failure of the Continental system.
 Peninsular War with Spain and Russian Campaign - while the former exhausted the resources of France, the
latter ended in disaster for Napoleon and for France.
SIGNIFICANCE
 Preservation and popularization of the important theories and ideals of the French Revolution (1789) such as
the ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, and the theories of Nationalism, Democracy etc.
 Introduction of New Regime which was marked by a centralized government based on the doctrine of popular
sovereignty and supported by a national army, a national school system and a parliament that represented the
citizen body instead of the classes.
 Introduction of the Code Napoleon consisting of a civil code, codes of civil Procedure and Criminal procedure,
a penal code and a commercial code, it preserved the fruits of the French Revolution not only for France but
almost for the whole of Western Europe and part of America.
 Adoption of the policy of religious toleration by the state for the first time.
 Encouragement to the technological and industrial revolution.
 Public work at structure of bridges, roads, monumental buildings etc. and beautification of the cities.
 Educational reforms by opening of state supported schools to all citizens and perpetuation of the principles of lay
education.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA
 After defeat of Napoleon, the European heads of government met from 1814 to 1815 to settle the terms by which
the Napoleonic Wars should be concluded.
 A series of meetings in Vienna for this purpose was hold with an objective of a collective security and stability
for the entire continent. This is called Congress of Vienna and it ended by sealing a return to more or less the
same system of European powers that existed before the French Revolution.
 Most of the decisions were made by the five great powers of the day viz. Russia, Austria, Britain, France and
Prussia.
There were three goals of Metternich (who was head of Austrian delegation) at Congress of Vienna:
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 To prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries.

 To restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others.
 To restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon’s conquests.
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CH-6 VIENNA CONGRESS

Background
 After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, a European Congress met from 1814 to 1815 at Vienna (capital of
Austria).
 French revolution and Nepoleonic conquests had changed Europe to such an extent that an all European congress
became necessary to discuss the future arrangement in Europe.
 This congress came to known as Vienna congress.
 Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain the four powers that were chiefly instrumental in the overthrow of
Napoleon, had concluded a special alliance among themselves with the Treaty of Chaumont, on March 9, 1814,
a month before Napoleon’s first abdication.
Objectives of Vienna Congress

 Rearranging the map of Europe which has earlier been disfigured by un- restricted conquest by Napoleon. Two
important principles have to followed while rearranging national boundaries: -
a) Legitimate inheritance
b) Maintain Status-quo
 To restore the balance of power in Europe.
 To crush ideas of the French Revolution and to be bring Europe to pre – Revolutionary Era. Ex. – Italy was
consciously divided so much so it remains to be merely to geographical expansion.
Participants / Delegates
 The four victor countries – Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia were the main players in
the congress. But these countries did not share the same view regarding the future
arrangement of Europe. Austria Britain
 Russia and Austria were the conservative forces in the congress whereas Britain had Liberal
views.
 Assisting Metternich as host, Friedrich Grench played a vital role in the management Russia Prussia
of protocol and in the secretarial organization of the congress.
 The social side of the congress was, in fact, one of the causes of the long and unexpected delay
in producing a result, for Metternich at least sometimes subordinated business to pleasure.
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Europe in 1812
There were three goals of Metternich (who was head of Austrian delegation) at Congress of Vienna:
 To prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries.
 To restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to others.
 To restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon’s conquests.
Decision of the Vienna Congress

 The major points of friction occurred over the disposition of Poland and Saxony, the conflicting claims of Sweden,
Denmark and Russia and the adjustment of the borders of the German states.
 In general, Russia and Prussia were opposed by Austria, France, and England, which at one point (January 3,
1815), went so far as to conclude a secret treaty of defensive alliance.
 The major final agreements were as follows: -
o In return for acquiring Poland, Alexander gave back Galicia to Austria and gave Thorn and a region around
it to Prussia. Krakow was made a free town.
o The rest of the Dutchy of Warsaw was incorporated as a separate kingdom under the Russian
emperor’s sovereignty.
o Prussia got two-fifths of Saxony and was compensated by extensive additions in Westphalia and on the left
bank of the Rhine River.
o The outline of a constitution, a loose confederation, was drawn up for Germany – a triumph for Metternich.
o The new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which comprised both the former United Provinces and Belgium.
Austria was compensated by Lombardy and Venice and got back most of Tirol.
o Denmark lost Norway to Sweden but got Lauenburg, while Swedish Pomerania went to Prussia.
o Switzerland was given a new constitution.
o In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa, Tuscany and Modena went to an Austria and the Duchy of Parma
and Piacenza was given to Marie-Louise, consort of the deposed Napoleon.
o The Papal States were restored to the pope, and Naples went to the Sicilian Bourbons.
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Europe: 1815 - Europe after the Congress of Vienna (1815)
Conclusion
 The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna comprised all the agreements in one great instrument.
 Final Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed on June 9, 1815, by the eight (except Spain, which refused as a
protest against the Italian settlement).
 As a result, the political boundaries laid down by the Congress of Vienna lasted, except for one or two changes.
 For more than 40 years. The statesmen had successfully worked out the principle of a balance of power.
 However, the idea of nationality had been almost entirely ignored – necessarily so because it was not yet ready for
expression.
 Territories had been bartered about without much reference to the wishes of their inhabitants. Until an even greater
settlement took place at Versailles after World War I.
 However, to give to international relations any organ by which their work could be adapted to the new forces of
the 19th century, and it was ultimately doomed to destruction.
 However, Rise of Nationalism (The French Revolution helped to introduce nationalism in Europe) upset the
balance of power that the Congress of Vienna tried to create in Europe.
 It led to the development of nation-states which meant the end of empires as well as the creation of new countries
or nation-states.
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CH-7 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Meaning of Nationalism / Introduction
 Nationalism is an ideology that gives a nation a sense of unity by imposing on them the same set of identities
(for instance linguistic, historical, and cultural).
 European nationalism in 19th century paved the ground of modern nation state. Few important events like industrial
revolution and French revolution were one of the main drivers in European nationalism.
Formation of new Identities & Nations / Cause of European Nationalism:

 The French revolution with its modern ideas given birth to Nation state consciousness
in which rebellion against Clergy & Romantic scope inspired the masses & Intellectuals
in many European nations.
 Napoleonic code & Reforms also brought the idea of Reforms & Development by
Political transformation.
 Concepts like - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity and the idea of one language, one
Culture and one Nation led to rise of nationalism and formation of National Identity.
 Countries like Italy & Germany were created on the basis on common Identity brought forth by Both Intellectual
ideas & fight against Dynastic Nobility.
 Occupation & Conflict against Foreign Culture-Greece, Serbia won their Independence
from the Ottoman Empire. Similarly, the Poles fought against Russians, Slavic
nationalism against the Hapsburgs and the Irish against the British.
 Revolutions broke out across Europe under charismatic personalities like Mazzini
(Young Italy) & Garibaldi, sparked by severe famine and economic crisis and
mounting popular demand for political change.
 The German (Bismarck) & Italian nationalism, began as a reaction to French military
occupation by Napoleon and his restructuring of the lands into a smaller number of states
& provided a sense of unity and nationalism.
 Industrialization brought new social groups - working-class and middle classes who supported ideas of national
unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges & economic nationalism.
 The Industrial Revolution in Europe during the 19th century increased the national competition in economic
sphere and brought the nation-states in conflict with each other for acquisition of colonies.
Impact of nationalism in Europe

 Due to the rise of the Nationalism Movement, a strong resentment to foreign rule began to develop.
 In Ireland, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Hungary and Norway local hostility to alien dynastic authority started
to take the form of nationalist revolts.
 Nationalism came to be seen as the most effective way to create the symbols of resistance and to unite in a
common cause.
 First national revolution was in Serbia (1804–1817) which created the first nation-state in Central Europe.
Success came in Greece where an eight-year war (1821–1829) against Ottoman rule led to an independent Greek
state.
 After the Napoleonic wars, the Vienna Congress was had carefully crafted the restoration of the powers of the
Royal families. But this return to the old order proved to be temporary in the tide of the nationalism.
 The Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe started launching open revolts against conservative
governments.
 In most of these revolts, the liberal middle class led the struggle for constitutional government and the formation
of nation-states.
 In 1831, Belgium obtained independence from the Netherlands. Over the next two decades nationalism
developed a more powerful voice.
 In 1848, revolutions broke out across Europe, sparked by a severe famine and economic crisis and mounting popular
demand for political change. In Italy Giuseppe Mazzini used the opportunity to encourage a war for national
unity.
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The revolt of 1830s

France Belgium Poland Italy
The liberals set up the Nationalism led to Nationalism led Poland to Nationalism led Italy to
constitutional monarchy. Belgium to rebel against try break free from foreign fight for Independence
Louis Phillipe was the new the former Dutch Republic powers.
Monarch King
The revolt of 1840s

France German state Central Europe Italian State
1848: a group of moderate 1848: Liberalism and Czech and Hungarian Revolutionaries in
and radical republicans nationalism led to the revolutionaries demanded Lombardy and Venetia
overthrow the monarchy. Frankfurt Assembly to call liberal constitutions and tried to set up a liberal
The second republic was for a parliamentary their own government. constitution and unified
set and Charles Napoleon government. The Austrian Military Italy. By 1849, the
Bonaparte was elected as defeated the Hungarian Austrians re-established
the president. revolutionaries. complete control over
Lombardy and Venetia
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CH-8 UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Introduction
 Ever since the fall of Roman Empire, Italy had been a mere ‘geographical expression’.
 Italy was divided into numerous petty states, some of which were under the rule of foreigners. For centuries, Italy
had been battling ground of contending nations. Finally, the feeling of nationalism could not be suppressed in
Italy and it unified into new independent nation.
 Italian unification or the Risorgimento, meaning “the Resurgence” or “revival”, was the political and social
movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in
the 19th century.
Role of different factors in the unification of Italy

1. Historical Consciousness
 Italian region was had a consciousness of unity right from the time of the Roman Empire and that of
Renaissance.
2. Role of Napoleon Bonaparte

 After capturing Italy, Napoleon re-organized the region and introduced new institutions. The former
instilled unity in the region while the latter created reaction which finally developed in the form of Italian
Nationalism.
3. Role of the Vienna Congress

 It consciously divided Italy in order to make it, in Metternich’s term, merely a geographical expression.
 In Italy, Piedmont – Sardinia was a powerful state. It was ruled by the House of Savoy the Vienna congress
separated the region of Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy and placed it under the control of Austria.
 In central Italy, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were put under the control of Habsburg dynasty. Some region in
this area was also put under the control of the Pope of Rome so that the northern and southern part would remain
divided.
 In the southern part, Naples and Sicily were put under the Bourbon kings.
4. Role of 1848 Revolts

 The 1848 revolts were led by intellectuals and liberals who were against the reactionary Austrian control and
wanted a liberal government.
 These revolts did usher in democratic reforms, but neither did this result in independence from Austria nor
the consolidation of the states into a united Italy.
Obstacles in the way of the Unification of Italy

 The division of Italy in three parts i.e. northern, central and southern regions.
Economic division  The northern region of Italy was economically more prosperous than the southern
region.
Cultural division  The northern and the southern regions of Italy had some cultural differences as well.
 Opposition from Religious Power – We have seen that some region in central Italy was under the control of the
Pope of Rome. While for the Unification Italy control over this region was necessary. But intervention in the region
of Pope would attract opposition from Catholic powers.
 As we have already seen that Italy was ruled by different dynasties. Thus, any attempt of unification would be
opposed by them.
 Interference from the Austrian Empire – This was another major factor hindering the unification of Italy. Few
areas of Italy were under direct control of Austria while other areas were under indirect control.
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Merger of different regions

1. Merger of Lombardy
 In spite of the treason of Villa Franca, Napoleon III persuaded Austria to submit the region of Lombardy to
Piedmont-Sardinia. So, after the war, Lombardy proved to be a net gain to Piedmont-Sardinia.
2. Merger of Parma, Modena and Tuscany

 Once Piedmont succeeded in gaining Lombardy a wave of enthusiasm appeared among the nationalists of Italy.
 This resulted in a people's movement in the region of Central Italy for the merger of Parma, Modena and
Tuscany with Piedmont-Sardinia. In return France received the region of Nice and Savoy for its help.
 The Italian Republicans played an active part in this movement. Count Cavour once again contacted Louis
Napoleon III and with the support of the French Emperor a plebiscite was conducted in the region.
3. Garibaldi and the merger of Naples and Sicily

 Count Cavour was a constitutionalist and a believer of Parliamentary Politics. So, he was not ready to
break international norms and thus he stopped up to northern Italy. On the other hand, Garibaldi was a republican
and a believer of popular politics.
 Garibaldi was a disciple of Mazzini but not an idealist like him. He was a practical thinker and he realized
that unification of Italy was not possible under the Republic. So, he accepted unification under a monarchy.
 He moved towards Naples and Sicily with 1000 ‘Red Shirted' volunteers and drawing benefit from a popular
upsurge there, he captured the region.
 Thus, Victor Emmanuel II moved from North to take charge of Naples and Sicily which Garibaldi willingly
handed over to him.
 In the course of his movement from the north Victor Emmanuel II captured Papal region as well, except Rome.
4. Merger of Venetia
 Italy joined with Prussia against Austria in the battle of Sadowa (1866), Austria was defeated and as a part of
the victor party Italy received the region of Venetia.
5. Merger of Rome
 It was captured by Italy during the course of the battle of Sedan (1870) between France and Prussia.
 French army had vacated Rome and taking advantage of this Italy captured it. This completed the unification
of Italy.
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Role of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the Unification of Italy
1. Mazzini
 Mazzini joined the Carbonaris and participated in their secret activities.
 He was exiled for his conspiracy to establish the society of Young Italy.
 Mazzini’s activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon
after he joined.
 While in prison, he concluded that Italy could and therefore should be unified and
formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican
nation with Rome as its capital.
 It was during his prison days that Mazzini planned to involve young Italy into the
mainstream of patriotic struggle for achieving national unity.
 Mazzini established a number of branches of Young Italy all over the country.
 Mazzini continued to strengthen the society of Young Italy as the vanguard for the national movement.
 The Young Italy worked as a secret organization and its members took an oath of loyalty to serve the nation.
 Through the means of secret propaganda, Mazzini awakened the masses from its lethargy and directed it to
struggle for unity and independence.
 Thus, he is known as the 'Heart' of unification.
2. Cavour
 He was a dedicated monarchist.
 His initial aim was just to extend the boundaries of Piedmont-Sardinia at the
expense of the neighboring regions of Lombardy and Venetia. Thus, unification was
not on his initial agenda.
 When finally, he was-ready for unification he tried that with the help of military,
diplomacy and international co-operation.
 He introduced several reforms that transformed the backward kingdom into a modern
state.
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 He encouraged trade and commerce, built railways, introduced the modern postal system and banking,
patronized shipping, organized a new taxation system, curbed the power of the church, and reorganized
the army on modern lines.
 Thus, he is known as the 'Brain' and 'Hand' of unification.
3. Garibaldi
 He was a nationalist and a republican. Although he was a disciple of Mazzini but
he gave preference to unification over republic. Thus, for the purpose of unification
he even accepted monarchy.
 In the course of time, none could excel in the art of guerrilla warfare and his spirits
of adventure.
 He joined the Young Italy movement led by Mazzini and played an important role
in the 1834 uprising in Savoy which unfortunately failed. He had to go into voluntary
exile.
 Between 1836 and 1848 Garibaldi spent his life in South America, mostly
participating in the liberation movement.
 Cavour succeeded in his plan in ensuring the support of Garibaldi to the cause of
monarchy on the one hand and avoids falling out with France by preventing Garibaldi’s attack on Rome.
 In 1862 Garibaldi became impatient because Rome was still being held by the Pope. Therefore, he rushed with
his volunteers to capture it. He later retired from his active career.
 The adulation he received from his people made him resolve that he would achieve the unification and freedom
of Italy before he died.
 He played the role of a 'Sword' in the unification of Italy.
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CH-9 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

Introduction
 During 19th century, Europe witnessed radical changes in the political borders of the states in the region. The major
driving force of these unifications and separations was “Nationalism” and rise of “Nation states”. Unification of
Germany and Italy are classic examples of nation states.
 From the time of protestant movement itself, there was a feeling of cultural unity in German states. Protestant
reformer Martin Luther translated the Bible in German.
 Moreover, Germany had been the nucleus region of Holy Roman Empire for a long time.
Obstacles in the Unification of Germany

 The Vienna Congress divided the German region in 39 small states. These states were made stronger so that the
balance of power could be maintained and no state among them could attempt to bring change in the German
territory.
 The German region was very big in size and it was politically, socially and economically divided.
 The competition between Austria and Prussia made it difficult to bring any change in the German region.
 Few foreign powers had interests in the German region. For example, Austria was made the guardian of the German
region and France had influenced in the southern part of Germany.
Role of different factors in the Unification of Germany

1) Ideological – Cultural factor
 In the war against Napoleon, the German states developed a sense of brotherhood. This feeling was further
encouraged by German thinkers like John, Herder, Hegel, Fickte etc.
 John: - He talks about relation between a 'state' and a 'nation'. He rejected universalism of Goethe and
started to talk in terms of German nationalism.
 Herder: - He gave the concept of Volkgeist (National soul). According to him nation has having its own soul.
 Hegel: - He presented an ideal picture of a nation. He emphasized that the nation is a divine expression on
earth.
2) Industrial-Material factor
 Industrial revolution played an important role in the Unification of Germany. Industrial revolution started in
Germany in the early decades of 19th century.
 The process of industrialization started in Prussia and them it spread to other parts of Germany. This was because
Prussia owned the coal and iron rich region of Rhine land.
 It was given to it by Vienna Congress in 1815. This helped unification in the following ways: -
o In the course of industrial revolution, the Railways developed in Germany. This integrated the region.
o In 1834 there was a formation of a Custom Union known as Zollverin. This integrated the Prussian region
to the rest of Germany economically.
o As a result of industrial revolution there was a rise of powerful capitalist class in Germany. They were
competing with the British capitalist class for raw material and market in the international arena.
o British merchants were being supported by the powerful British Empire. So even the German Capitalist
class started aspiring for a powerful German empire which could support them in their competition with
the British capitalist.
o This was possible only after the unification of Germany. Thus, the capitalist class gave support to the
Unification.
o A British economist John Keynes declared that it was not the policy of "Blood and Iron" but rather that
of "Coal and Iron" which unified Germany.
3) Military-Diplomatic Factors
 Although we partially agree with the statement of J.M. Keynes but at the same time we can't undermine the role of
the policy of 'Blood and Iron'.
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 As we have already seen that German states were economically integrated, but later incidents proved that political
integration was not easy.
 Then we should keep in mind that economic integration doesn't always assures political integration. The current
situation of European Union is a live example of this fact.
 Thus, we can say that the policy of blood and iron played a crucial role in the unification of Germany. The events
from 1848 onwards make this point more clearer.
4) Role of Vienna congress

 Vienna congress divided Germany in 39 states. For their representation a German Parliament was constituted. Then
Austria was made the guardian of the region.
 It was even given representation in the parliament of Frankfurt. This created resentment in German people.
Unification under Bismarck: Policy of Blood & Iron

 The unification of Germany was still to happen but not under a democratic government but
under the iron hand of Bismarck, the military commander of Prussia.
 His policy was to preserve the interests of the landed aristocracy and the domination of
Army in affairs of the State.
 Bismarck followed the policy of Blood and Iron under which he coerced the states into
unison. The policy was implemented swiftly and with great strategic expertise.
 The aim of the policy was to unite Germany under the Prussian Monarchy and this
required bringing down the German Confederation. To implement his policy:
a) Bismarck’s Prussia first fought a war in 1864 in alliance with Austria against Denmark
to annex most of the territory of German Confederation.
b) Then he allied with Italy in 1866 to defeat Austria and removed it from the German
Confederation. Consequently, the Confederation itself was ended.
c) In 1867, Bismarck formed the North German Confederation. It united 22 German states but excluded the
Southern German states like Bavaria, which remained independent.
d) The constitution of this Confederation made the Prussian King the hereditary head of the state.
e) The Southern states followed a pro-Austria policy but were forced to unite after the German victory in Franco-
Prussian war of 1870.
f) The Franco-Prussian war in 1870 led to final unification of Germany.
g) In 1870 the French monarchy was tattering and the conditions were ripe for another revolution for establishment
of a democratic republic. The French King Louis Bonaparte declared war on Germany in 1870.
h) He wanted to use a war victory to divert attention of the public and to use the consequent war gains to lend
credibility to his regime. On other hand, Bismarck was also partially responsible for provoking the French for
war.
i) The result was that France was defeated and it declared itself republic in 1871. The war and the consequent
German victory allowed Bismarck to absorb rest of the German states into a united Germany (1871).
Merger of Northern and Southern states

1. Merger of northern states:
 Battle of Sadowa (1866) – Bismarck came to the conclusion that for having efficient control over the region of
northern German states Austria should be overpowered by Prussia.
 So he consciously provoked a war with Austria through creating some controversy on Gestein agreement of
1865.
 Then in the battle of Sadowa which is known as "Battle of six weeks" as well, Prussia gave a crushing defeat
to Austria.
 After that the Treaty of Prague was signed between the two parties in March 1866. Consequently, northern
German states were integrated with Prussia.
2. Merger of southern states:

 Battle of Sedan (1870) – Then Bismarck provoked a war with France & French emperor Louis Napoleon III
desperately came in the battle field without proper preparation. So Prussia defeated France in battle of Sedan
in 1870.
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 With this victory the integration of southern German states with Prussia became possible.
 Above all the coronation of German Emperor William I took place in the Palace of Mirrors (Versailles) near
Paris and it was the French emperor Louis Napoleon II who put the crown on the head of William I with his
own hand.
 Not simply that, on the basis of the treaty of Frankfurt concluded in 1871 France lost the region of Alsace &
Lorraine.
 So, it became a bone of contention between France and Germany leading to two world wars. So
simultaneously it gave a big lesson to the imperialist powers of the future.
Creation of German Empire, 1866-1871 (after unification of Germany)

Conclusion
 These are some of the many factors that led to unification of Germany and Italy. Birth of these two new nations
started changing the political conditions of Europe, finally leading to most important event in history of the world
that is, World War I.
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CH-10 BISMARCK WAR WITH DENMARK

 The first aim he pursued was the elimination of Austria from the German
Confederation. He aligned with Austria in a war against Denmark (1863)
over the possession of the German duchies of Schleswig and Holstein which
were under the control of the Danes.
 After Denmark's defeat, he entered into an alliance with Italy against Austria,
defeated Austria in the ‘Seven Weeks ' War (1866) and dissolved the
German Confederation. Thus, Austria was separated from other German
states.
 In place of the old Confederation, he united 22 states of Germany into North
German Confederation in 1866.
 The constitution of this Confederation made the King of Prussia the
hereditary head of the Confederation.
 It also granted universal and equal manhood suffrage to the parliament of the North German Confederation.
 Many liberals welcomed the North German Confederation as a step toward national unification, while the Prussian
conservatives rejoiced in the aggrandizement of Prussia.
The Franco – German war

 The outcome of the Prussian war against Austria came as a bad surprise to
France. For centuries French policy makers had aimed to keep Germany divided
and weak.
 Suddenly, a strong German power had been allowed to expand through much of
Germany. Alarmed, France tried to renew its traditional ties with the South
German states.
 Napoleon III, hoping for a military victory to stabilize his weakening regime,
declared war on Prussia on 19 July 1870
 France was isolated diplomatically, and the well - organized Prussian army
with its allies destroyed the main French army in September.
 After war, France had to cede the coal rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to
Germany. The humiliating defeat and post war treaty went on to play a major role in igniting the First World War
as the French Revanchists wanted to seek revenge.
 Germany's unification was completed as a result of the war which enabled Bismarck to absorb the remaining German
states into a united Germany.
 The formal ceremony at which King William I of Prussia took the title of German Emperor was held Versailles
in France.
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CH-11 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Introduction
 Industrial revolution is the revolution in the economic processes of
production of goods in the economy, aided by the technological
innovations, and their spread, which gave a boost to the pace at which
goods could be produced.
 The economic changes which took place in Britain between 1760 and
1840 is known as the Industrial Revolution.
 Innovations that resulted in mechanized production, development of new
sources of powering these machines, technological forays in fields of
communication and transport are some processes, which when clubbed
together are referred to as Industrial revolution.
 In other words, it denotes the application of machine in place of manual power in production as well as in
transportation. At first, French scholars used the word “Industrial Revolution".
 Then a British scholar Arnold Toynbee used the term Industrial Revolution. But certain other scholars made
an objection to the term industrial revolution. They said that the changes took place over a long period of time. It
means it was a slow process.
Then why should we use the term revolution?

1. Although initially the pace of change was slow but still it was much faster than the change we witnessed in the
past.
2. It affected a larger part of society, i.e. it changed the fundamentals of the society.
3. In fact, Industrial Revolution in Europe was not an isolated event rather it was linked to the changes which Europe
has manifested since the last three centuries.
Why Industrial Revolution first in England?

1. Political unification of Britain
 By 17th century the region of England, Scotland and Wales got united. They were ruled by the same monarch.
It meant same laws, taxation system, development of transport and communication etc.
2. Agrarian Reforms
 In 17th century agrarian reforms were encouraged in Britain through Enclosure Laws. As a result of enclosure
movement, smaller land plots were combined to form bigger farms by landlord and thus started commercial
farming. It encouraged the production of raw material (cotton and wool) and food grains.
 During this period, the availability of meat also increased due to improvement in the breeds of animals.
Consequently, such developments resulted in the growth of population. This fulfilled the need of labour for
industry and also worked as market for industrial products
3. Improvement in transport
 For the expansion of domestic market, the integration of the region was necessary.
 During this period the development of concrete roads and canals started during this period. The canals directly
connected the factory site to mining areas. Thus, transportation of raw material became cheaper.
4. Development of Banking system and the Chambers of Commerce

 Bank of England was started in 1694 and by 1784 there were about 100 regional banks. By 1820 their number
reached up to 600. In the same year the Chamber of Commerce was established.
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 Thus, capital was available and the per capita income of the people increased. This enhanced the purchasing
power of the people thus expanding the domestic market.
5. The role of external trade

 Britain had already created a foreign market in America, West Indies, India etc. Later India became precious
jewellery in its imperialist crown. It is said that nearly 5 % of national income of India was drained to Britain.
From this amount, around 2 % was spent over Industrialisation.
 Apart from that, in 19th century India was a big supplier of cotton to Britain in 19th century.
6. The Specific nature of British foreign Policy

 Britain preferably made its foreign policy subordinate to its economic policy. Economic diplomacy is quite
normal in present day but even in 17th and 18th century Britain's foreign policy protected economic interest of the
country.
7. Technological advancement
 One of the main contributions in industrial revolution was that of technology, without which the development of
modern factory system was not possible.
 Although in 18th century there were many inventions but few of them helped in the development of textile
industries, iron industries, steam engine and railways. For example, James Hargreaves discovered ' Spinning
Jenny ' which increased the speed of weaving.
 In the same way, Blast Furnace was a major invention in the field of iron industries. Now coke was used for
melting iron. Thus, iron could be worked at higher temperatures. Cast iron developed instead of wrought iron.
 As Britain had sufficient quantity of coal and iron ore thus the development of iron industries became easy.
Another important factor was that the British society accepted these new technologies.
Components of Industrial revolution
1)Textile 1)Agricultur Transport &

Steam 1)Iron and e Communicati
Power Steel Industry Revolution on
1) Revolution in Steam power

 The invention of the use of steam was one of the most revolutionary discoveries
which greatly facilitated the adoption of the machine methods of production.
 Steam power could be generated at any place and in any quantity according to the
requirements. This was made possible with the help of an engine designed by
Newcomen.
 This engine was further perfected by James Watt and it was possible to turn wheel
and drive machinery.
2) Revolution in Iron and Steel

 Iron was not available in sufficient quantity, an effort was made to increase
its production through the use of cocking process.
 In 1829 Nelson invented a hot blast which made the use of raw coal, instead
of coke, possible for the manufacture of iron. This invention greatly helped the
growth of iron industry of Clyde.
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 The metal industry made yet another breakthrough with the discovery of cheap methods of making steel,
which was superior to iron on account of its lightness, hardness and durability.
 It particularly proved quite useful for the making of rails, building of ships and construction of factories and
dwelling houses.
3) Revolution in Textile Industry

 By 1800, several major inventions had modernized the cotton industry. In
the process one invention led to another.
 First the invention of flying shuttle, a boat-shaped piece of wood to which
yarn was attached, doubled the work a weaver could do in a day.
 Later in 1764, a textile worker invented a spinning wheel he named after
his daughter, spinning jenny, allowed one spinner to work eight threads at a
time. Later many small adaptations to these developed a spinning mule.
 Wealthy textile merchants set up the machines in large buildings called
factories, which multiplied the production several times within short
duration.
4) Agriculture Revolution
 Another aspect generally missed in the Industrial Revolution is the agriculture
revolution that started before the former.
 It involved the production of more cash crops to meet the demands of the British
industry.
 The new farm machinery like steel plough and harrow for breaking the ground,
mechanical seed drills, horse-drawn cultivator that replaced hoe and machines for
reaping and threshing reduced the labor requirement in the Agriculture sector.
 The new farm practices like intensive manuring and crop rotation increased the soil
fertility and ensured food security of Britain.
Spread of industrial revolution outside England
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Industrialization in Germany
Obstacles in the way of Industrialization
 Germany was almost destroyed due to the 30 years’ war.
 Up to the beginning of 19th century, Germany was divided in nearly 200 small states. This hindered the growth
of domestic market due to numerous custom posts.
 In some parts of Germany, feudalism was still prevalent.
 The old system of production (Guild system) was still in practice.
 Paternalistic laws were prevailing in German region. According to these laws the migration of population from
one region to other was not permitted. This hindered labour movement.
 There was a dearth of private capital.
Industrialisation progressed
 When Napoleon conquered Germany, he re-organised the 200 small German states in 16 larger states. He also
abolished feudalism.
 Napoleon introduced continental system under which British goods were boycotted, which benefitted German
manufactures.
 The Congress of Vienna took some Polish region from Prussia and in return Prussia received some region in
"Rhine land" which was rich in iron and coal.
 This encouraged industrialization in Prussia which spread to other parts of Germany as well. Zollverin was created
in 1834 which integrated the German domestic market.
 The construction of railways started in Germany in 1830's and 1840's. This integrated the region
geographically.
 Paternalistic Laws, which restricted the migration of people (labour), were abolished in 1849.
 The problem of dearth of private capital was solved by (compensated by) banking capital. Joint Stock Banks
invested in German Industrialisation.
Features of German Industrialisation

 It progressed with the construction of railways but Industrialisation got true success after unification of
Germany.
 There was emphasis over the foundation of heavy industries. Germany excelled in automobile industries,
electrical & chemical industries. It was unparalleled in Chemical industries (Synthetic drugs).
 German Industrialisation progressed during the 2nd phase became a leading country in Europe during the period.
 Joint Stock Banks played an important role in German Industrialisation
Industrialisation in Russia
Obstacles for Russian industrialization
 Russia was a big country with its unmanageable size. It was having large reserve of natural resources. But
excessive cold in Siberian region of Russia created hurdles in Industrialisation.
 There was a dearth of private capital for investment.
 Feudalism was prevalent and there was absence of middle class to lead Industrialisation.
Factors favourable for industrialization:

 Russia was endowed with huge natural resources.
 Russian government was supporting industrial revolution.
 Peter-the Great initiated the process of Industrialisation in Russia in 18th century. But his attempt failed in the
absence of structural infrastructure. Also industrialization based on slave labour had little chance of success.
Features of Russian Industrialisation:

 Emphasis over basic and heavy Industries.
 Concentration of most of the industries in some specific areas.
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 Important role of state in investment, production and market. Heavy taxation of peasants and external loans were
taken for the purpose.
 Russian Industrialisation was under strict state control, so it could not give birth to any independent middle class.
Industrialisation in Japan
 It was the first nation in Asia to go through the phase of tremendous Industrialisation.
 But Japanese Industrialisation was not an independent phenomenon and was consciously organised as a part of
modernization program which had started with "Meiji Restoration"
Feature of Japanese Industrialisation

 Earlier Japanese government encouraged private capitalist to invest in industries but they didn't take interest. So
the government itself took initiative of Industrialisation and after establishing some basic and heavy industries.
 It sold these industries to private Japanese capitalist at subsidised rate (except industries of strategic
importance). The purchasers of these industries were the Japanese bankers. So it was a part of banking capital itself
which was converted into industrial capital.
 Thus Japanese Industrialisation couldn't give birth to any independent middle class (industrial class). Rather
were the bankers who turned into industrialist. This factor created some distortion in Japanese
Industrialisation.
 It is observed that the merger of industrial capital and banking capital normally takes place during late phase of
Industrialisation.
 This phenomenon leads to rise of 'Monopoly Capital'. But in case of Japan it was during the early phase itself that
industrial capital and banking capital merged together thus forming the monopoly capital.
 This led to rise of Japanese Militarism and Imperialism.
Effects of Japanese Industrialisation

 Although Japan progressed well in Industrialisation but it had a small market due to its small size. Thus Japan
had to search for new markets which led to militarisms and imperialism.
 The Western countries denoted the Japanese expansionist policy as 'Yellow Danger’. Japan-Russia war of 1904-05
was a part of the same expansionist policy of Japan.
 Later competition started between Japan and USA which culminated in the brutal incidents of 'Pearl Harbour'
(1941) and the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945).
Industrialisation in United States

 The Industrial Revolution in America had impacted greatly in every aspect of society.
 America was generally an agrarian society. In 1820, the United States shifted from an agricultural society to
one based on wage labour, which was called the American Industrial Revolution. As the number of states increased
from 16 to 34 in 1860, the percentage of farmers reduced to half of the workforce.
 The main influences for industrialization were the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812.
 The Embargo Act was passed by Congress to cease the export of American goods and restrict the importation
of certain British products. This generated a greater need for America to produce goods nationally.
 Industrialization in the United States initiated by borrowing technology from English inventors and innovators.
 The first textile factory to use a water-powered spinning machine was started by Samuel Slater, a British
immigrant, in 1790. Besides an incursion of British technology, several other key features led to the manufacturing
boom after 1860.
 The use of huge deposits of coal in states such as Pennsylvania and West Virginia created a source of fuel for
factories.
 Inventions in railroad technology and communication contributed in creating jobs and allowed goods to be sold
to the greater market. The increase in factories led to a higher demand for workers.
 It was not until after the American Civil War in the 1860s that steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-
powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to fully spread across the nation.
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 It was observed that there were rapid growth of the railroad industry which required huge quantity of steel tracks,
the steel industry also profited during the Industrial Revolution.
 In United States, Industrial Revolution was period of growth and transformation. There were numerous changes
that were occurred during this time that had remarkable impacts on culture, manufacturing, trade, agriculture,
etc.
 One major change was that people earned more as compared to earlier period. There was a supply and demand
now and people were generally earning more money because there were more jobs, although there were people who
earned little money and were poor.
 People started shifted to the cities because that is where the centre of manufacturing was. Cities were prosperous
and the populations increased. Many times living conditions were very poor because of congestion.
Impact of Industrial Revolution

Impact on workers
 In the process of industrial revolution, new cities developed at the expense of villages. Several cities developed in
Britain in late 18 century. But initially the living standard of the workers was very poor.
 In the absence of proper infrastructure in cities they had to stay in small rooms without any facilities. Their
residence was generally near the factory site. Thus the emissions had an adverse effect on the health of the
workers.
 By early 19 century, opposition started against increasing machinisation and the deplorable condition of the
workers. ‘Black Tears March ' of 1816 was one such opposition against the government.
 However, these developments forced the government to think in the direction of reforms which were done in 1819,
1833 and 1847. For example, working hours were regulated.
 In the reforms of 1847 the working hours for men was fixed at a maximum of 10 hours. For women and children it
was further relaxed.
Impact on Polity
 As the result of the Industrialisation the responsibility of the government increased. It started working for the
betterment of the workers.
 Moreover a middle class emerged which demanded the extension of franchise. Thus reforms were carried out in
1832.
Impact on Economy
 Industrialisation encouraged the policy of free economy in Britain , and in 1846 Britain officially accepted the
policy of free economy .
 Industrial revolution also resulted in increased contact between Industrialized and non-industrialized world.
But this contact was not based on equality. The demand for raw materials and export markets made the Colonial
powers to look for more territories to colonize.
Impact on society
 An empowered middle class emerged in Britain. An industrial worker class also emerged parallel to it. They
demanded reforms but sometimes there were conflicts as well between these two classes.
 There was increased migration from the villages to the cities in search of employment. More people now lived
in cities and worked in factories and this population was not connected to the land.
 The urban areas now became the centers of production and were no more limited to being the center for trade
and administration. A downside of this process was the crowding in cities, which led to problems of housing and
sanitation.
Impact on Women
 The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change for women as many of them entered the work force for the
first time. Women had to compete with men for jobs.
 Female factory workers often made only one-third as much as men. Women began leading reforms to change
this. As women became more involved in politics, some began to demand suffrage, the right to vote.
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 By 1918, Great Britain granted women the right to vote. The United States granted women suffrage with the
passing of the 19th amendment in 1920.
Impact on environment
 With relatively few exceptions, the world’s modern environmental problems began or were greatly exacerbated
by the Industrial Revolution.
 To fuel the factories and to sustain the output of each and every type of manufactured good, natural
resources (water, trees, soil, rocks and minerals, wild and domesticated animals, etc.) were transformed, which
reduced the planet’s stock of valuable natural capital.
 The global challenges of widespread water and air pollution, reductions in biodiversity, destruction of wildlife
habitat, and even global warming can be traced back to this moment in human history.
 As the world’s human population continues to grow and more and more people strive for the material benefits
promised by the Industrial Revolution, more and more of Earth’s resources are appropriated for human use, leaving
a dwindling stock for the plants and animals upon whose ecosystem services (clean air, clean water, etc.)
the biosphere depends.
Impact on Urbanization
 Industrialisation has historically led to urbanization by creating economic growth and job opportunities that
draw people to cities.
 Urbanization typically begins when a factory or multiple factories are established within a region, thus creating a
high demand for factory labor.
 Other businesses such as building manufacturers, retailers, and service providers then follow the factories to meet
the product demands of the workers. This creates even more jobs and demands for housing, thus establishing an
urban area.
Impact on Democracy
 Industrial Revolution increased the penetration of democracy in England.
 The industrial revolution was the force behind this New Imperialism, as it created not only the need for Europe
to expand, but the power to successfully take and profitably maintain so many colonies overseas. The industrial
revolution created the need for Europe to take over colonies around the world.
Impact on culture
 Industrial revolution changed the cultural tradition of Britain. Changes in socio - economic condition influenced the
cultural aspects of society as well.
 Industrialisation promoted material culture. Thus there was a decline in emotional aspects of human.
 There started a stiff competition for making more and more money. The workers were exploited by the capitalists
for increasing profit. Due to unregulated migration the condition of the cities deteriorated.
 It became dirty and crowded. The effects of Industrialisation on the British life are portrayed by famous novelists
like Thomas Hardy and D.H. Lawrence.
 Industrialisation started in Britain and spread to other parts of Western Europe such as Belgium, Norway, and France
etc. The same features of industrial revolution continued in Western Europe too.
 Light and consumer goods industries were encouraged. Private capital played an important role. Except France,
where government played a more important role in all other countries of Western Europe in industrialization. Private
capitalist played a more important role.
Advantage of Industrial Revolution

 Centre of economic life shifted from the villages to cities and towns where the factories were situated.
 Urban (cities) and rural (villages) life became dependent upon one another. Isolated life of self-sufficient villages
came to an end.
 Men became free to develop their capabilities in areas other than farming.
 It brought countries and people together. There was an international awareness among people because
developments in one country influenced the others.
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 The aristocracy and nobility with their feudal ideas were replaced by the newly rich middle class capitalists
(bourgeoisie) who also became politically powerful.
 Better transport, communications and mechanized goods made life comfortable for man.
Disadvantages of Industrial Revolution

 Cities became crowded, smoky, with problems of slums, housing, sanitation, accidents and epidemics.
 Women and child labour was badly exploited.
 Workers suffered from long working hours, low wages, and unemployment, unsafe conditions of work, with no
rights to vote strike or form trade unions.
 Society became divided into rich and poor, the 'Haves' and the 'Have-Not’s'.
 It led to wars of imperialism and colonization.
 Environmental pollution became emerging global problem.
Impact of Industrial Revolution on India

 The Industrial Revolution in England impacted the nature of trade of the British in India.
 In a word, the Industrial Revolution transformed India into a country that supplied raw-materials to the industrial
houses of Britain.
 Prior to the Industrial Revolution, British traders purchased cotton piece- goods and other handicraft items from
India and used to net huge profit by selling those in the European markets.
 With the Industrial Revolution Britain started manufacturing various articles in a short time. For the manufacture of
such articles huge raw-materials were needed.
 Thus, they procured raw-materials from India at a cheap price.
 And at the same time Britain flooded the Indian markets with the machine-made products produced in British
factories.
Conclusion
 The industrialization that took place in the 1700s and 1800s revolutionized every aspect of society, from daily life
to life expectancy.
 Despite the problems that followed industrialization, the Industrial Revolution eventually had a number of positive
effects. It created jobs for workers. It contributed to the wealth of the nations.
 It fostered technological progress and invention. It greatly increased the production of goods and raised the
standard of living. Perhaps most important, it provided the hope of improvement in people's lives.
 The Industrial Revolution produced a number of other benefits as well. These included healthier diets; better
housing; and cheaper, mass-produced clothing. Because the Industrial Revolution created a demand for engineers
as well as clerical and professional workers, it expanded educational opportunities.
 The middle and upper classes prospered immediately from the Industrial Revolution. For the workers it took
longer, but their lives gradually improved during the 1800s. Labor eventually won higher wages, shorter hours, and
better working conditions.
 The development of a middle class created great opportunities for education and democratic participation.
Greater democratic participation, in turn, fuelled a powerful movement for social reform.
Previous year’s questions

1) Why did the industrial revolution first occur in England? Discuss the quality of life of the people there during the
industrialization. How does it compare with that in India at present.
2) “Latecomer” Industrial revolution in Japan involved certain factors that were markedly different from what west
had experienced.
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CH-12 COLONIZATION AND IMPERIALISM

Definition of Colonization
 Colonization is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion
of colonies in one territory by people from another territory.
 It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony, and often Gold
between the colonists and the indigenous population.
 The colonization of Asia, Africa and America began with three focuses - Gold, Glory and
God. While Gold represented the profits from trade, Glory represented the recognition a Glory God
European power received as a world hegemon. With the flag of the Kingdom came the
Missionaries to promote Christianity.
 It is to be noted here that the country which dominated in the realm of sea power was able to benefit the most out
of the Colonial era.
Types of the colonization

Two main types of the colonization can be differentiated: -
Types of the
colonization
Settler colonialism Exploitation colonialism
Settler Settler colonialism is that type of colonialism wherein a large number of the immigrants,
colonialism often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons, settle in a new place and
dominate the local indigenous population in economic, political as well as social aspects.
Exploitation Exploitation colonialism involves relatively less number of immigrants and predominantly
colonialism focuses on exploitation of the resources of the colonial country.
History of Colonialism
1) Role of Explorations
 Modern colonialism began with the age of exploration during the early 15th
century when explorers like Christopher Columbus and Francisco Pizzaro
made voyages to the American continent.
 Geography played an important role. Without direct access to Middle East,
the Europeans were forced to pay high prices charged by Venice. Even the
wealthy had trouble paying for spices. The routes to the east were known by
the name of “Silk Routes”.
 Along with Venice, it was the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, which acted as a middle
man in this trade with the east. These two lay along the trade routes and had power to choke them if they wanted.
In 1453, Ottoman Empire defeated the Byzantine Empire and choked the sea routes.
 Soon many European explorers from Britain, France, Spain, Portugal and Netherlands would have their
own colonies in the Americas with the British dominating North America and the Spanish and the Portuguese
holding the Southern half of the Americas.
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2) Technical innovations
 Technical innovations played an important role in success of explorers in being able to sail to the new lands. By
the end of 15th century, innovations in form of Compass, Astrolabe (it helps in determining the location of
ship), the Art of Mapping and development of better ships that could travel longer, improved the explorer’s
knowledge of geography of the sea.
 They were able to develop accurate maps of sea-routes and gain knowledge of weather patterns that enabled
them to safely reach the new lands. The period around the end of 15th century thus came to be known as
the “Age of Discovery”.
 Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, went out in search of India but landed up in Central America in
1492. He had touched the shores of Haiti but mistook it for India. This is why he called the natives as Indians
and the islands as Indies.
3) Expansionist Policy
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 By the late 19th century, the Industrial revolution would see Britain and France take over many countries in
the Middle-East, South and Southeast Asia, whose resources would be exploited by the colonial powers well
into the 20th century.
 It was after the end of World War II in 1945 that the erstwhile colonies gained independence due to multiple
factors, chief among them being local independence movements (The Indian Freedom Struggle and
Independence Movements in Vietnam and Indonesia are notable examples).
 The colonial powers themselves being economically weakened due to the devastation caused by the Second
World War.
4) Early Assyrian empires and the Roman Empires of early antiquity period
 The early Assyrian empires and the Roman Empires of early antiquity period (484 BC – 250 AD) can be
considered the precursors to the practice of colonialism when both the empires expanded their border with the
view to assert cultural domination and exploitation of resources.
Causes of Colonialism
 Discovery of New Lands and Trade Route
 Economic Consideration: The countries like England, France, Spain and Portugal established their colonies
primarily for the economic benefits.
 Mercantilism: The policy of Mercantilism was based on the premise that the economic development of the
mother country (Metropolis) was most important and the colonies should be governed in such a way that they lead
to the benefit of the mother country.
 European Rivalry: The exploration and colonization were started by Spain and Portugal. Gradually, other
countries like France and England also entered the race. Acquiring new colonies became a thing of national
pride. Moreover, due to various economic benefits of colonization, a stage of ‘competitive colonialism’ started
among the European powers.
 To Spread Christianity: During the Age of Discovery; the Catholic Church started a major effort to spread
Christianity in the New World by converting indigenous peoples. As such, the establishment of Christian
missions went simultaneously with the colonizing efforts of European powers such as Spain, France and Portugal.
 Push Factors: The enclosure movement, taking land out of cultivation and converting it into pasture land for sheep,
was creating a surplus population. Sheep raising, more profitable than traditional agriculture, required fewer
labourers. The new lands in America gave these unemployed a place to work.
Impact of Colonialism
 Columbian Exchange: The term Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread exchange of plants, animals,
culture, human populations, technology, and ideas that occurred between the new world (Americas) and the
Old World (Eurasia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, as a result of European colonization and trade
 Slave Trade: To effectively utilize the resources, colonizers needed immense amount of labour. During the
initial years, the European settlers met labour requirements by enslaving the native populations. However, the
decline in the native population led to importing slaves from Africa which emerged as a lucrative alternative.
 Boost to Mercantilism: Mercantilism, in a way, was both the cause as well as the effect of colonialism. Mercantile
economic policies were definitely an impetus for the start of colonization. But subsequently, the benefits due to
colonial exploitation further reinforced the ideology of mercantile capitalism and augmented its spread across
Europe. As a result, these countries saw very rapid increase in trade volume while colonies suffered proportionally.
COLONIALISM IN ASIA
Colonialism in India
 The British took control of India in 1763, after defeating the French in the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). The
British controlled India through the British East India Company, which ruled with an iron hand.
 In 1857, an Indian revolt, led by native soldiers called Sepoy, led to an uprising known as the Sepoy Mutiny.
After suppressing the rebellion, the British government made India part of the empire in 1858, as mentioned
previously.
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 The British introduced social reforms that advocated education and promoted technology. Britain profited
greatly from India, which was called the “Crown Jewel of the British Empire.”
 The Indian masses, however, continued to live close to starvation and the British had little respect for the native
Indian culture.
 The Dutch held the Dutch East Indies and extended their control over Indonesia, while the French took over Indo-
china (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam).
 The Russians also got involved and extended their control over the area of Persia (Iran)
Colonialism in China
 Since the seventeenth century, China had isolated itself from the rest of the world and refused to adopt Western
ways. The Chinese permitted trade but only at the Port of Canton, where the rights of European merchants were at
the whim of the emperor.
 Colonialism in China began with the First Opium War (1839–1842) when the Chinese government tried to halt
the British from importing opium. This resulted in a war in which Britain’s superior military and industrial might
easily destroy the Chinese military forces.
 The Treaty of Nanking (1842) opened up five ports to the British, gave Britain the island of Hong Kong, and forced
China to pay a large indemnity.
 In 1858, China was forced to open up eleven more treaty ports that granted special privileges, such as the right to
trade with the interior of China and the right to supervise the Chinese custom offices.
 Foreigners also received the right of extraterritoriality, which meant that Western nations maintained their own
courts in China, and Westerners were tried in their own courts.
 Between 1870 and 1914, the Western nations carved China into spheres of influence, areas in which outside powers
claimed exclusive trading rights.
 France acquired territory in southwestern China, Germany gained the Shandong Peninsula in northern China, Russia
obtained control of Manchuria and leasehold over Port Arthur, and the British took control of the Yangzi valley.
 The United States, which had not taken part in carving up China because it feared that spheres of influence might
hurt U.S. commerce, promoted the Open-Door Policy in 1899.
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 John Hay, the American Secretary of State, proposed that equal trading rights to China be allowed for all nations
and that the territorial integrity of China is respected.
 The imperial nations accepted this policy in principle but not always in practice. For the United States, however,
the Open-Door Policy became the cornerstone of its Chinese policy at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Colonialism in Japan
 Japan was the only Asian country that did not become a victim of
imperialism. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Japanese expelled
Europeans from Japan and closed Japanese ports to trade with the outside world,
allowing only the Dutch to trade at Nagasaki.
 In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry (1866–1925), an American naval
officer, led an expedition to Japan. He convinced the shogun, a medieval-type
ruler, to open ports for trade with The United States.
 Fearful of domination by foreign countries, Japan, unlike China, reversed its
policy of isolation and began to modernize by borrowing from the West.
 The Meiji Restoration, which began in 1868, sought to replace the feudal
rulers or the shogun, and increase the power of the emperor. The goal was to
make Japan strong enough to compete with the West.
 The new leaders strengthened the military and transformed Japan into an
industrial society. The Japanese adopted a constitution based on the Prussian
model with the emperor as the head.
 The government was not intended to promote democracy but to unite Japan
and make it equal to the West. The leaders built up a modern army based on a draft and constructed a fleet of iron
steamships.
 The Japanese were so successful that they became an imperial power. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95,
Japan defeated China and forced her to give up her claims in Korea.
 Japan also gained control of its first colonies – Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands – and shocked the world by
defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Japan’s victory was the first time that an Asian
country had defeated a European power in over 200 years.
Imperialism (Neo-colonialism)
Introduction
 The term imperialism means the practice of extending the power, control or rule by a country
over the political and economic life of the areas outside its own borders.
 Imperialism is simply a manifestation of the balance of power and is the process by which
nations try to achieve a favorable change in the status quo.
 Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism in the age of Industrial revolution. Imperialism
has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory.
 During the 19th century and early 20th century, imperialism arose as a necessity for industrializing
states to secure their own economic prosperity. Imperialism has been a major force in shaping the
modern world.
The major components of Imperialism:

1. Raw Material and Export Markets
2. Protective Tariffs
3. Imposition of Free Trade
4. Drain Theory
5. Political control of the colonies
6. Capturing Ports of Call
Cause of imperialism
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1. Industrial Revolution
 The market for manufactured goods – European powers were searching market for their products due to two
factors. First, the volume of products was too large for home market and second, almost all European countries were
imposing duties on import of products.
 Search for raw materials – Industrial revolution demanded larger volume of raw materials including mining
material.
 Capital investment – It was a big question for imperial power that where to invest the accumulated capital. Colonies
became preferred destination because labour was cheap. So there was a better chance for profit.
2. Sense of national glory

 This too encouraged expansion of colonies. There was a British phrase “Sun never sets under the British
Empire.” Germans gave a counter phrase to this, “we also need land under the Sun.”
 Likewise, Japanese declared that Asia is for Asians. American slogan was “20 century is for Americans.”
3. Social imperialism
 Imperialist expansion also worked as a tool to divert the attention of the people from internal conflict to external
one in order to put a check over the class struggle. In other words, domestic problem was exported to outside
front.
4. Extension of European diplomacy

 In 1884, on the basis of Berlin - African Congress under Bismarck, Africa was divided.
 Bismarck was much concerned about stability and balance of power in Europe. So, he consciously channelized
European power to African continent and in order to create some harmony in their interest he himself divided the
share among them.
 He declared “I see the map of Africa while sitting here in Europe”.
5. Role of new discoverers

 Discoverers like Stanley & Livingstone brought to light new regions in African continent. So, the European powers
moved to occupy these interior regions.
6. Role of Christian Missionaries

 In Europe different Christian missionaries were active and they created pressure over their respective
governments to work for the spread of Christianity.
 So, they encouraged their respective government to capture new regions so that they could spread Christianity
there.
7. Role of some ambitious military Generals

 Imperialism flourished even due to the role of some ambitious military Generals. Certain Generals who had lost few
battles in Europe tried to regain their glory when they were deployed in other continents by their governments.
 With this purpose, they even without consulting their respective sometimes proceeded on their own governments.
8. Increased number of players

 Industrial revolution in rest of Europe, USA and Japan happened after 1870s. The industrialized nations desperately
started looking for sources of raw material and export markets.
9. Decreased Geographical space

 The world was relatively more peaceful till 19th century when there was enough unoccupied space to be colonized
and the empires could expand easily.
 But in 19th century, any further expansion could only occur at expense of another colonial power. Also, the
number of players in the ‘race’ had increased. Thus, colonialism changed into Imperialism as now State’s
military power and tighter control over colonies was needed to maintain and expand the colonial empire.
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 In the next four decades (from 1870 onward), there was a race for colonies and the only untouched areas, China
and Africa, were scrambled among European nations.
10. Role of Nationalism

 Nationalism rose after the French Revolution (1789). In the era of Industrial Revolution, it soon manifested
in form of economic rivalry among the nation states.
 National rivalries were further fueled by nationalist ideas propounded by the nationalist thinkers. In
Britain, France, Germany and Italy, nationalism resulted in demands for expansion of colonial empires
during 1868-72. Also, the Absolute Monarchies relied on both Imperialism and Nationalism to divert attention
of the public, which was getting exposed to ideas of democracy.
Impact of Imperialism
 The new imperialism changed both Western society and its colonies – Through it, Western countries established
the beginning of a global economy in which the transfer of goods, money, and technology needed to be regulated
in an orderly way to ensure a continuous flow of natural resources and cheap labor for the industrialized world.
 Imperialism adversely affected the colonies – Under foreign rule, native culture and industry were destroyed.
Imported goods wiped out local craft industries.
 By using colonies as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, colonial powers held back
the colonies from developing industries.
 One reason why the standard of living was so poor in many of these countries was that the natural wealth of
these regions had been funneled to the mother countries.
 Imperialism also brought a confrontation between the cultures – By 1900, Western nations had control over
most of the globe. Europeans were convinced that they had superior cultures and forced the people to accept modern
or Western ways.
 The pressures to westernize forced the colonial people to re-evaluate their traditions and to work at
discouraging such customs as foot binding in China and Sati in India.
 Although imperialism exploited and abused colonial people, Western countries introduced modern medicine
that stressed the use of vaccines and more sanitary hygiene that helped to save lives and increase life expectancy.
 Imperialism created many political problems – European nations disrupted many traditional political units and
united rival peoples under single governments that tried to impose stability and order where local conflicts had
existed for years, such as in Nigeria and Rwanda.
 Ethnic conflicts that developed in the latter half of the twentieth century in many of these areas can be traced to
these imperial policies.
 Imperialism also contributed to tension among the Western powers. Rivalries between France and Great Britain
over Sudan, between France and Germany over Morocco, and over the Ottoman Empire contributed to the hostile
conditions that led to World War I in 1914.
Relation between Colonialism and Imperialism
Colonialism and imperialism are often used interchangeably, but they have different meaning.
Colonialism Imperialism
Though both the words underline suppression of the Imperialism refers to political or economic control,
other, Colonialism is where one nation assumes either formally or informally.
control over the other.
Colonialism can be thought to be a practice Imperialism as the idea driving the practice
Colonialism is the term where a country conquers and Imperialism means creating an empire, expanding in to
rules over the other regions. It means exploiting the the neighbouring regions and expanding its dominance
resources of the conquered country for the benefit of the far.
conqueror.
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In Colonialism, one can see great movement of people Imperialism is just exercising power over the conquered
to the new territory and living as permanent settlers. regions either through sovereignty or indirect
Though they lead the life as permanent settlers, they still mechanisms of control.
maintain allegiance to their mother country.
Colonialism is a term used to describe the settlement of Imperialism, on the other hand is described where a
places like India, Australia, North America, Algeria, foreign government governs a territory without
New Zealand and Brazil, which were all controlled by significant settlement. The scramble for Africa in the
the Europeans. late 19th century and the American domination of
Puerto Rico and the Philippines can be cited as
examples of Imperialism.
Colonialism has its origins when Europeans started to Imperialism has a longer history than Colonialism.
look outside their country, pursuing trade with other While the history of colonialism dates back to 15th
nations. century, Imperialism has its origins dating back to the
Romans.
Colonialism is termed as building and maintaining It can be said that imperialism includes some form of
colonies in one territory by people from another colonialism, but colonialism itself does not automatically
territory. Colonialism can altogether alter the social imply imperialism, as it lacks a political focus.
structure, physical structure and economics of a region.
In the long run, the traits of the conqueror are inherited
by the conquered.
Colonialism is nothing more than development for Imperialism operates from the center, it is a state policy,
settlement or commercial intentions. and is developed for ideological as well as financial
reasons.
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CH-13 DECOLONIZATION
 Meaning - It was the cultural, economic and political process through which colonies broke free from the colonial
empires and integrated themselves to the new ‘world order’.
 Decolonization is a process which is the reverse of colonization i.e. to say that it denotes the withdrawal of the
colonial powers from their colonies. This withdrawal is not partial or sublime, but real territorial withdrawal so
that control of political and economic power is shifted from the colonial powers to the locals.
The first phase was in the

late eighteenth century and The second wave occurred The third phase, which was
early 19th century, starting in the aftermath of World also the most massive one,
with the creation of the War I, made possible by the occurred after the end of
United States and ending with collapse of the Russian, World War-II and the rise of
the freedom of Spanish and German, Habsburg, and US and USSR as the only two
Portuguese colonies in the Ottoman Empires. superpowers.
American continen
Decolonization
1.Cultural 1.Political Economic
1. Cultural
 Colonial empires were generally founded on principles of Racism and ‘right to rule’ over ‘inferior races’. These
narratives had to be challenged.
 An image of benevolent and modernizing influence was used as a pretext for colonial exploitation. However, this
was later broken. (E.g. Indian National Congress popularised the theory of drain of wealth to demolish the claim of
the civilizing influence of British Raj)
 The self-confidence of people had to be boosted. Exercises of cultural integration and the creation of national
identities and a shared past were emphasized. E.g. Ancient Greek (Hellenistic) culture was emphasized in the Greek
War of Independence, 1829 against the Ottoman Empire. In India, achievements of our ancient civilization were
popularized.
 Most states were successful in this regard, though deep-rooted tribal differences and prejudices led to problems in
Africa.
2. Political
 Newly freed states had to be allowed to follow an independent foreign policy. They had to raise resources and
build stable institutions (E.g. an Army subject to strict civilian control).
 Representative and democratic institutions needed to be built. This needed an enlightened citizenry and an
empowered leadership.
3. Economic
 The old European powers sought to exert influence in newly independent trades through biased trade policies. This
came to be known as Neo-Colonialism.
 Most of the investment in these countries came from the erstwhile colonizers. So, they were able to control new
governments through lobbying and other informal (often corrupt) means.
 Colonial powers were technologically advanced. So, they used it as leverage in directing foreign investment and
hence controlling the new states. They sought to guard their technological supremacy through tight Intellectual
property regimes.
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Factors that led to Decolonization
1. Nationalist movements
 Through the effects of westernization and opening up, colonies acquired enlightened leadership and many
developed strong nationalist movements. Most colonies were extensive police states. Massive unrest made them
simply unviable.
 Emergence of broad base nationalist movements – E.g. India and Vietnam.
2. Effects of second world war

 It economically and morally weakened most European powers and they couldn’t keep up with the maintenance
of their empires.
 The most powerful among victorious powers – The USA and the USSR took a firm anti-colonial stance. This
further weakened the Europeans.
 Japanese success inspired leaders.
 Awareness of social and political matters e.g. Sukarno gained administrative expansion and cooperating with Japan.
 Atlantic charter of 1941  Right to self-determination.
 Bipolar world  Both USA and USSR became supreme post WW-II and vehemently opposed colonialism.
3. Pan-Nationalism
 A feeling of brotherhood was growing within the indigenous people of countries.
 This meant a pooling of resources and external support in the struggle for independence. As more and more
countries attained freedom, the entire process was hastened.
4. Outside Pressures
 The USA and USSR actively pressurised colonial powers. E.g. President Truman of the US pressurised British
government to make India independent.
 USA and USSR denounced policy of imperialism.
 Newly formed United Nations and other powerful international associations like the Non-Alignment Movement
built up firm international opinions against colonialism.
 Efforts United Nation's to denounce imperialistic policies.
 Fear of rising communism.
Aftermath of Decolonization
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Due to these challenges and specific conditions in different countries, decolonization turned out different results
for these countries.
1. In Africa
 Army coups were common in countries with weak leadership and limited mass base in democratic processes.
Ex: Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Congo etc.
 Complete export dependency on one or two commodities leading to instability at times of falling prices. Ex:
Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Burundi etc.
 Extreme poverty was the characteristic of most states due to lesser human development and corruption.
 Rampant corruption – most states fell into the hands of corrupted elite that exploited social fissures to enrich itself.
Recently we saw popular movements against Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe and Jacob Zuma of South Africa
succeeding in removing them.
 Great power rivalry has affected many states like Angola badly.
 At the same time, these powers failed to interfere in places where their interests were not involved. Ex: Failure to
stop the Rwandan genocide of 1994. These points to the need for a pan-African movement to ensure democracy
and rule of law.
 Resource-rich countries falling prey to Neo-colonialism and sectarian violence. Ex: Sierra Leone is locked in a
perpetual civil war over its gold, diamond and iron ore deposits.
 China is accused of adopting Neo-colonial policies to exert influence over resource-rich Western Africa. The
recent effort by India and Japan to build an Asia-Africa Growth corridor is seen as an effort to counter this.
 Many North African countries saw widespread protests at the time of ‘Arab Spring’ of 2011. Ex: Morocco, Tunisia,
Libya and Egypt.
2. In Asia and Middle East

 India independent in1947, Ceylon and Burma independent in 1948.
 France refused to grant independence to colonies in Indochina but was defeated in 1954 by Ho Chi Minh and
Vietnamese Guerrillas.
 Communism in China under the Red Guards acted as a colonizing agent by seeking to eliminate traditional cultures
and customs.
 Following WWII, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan became independent.
 Israel was formed as a state by the United Nations in 1948.
Role of India
 After Indian independence, India supported decolonization strongly in International through the leadership of Non-
Alignment movement.
 India actively mobilized international opinion in favour of decolonization. In Indonesia and Africa, it was vocal
in support.
 It also sent troops to solve the Congo Crisis of the 1960s. Besides, India contributes actively to the UN
peacekeeping forces that operate in different parts of Africa.
Conclusion
 Decolonization was a force of good that helped liberate billions of people across the globe from exploitation under
an oppressive foreign rule.
 As a cultural process, it is continuing to date. It ended up with the majority of the world achieving self-
determination and self-rule.
 Though the hegemonic nations still exert large influence through international trade, investment and technology
control, these countries are free to script their own destiny. Majority of the so-called “Third world” is still mired
in extreme poverty.
 The way forward is through human development, the spread of education and building of institutions through
regional (Pan-African, Pan-South Asian collaboration etc.) cooperation.
 Work of UN agencies is commendable in this regard. UN General Assembly has emerged as a potent forum where
world opinion is mobilised in favour of third world countries.
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 The democratization of international order will help the third world more in getting its grievances addressed and
in building a more equitable world.
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CH-14 CAPITALISM
Introduction
 Capitalism is a social and economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and free
market system of trade-their operation is for profit. Means of production- Farm-land, Factory any other resource
 Capitalism is a type of social system that follows the belief of individual rights.
 From the political perspective, capitalism is the system of laissez-faire (freedom). Lawfully, it is a system of
objective laws that is rule of law, in contrast, to rule of man.
 In financial terms, when such freedom is applied to the domain of production its result is the free-market.
 Capitalism is commonly elucidated as an economic system where private actors are permitted to own and
control the use of property according to their own interests, and where the invisible hand of the pricing
mechanism coordinates supply and demand in markets in a way that is automatically in the best interests of
civilization.
 In this system, Government is responsible for peace, justice, and tolerable taxes.
 Capitalism is a private ownership based on the ways of production and distribution of goods categorised by a
free competitive market and incentive by profit.
 It can be said that it is an economic system based on survival of the fittest.
Characteristics of Capitalism
 Private ownership 
o Private individuals are the owners of the means of production, which is, land, labour, capital,
entrepreneurship. These owners decide what to produce, in what quantities, how it is going to be produced, and
the rewards of labour.
o It is demand and supply that determines the price of the finished goods.
 Decentralized Decision making 
o In a capitalist economy, the process of decision making takes the structure of devious decentralization.
Individuals, make the decision with their self-interest.
o However, the government controls these decisions by manipulating its respective environment that is,
affecting prices, taxes, subsides.
 Freedom of choice 
o Capitalism also referred to as a market economy, which highlights on the freedom of the individual, both as
a consumer and as an owner of the factors of production.
o Principally, an individual can work wherever he or she wants, while entrepreneurs are also free to set up
enterprises of their own choice.
o Within a market economy, decisions or choices are mainly determined by material encouragements.
Capitalism is an economic system in which each individual in his capacity as a consumer, producer and resource
owner is engaged in economic activity with a great degree of economic freedom.
 Others 
o Capitalist economy is not planned, controlled or regulated by the government.
o In this system, economic decisions and activities are guided by price mechanism which operates automatically
without any direction and control by the central authorities.
o In capitalist economy, competition is the most important element.
 It means the existence of large number of buyers and sellers in the market who are motivated by their self-
interest but cannot influence market decisions by their individual actions.
Types of Capitalism
The major types of capitalism are:
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Types of Capitalism
1)Free 1)Social
1)Mercantilis 1)State 1)Mixed
market market
m capitalism Economy
Economy economy
1. Mercantilism
 Mercantilism is a nationalist system of initial capitalism that was practiced in the later phase of 16th century.
 It is characterized by the interweaving of national business interests to state-interest and imperialism, and
subsequently, the state apparatus is utilized to improve national business interests abroad.
 Mercantilism was determined by the conviction that the prosperity of a nation is increased through a positive
balance of trade with other nations.
 Mercantilist capitalism involves more cooperation and coordination between government and economic
entities including large cooperation and sometimes whole sectors of economy
2. Free market Economy

 Free-market economy is described as a capitalist economic system where prices for goods and services are
set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without
interference by government plan.
 It characteristically involves in support for highly competitive markets, private ownership of productive
enterprises.
 Laissez-faire is a more extensive form of free-market economy where the role of the state is limited to
protecting property rights.
3. Social market economy

 It is a supposedly free-market system where government involvement in price formation is kept to a
minimum but the state provides substantial services in the area of social security, unemployment benefits and
recognition of labour rights through national collective bargaining arrangements.
 The social market economy forms an essential part of free and open society, which is also characterized by
solidarity.
 It has proven itself as an economic system that allows for prosperity and full employment whilst also
providing welfare and promoting a strong social system.
 This model is conspicuous in Western and Northern European countries, and Japan, although in slightly
different configurations. The huge majority of enterprises are privately owned in this economic model
 It is described as the modern model of capitalism and adaptation of the social market model that exists in
continental Western Europe today.
4. State capitalism
 State capitalism includes state ownership of the means of production within a state, and the organization of
state enterprises as commercial, profit-seeking businesses.
 The argument between proponents of private versus state capitalism is focused on issues of managerial
efficacy, productive efficiency, and fair distribution of wealth.
5. Mixed Economy
 Mixed economy is a mainly market-based economy consisting of both private and public ownership of the
means of production and economic interventionism through macroeconomic policies intended to correct
market failures, reduce unemployment and keep inflation low.
 The degree of involvement in markets differs among different countries.
 Some mixed economies, such as France under dirigisme, also featured a degree of indirect economic planning
over a largely capitalist-based economy. Contemporary capitalist economies are described as “mixed
economies”.
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Benefits / Merits of capitalism

 There is an economic growth through open competitive market that provides individuals with far better
opportunities of raising their own income.
 Leading to firms producing only the best, and a capitalist economy is believed to encourage innovations in
technology and industry.
 Priority to consumer choice where individuals choose what to consume, and this choice leads to more competition
and better products and services.
 Efficiency of economics in which Goods and services produced based on demand creates incentives to cut costs
and avoid waste.
 Economic growth and expansion in Capitalistic economy increases the gross national product and leads to
improved living standards.
Drawbacks of Capitalism
 Inequality  There tends to be a rise in disparity as benefits of capitalism are not fairly distributed. As wealth
tends to redound to a small percentage of the population, the demand for luxury goods is often limited to a small
percentage of the workforce, one of the main capitalism disadvantages.
 Irrational Behaviour  People tend to get caught up in hypothetical suds but disregard economic fundamentals,
leading to illogical behaviour.
 Monopoly Behaviour  Other major drawback of capitalism is that companies gain monopoly over power in a
free market allows and exploit customers by charging higher prices. They often pay lower salaries to labours.
 Immobility  Main issue of capitalism is that a free market is supposed to be able to easily move factors of from
an unprofitable sector to a new profitable industry. However, this is much more difficult practically.
 Unfair competition  Employment rights are compensated with the aim of higher productivity and some believe
that because of fierce competition in capitalist economies it can give rise to unfair competition.
Effect of Capitalism on Society

 High Standard of Living  Capitalism is the artifact of industrialization. Industrialization has amplified
production.
 Economic Progress  Capitalism encourages society to utilize the natural resources more and more. The people
exert themselves maximum for earning money. This had led to many inventions in the field of industry, agriculture
and business which have contributed to economic growth.
 Exchange of Culture  Capitalism intends to encourage all people to partake in activities that appear beneficial
to them. Capitalism facilitates international trade and exchange of know-how. The development of the means of
transport and communication has facilitated contacts among the peoples of the world thus leading to exchange of
ideas and culture.
 Progress of Civilization  Capitalism is tool to explore new machines and increasing the production of material
goods. Man is today more civilized than his ancestors.
 Decreasing of Racial Differences  Capitalism has also led to diminish the differences based on race, doctrine,
caste and nationality. It promotes purely merit based activities.
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CH-15 SOCIALISM
Introduction
 Socialism is a social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of
property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but
live in cooperation with one another.
 Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to
the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control
property for the benefit of all its members.
 Socialism prioritizes human needs and eliminates the profit motive that drives war, ecological destruction, and
inequalities based on gender, race, nationality and sexuality.
 Simply, socialism is social ownership of means of production, impartiality of income and opportunities for all
members.
 It is dependent upon the manner in which wealth is produced and distributed by those who form part of society at a
given time.
 Socialism initiated in the late 18th-century from a knowledgeable and working-class political movement that
disapproved the effects of industrialization and private ownership on civilization.
Characteristics of Socialism
1) Public Ownership
 First prominent characteristic is socialist economy which is determined by public ownership of the means of
production and distribution.
 There is shared ownership whereby all mines, farms, factories, financial institutions, distributing agencies,
means of transport and communications, are owned, controlled, and regulated by government departments and
state corporations.
 A small private sector also exists as small business units which are carried on in the villages by local artists for
local consumption.
2) Central Planning
 Second feature of socialism is centrally planned initiatives which functions under the direction of a central
planning authority. It develops various objectives and targets to be realized during the plan period.
 Central economic planning means the making of major economic decisions what and how much is to be
produced, how, when and where it is to be produced, and to whom it is to be allocated by the mindful decision
of a determinate authority, on the basis of a comprehensive survey of the economic system as a whole.
 The central planning authority organises and operates the financial resources by deliberate direction and
control of the economy in order to accomplish certain objectives and targets laid down in the plan during a
specified period of time.
3) Freedom of Consumption
 In socialism system, consumer’s dominance infers that production in state owned industries is generally
governed by the likings of consumers, and the available merchandises are distributed to the customers at fixed
prices through the state-run department stores.
 Consumer’s dominion under socialism is limited to the choice of socially beneficial commodities.
 In a socialist system, there is great impartiality of income distribution in comparison a free market economy.
4) Equality of Income and Distribution
 The removal of private ownership in the means of production, private capital accumulation, and profit motive
under socialism avert the accrual of large wealth in the hands of a few wealthy persons.
 The unearned incomes in the form of rent, interest and profit go to the state which utilises them in providing
free education, public health facilities, and social security to the masses.
5) Planning and the pricing process
 Other feature of socialism is that the pricing process under socialism does not operate spontaneously but works
under the control and regulation of the central planning authority.
 There are administered prices which are fixed by the central planning authority.
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Types of Socialism
Types of Socialism
1)Democratic 1)Revolutionar 1)Libertarian 1)Market 1)Green 1)Christian 1)Utopian 1)Fabian

Socialism y Socialism Socialism Socialism Socialism Socialism Socialism Socialism
1) Democratic Socialism
 The means of production are managed by the working people, and there is a democratically elected government.
 Democratic planning is used for common goods, such as mass transit, housing, and energy, while the free market
is allowed to produce and distribute consumer goods
2) Revolutionary Socialism
 Socialism will emerge only after capitalism has been overthrown, although the revolution is not necessarily a
violent one.
 The factors of production are owned by the workers and managed by them through central planning.
3) Libertarian Socialism
 Libertarianism assumes that the basic nature of people is rational, autonomous, and self-determining.
 Once the strictures of capitalism have been removed, people will naturally seek a socialist society that takes
care of all, free of economic, political, or social hierarchies. They will see it is the best for their own self-
interest.
4) Market Socialism
 Production is owned by the workers. They decide how to distribute among themselves. They could sell excess
production on the free market.
 Alternatively, it could be turned over to society, which might distribute it according to the free market.
5) Green Socialism
 This type of socialistic economy highly values the maintenance of natural resources. Public ownership of
large corporations achieves this.
 It also emphasizes public transit and locally sourced food. Production focuses on making sure everyone has
enough of the basics instead of consumer products one doesn't really need.
 This kind of economy guarantees a livable wage for everyone.
6) Christian Socialism
 Christian teachings of brotherhood are the same values expressed by socialism.
7) Utopian Socialism
 This was more a vision of equality than a concrete plan. The idea arose before massive industrialization and
would have been achieved peacefully through a series of experimental societies.
8) Fabian Socialism
 This type of socialism was extolled by a British organization called the Fabian Society in the late 1900s.
 It advocated a gradual change to socialism through laws, elections, and other peaceful means.
Benefits / Merits of Socialism

1) Greater Economic Efficiency
 Welfare and equality socialism that include greater economic efficiency, welfare due to less inequality,
absence of monopolistic practices and absence of business fluctuations.
 Central planning authority  The means of production are controlled and regulated by the central planning
authority towards chosen ends. The central planning authority makes comprehensive survey of resources and
utilises them in the most efficient manner.
 Increased productivity  secured by avoiding the wastes of competition and by undertaking expensive
research and production processes in a coordinated manner.
 Economic efficiency is also realized by utilising resources in producing socially useful goods and services
which satisfy the basic wants of the people such as cheap food, cloth, and housing.
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2) Minimum Inequality of Income

 In a socialist economy, it is observed that there is less disparity of income as compared with a capitalist
economy because of the absence of private ownership of the means of production, private capital
accumulation, and private profit.
 All inhabitants work for the wellbeing of the state and each is compensated his payment according to his
capability, education and training.
 All rents, interests and profits from various sources go to the state which spends them for public welfare in
providing free education, cheap and congenial housing, free public health amenities, and social security to the
people.
3) Absence of Monopolistic Practices
 Main benefit of socialism is that it is free from monopolistic practices which are to be found in a capitalist
society.
 Since under socialism, all means of production are owned by the state, both competition and monopoly are
eradicated. The misuse by the monopolistic is absent.
 Instead of private monopoly, there is the state monopoly of the productive system but this is operated for
the welfare of the people.
 In the state-owned factories, socially useful commodities are produced which are of high quality and are also
reasonably priced.
4) Absence of Business Fluctuation
 A socialist system is free from business variations. There is economic constancy because production and
consumption of goods and services are controlled by the central planning authority according to the objectives,
targets and priorities of the plan. Thus, there is neither overproduction nor joblessness.
Demerits / Drawbacks of Socialism

1) Loss of Consumer’s Dominance
 Consumers do not have the liberty to buy whatever commodities they want. They can consume only those
commodities which are available in department stores. Often the quantities which they can buy are fixed by the
state.
2) No freedom of occupation
 It is also found that people do not have liberty of occupation in such a society. Every person is provided job
by the state. But he cannot leave or change it.
 Even the place of work is allotted by the state. All occupational movements are sanctioned by the state.
3) Mal – Allocation of resources
 In socialist, there is random allocation of resources. The central planning authority often commits mistakes
in resource allocation because the entire work is done on trial and error basis.
4) Bureaucratic hurdles
 A socialist economy is considered as rigid economy. It is operated like a machine.
 Therefore, it does not provide the necessary initiative to the people to work hard. People work due to the fear
of higher authorities and not for any personal gain or self-interest.
5) General
 In current circumstances, socialism has become the most popular, economic philosophy. During the decades
succeeding the Second World War, the worldwide progression of socialism has been quite theatrical and
unparalleled.
 Socialism is a standard of expediency which accommodates politicians of all hues. It incorporates all types
of political system, dictatorship, democracies, republics and monarchies.
 It holds such dissimilar systems as an Islamic socialism practiced by Libya and Algeria, democratic socialism
of Norway or Sweden, the Baathist Socialism of Syria and Iraq, the ‘Ujamaa’ socialism of Tanzania.
 It is observed that various nations around the world have adopted socialist philosophy in the light of their
peculiar conditions.
 Sometimes even within a country, different political parties interpreted the socialist philosophies to fit into their
own political viewpoint.
 Socialist ideas have considerably influenced the formulation of the means and objectives of Indian
economic policies.
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 To summarize, Socialism is a thought that individuals should not have ownership of land, capital, industry,
but rather the whole community jointly owns and controls property, goods, and production.
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CH-16 COMMUNISM
Introduction
 Communism can be defined as the ideology which leads to a classless society based on equal rights for
everyone, irrespective for the class to (the labour or the bourgeoisie), on the means of production.
 This ideology believes in the radical uprooting of the wealthy ruling class to establish a democratic free society
where class difference does not exist.
 The prominent proponents of the theory of communism include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th
Century. They dealt in the idea in depth in the Communist Manifesto of 1848, which become document of reference
for the socialist movement of 19th century Europe and Industrial Rebellion.
Characteristics of Communism
 Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
 A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
 Abolition of all right of inheritance.
 Confiscation of the property of all immigrants and rebels.
 Equal liability of all to labor and establishment of industrial armies (especially for agriculture).
 The gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country.
 Free education for all children in public schools and abolition of children's factory labor.
 Centralization of credit in the hands of the state.
 The state would control communication and transportation.
 The state factories and instruments of production would cultivate wastelands and improve the soil.
Types of Communism
Types of Communism
Left
Marxism Leninism Maoism Trotskyism Stalinism
Communism
1. Marxism
Karl Marx:
 He was the first to provide a scientific base of communism. He found the “League of Just”
in 1841. Later he changed its name to “Communist League”
 He published his famous “Communist Manifesto” in 1847-1848. In this manifesto he
made a direct appeal to the Workers of the World.
 Marxism is a perspective that involves a number of differing “sub-perspectives” that is,
whilst there tends to be a general agreement about the need to construct a critique of
Capitalist society.
 Main Marxist ideas can be explained in the following terms:
o Marxism stresses the notion that social life is based on “conflicts of interest”.
o Most significant and basic conflict is that between the Bourgeoisie, those who own and control the means of
production in society and the Proletariat, those who simply sell their labour power in the marketplace of
Capitalism.
o Class conflict signifies a process whereby change comes about through the opposition of social classes as they
follow what they see to be their (different and opposed) collective interests in society.
o Marxism is a political philosophy whose main concern is to expose the political and economic
contradictions in-built in Capitalism such as the fact that while people co-operate to produce goods, a
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Capitalist class appropriates these goods for its private profit and to point the way towards the establishment of
a future Communist society.
2. Marxism – Leninism
Vladimir Lenin:
 It is the Communist philosophical field that emerged as the conventional tendency amongst
Communist parties in the 1920’s as it was accepted as the conceptual foundation of the
Communist International during the era of Joseph Stalin (1878 – 1953), with whom it is mainly
associated.
 Marxism – Leninism can be explained in the following terms:
o Philosophy of Leninism was built upon and extended the ideas of Marxism, and served as
the theoretical foundation for the ideology of Soviet Communism after the Russian
Revolution of 1917 and the establishment of the Soviet Union.
o The controlled organization generally called “democratic centralism” (whereby decisions are made with
internal democracy but then all party members must externally support and actively promote that decision).
o It maintains that Capitalism can only be conquered by innovatory ways and any attempts to improve Capitalism
from within are destined to fail.
o The objective of a Leninist party is to coordinate the overthrow of the existing government by force and
grab power on behalf of the proletariat, and then implement an autocracy of the proletariat, a kind of direct
equality in which workers hold political power through local councils known as soviets. (Labor councils
– Soviets)
3. Stalinism
 It is a more judgmental phrase for Joseph Stalin’s vision of Communism.
 Supporters of this ideology argue that it includes widespread use of publicity to establish a personality cult around
an absolute ruler, as well as extensive use of a secret police to maintain social proposal and silence political
opposition, all of which are trappings of Totalitarianism.
4. Trotskyism
 It is the philosophical model of Marxism that was supported by Leon Trotsky (1879 – 1940), who considered
himself a conformist Marxist and Bolshevik-Leninist and squabbled for the establishment of a frontline party.
5. Maoism
 Thoughts of Maoism are different of Communism derived from the teachings of the Chinese
leader Mao Zedong and practiced in the People’s Republic of China after the Chinese
Revolution of 1949.
 Maoism evolved from the Marxism-Leninism of Stalin, but introduced new ideas such as Social-
Imperialism, the Mass Line, people’s war and new democracy. Having as a central idea of
permanent revolution and stressing the importance of the peasantry, small-scale industry, and
agricultural collectivization.
6. Left Communism
 It is a range of Communist perspectives held by the Communist Left, which asserts to be more truly Marxist and
proletarian than the views of Leninism and its successors.
 Left Communists advocated the Russian Revolution (1917), but did not agree to the methods of the Bolsheviks.
 The Russian, Dutch-German and the Italian traditions of Left Communism all share an opposition to nationalism,
all kinds of national liberation movements, front parliamentary systems.
Benefit of Communism
 Communism philosophy upkeeps extensive universal social welfare, such as enhancements in public health and
education.
 Its theoretical dogmas are beneficial to build equality and strong social communities.
 Communist ideology promotes universal education with a focus on developing the proletariat with knowledge, class
realization, and historical understanding.
 Communism also supports the liberation of women and to end their exploitation.
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 Communist philosophy emphasizes the development of a New Man, a class-conscious, knowledgeable, daring,
democratic person dedicated to working and social consistency in contrast to the antithetic “bourgeois
individualist” related with cultural backwardness and social atomization.
Drawbacks of Communism
 Many philosophers have argued that Communism offers an idea of unattainable perfect future, and keeps its
subjects in thrall to it by devaluing the past and the present.
 It asserts to represent a universal truth which explains everything and can cure every ill and any apparent deviations
or under-performance are explained away by casuistry and emotional appeals.
 Philosophy of communism is incomplete. Marx and Engels never devoted much work to show how exactly a
Communist economy would function in practice, leaving Socialism a “negative ideology”.
 Some Communists, such as Trotsky, devalues humanity and the importance of the lives and rights of human
beings.
 Some opponents have argued that Marx’s concept of freedom is really just a defence of dictatorship and
oppression and not an expansion of liberties as he claimed.
 Other critics disapproved the ideology of Marxist class and argued that class is not the most important inequality
in history, and that thorough analysis of many historical periods fails to find support for class or social development
as used by Marxists.
 Some critics have argued that the growing spread of liberal democracy around the world, and the apparent lack of
major revolutionary movements developing in them, suggest that Capitalism or social democracy is likely to be
the effective form of human government instead of Marxism, which claims to be an “end of history”
philosophy.
Effect of communism on society

 The main objective of Communism is to develop the society without rulers, a society where the people oversee
themselves. But until this is accomplished, a superior government has absolute power.
 The people do not have any private belongings and all assets belong to the government. Therefore, it has
some disastrous effect on society.
 Cruel ruler, Hitler was a communist dictator. Under his instructions, the Holocaust began.
 Communists consider their goal, their party, and the state more vital than the rights and autonomy of the
individual.
 In communist nations, there are usually huge gaps between official claims of freedom and conditions in which
they actually exist.
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CH-17 FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918)

INTRODUCTION
 The First World War was the product of ultra – nationalism, imperialism and
militarism in which mutual suspicion and distrust made contribution.
 The beginning of the century witnessed the division of the world into major
Nationalism
international forces based on distinct ideologies.
 In the initial decades of the 20th century they competed with each other for a
domination of the entire world. Since their conflicts and rivalries could not be
resolved through any peaceful mechanism, they resulted in the outbreak of the two
world wars. Imperialism Militarism
 The damage caused by this war had no precedent in history. In the earlier wars,
the civilian populations were not generally involved and the casualties were generally
confined to the warring armies.
 The war which began in 1914 was a “total war” in which all the resources of the
warring states were mobilized. It affected the economy of the entire world the casualties suffered by the civilian
population from bombing of the civilian areas and the famines and epidemics, caused by the war far exceeded those
suffered by the armies.
 The battles of the war were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Because of the unprecedented extent
of its spread and its total nature, it is known as the First World War.
 World War I (WW I), also known as the “Great War”, lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918.
 WW I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers.
The main members of the Allied Powers France, Russia, and Britain (The United States also fought on the
side of the Allies after 1917)
The main members of the Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
CAUSE OF FIRST WORLD WAR
1. Economic imperialism
 England, France and Holland first experienced Industrialisation.
 By the end of the 19th century Germany and Italy emerged as independent nations and immediately started
competing with the other industrialized countries. This period also witnessed substantial developments in the
scientific and technological sectors.
 These industrialized countries tried to possess colonies for the supply of raw materials and to serve the purpose of
markets in every nook and corner of the world.
 That led to bitterness and rivalries. The underlying causes of the war were the rivalries and conflicts among the
imperialist countries.
 The imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was accompanied with conflicts between the imperialist countries.
Sometimes the imperialists were able to come to peaceful settlements and agree to divide a part of Asia or Africa
among themselves without resorting to the use of force against each other.
 On other times their rivalries created situations of war. Wars were generally avoided at that time because the
possibilities of further conquest were still there.
 By the end of the 19th century, however, the situation had changed. Most of Asia and Africa had already been
divided up and further conquests could take place only by dispossessing some imperialist country of its colonies.
 The Germany tried to capture markets which were already under the control of Britain that led to bitterness
between the two countries.
 Another important factor that fanned the flames of rivalry and enmity was tariff restrictions.
 Every country preferred exports but not imports. Thus, there were tariff wars between the various countries. It
resulted in the worsening of the relations between the nations. Both Britain and France were alarmed at the
expansion of German manufactures as they considered it a serious threat to their position.
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 Italy, which after her unification had become almost an equal of France in power, coveted Tripoli in North Africa
which was under the Ottoman Empire. Italy has already occupied Eritrea and Somaliland.
 France wanted to add Morocco to her conquests in Africa.
 Russia had her ambitions in Iran, the territories of the Ottoman Empire including Constantinople, the Far East and
elsewhere.
 The Russian plans clashed with the interests and ambitions of Britain, Germany and Austria.
 Japan which had also become an imperialist power had ambitions in the Far East and was on way to fulfilling
them. She defeated Russia in 1904.
 Britain was involved in a conflict with all other imperialist countries because she had already acquired a vast empire
which was to be defended.
2. The Treaty of Frankfurt

 It created a permanent enmity between Germany & France. So as a precautionary measure German Chancellor
Bismarck made an attempt to isolate France in European politics.
 This Led to formation of alliances and counter- alliances. So up to the beginning of 20th century a diplomatic
revolution already took place in Europe.
 Although the objective of alliances and counter-alliances shouldn't be overestimated as they were mainly defensive
in nature. And when we observe the incidents leading to WW I, we have realized that it was not the implementation
of the defensive treaty rather the contradiction of its terms that started the WWI.
3. Intellectual factor
War mentality was encouraged by some important thinkers the time. There appeared three important thinkers in 19th
century.
 Charles Darwin propounded the theory of origin of species which was further developed by Herbert Spencer in
the form of theory of 'Survival of the Fittest'. So, there was a perception among the people that the war eliminates
the weak while strengthens the strong.
 Hegel glorified the nation and expected from the people to make sacrifices for their nation.
 Sigmund Freud shattered the old perception of the rational human mind as he emphasized the role of sub-conscious
behind individual acts. So naturally in place of rationalism, faith was getting more and more acceptance among
intellectuals and leaders.
4. Conflicts within Europe

 The Balkan countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. However, in the 19th century, the Ottoman rule
had begun to collapse.
 The Russian Czars hoped that these areas would come under their control. They encouraged a movement called the
Pan-Slav movement.
 Other major European powers were alarmed at the growth of Russian influence in the Balkans. Corresponding
to the Pan-Slav movement, there was a Pan German movement which aimed at the expansion of Germany all
over central Europe and in the Balkans. Italy claimed certain areas which were under Austrian rule.
5. Formation of Alliances
 The conflicts within Europe had begun to create a very tense situation. European countries began to form
themselves into opposing groups.
 In the early part of the 20th century, most of the powerful countries in Europe started building up powerful standing
armies, elaborate espionage system, strong navies. Much of the national wealth was spent to increase the strength
and power.
 These powerful armaments were alleged to be for defence and in the interest of peace.
 They actually created a sense of universal fear, suspicion, mistrust and hatred in between the nations. This is amply
attested by naval competition between England & Germany. Such a race in building powerful and dangerous
weapons could end only in a war. In 1882 was formed.
 The Triple Alliance comprising Germany, Austria- Hungary and Italy. As opposed to this, emerged the Triple
Entente comprising France, Russia and Britain in 1907.
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 European countries also entered into secret treaties to gain territories at the expense of others. Often, these secret
treaties leaked out and fear and suspicion grew in each country about such treaties.
6. Excessive or narrow nationalism

 The excessive or narrow nationalism and competitive patriotism fanned the flames of hatred, enmity and bitterness
amongst nations. The love of one ‘s country demanded the hatred of another. Love of Germany demanded the
hatred of France and vice versa.
 Italy and Germany after unification started the policy of expansion at the expense of the national sentiments of
others. It was the intense nationalism in Serbia which created bitterness between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
7. Diplomatic failure
 Even after Sarajevo massacre the conflict could have been checked, but it needed creative diplomacy. It couldn't
happen due to the breakdown of diplomatic process.
 In the month of June, it was a long period of holiday so important diplomats and political personalities were on
leave.
 In post industrial revolution era there was much sophistication in the development of latest weapons and even in
the method of warfare. But unfortunately, the method of diplomacy was still old and obsolete.
8. Immediate factor- Sarajevo Assassination

 In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was shot while he was
visiting Sarajevo in Bosnia.
 He was killed by a Serbian person, who thought that Serbia should control Bosnia instead of Austria. Because its
leader had been shot, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
 As a result:-
o Russia got involved as it had an alliance with Serbia.
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o Germany then declared war on Russia because Germany had an alliance with Austria-Hungary.
o Britain declared war on Germany because of its invasion of neutral Belgium - Britain had agreements to
protect both Belgium and France.
FORMATION OF ALLIANCES AND CONFLICTS PRECEDING THE FINAL
CRISIS
 In the years before the war, the powers were forming military
alliances to defend their objectives: The Triple Alliance linking
The Triple Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Alliance  It was signed in 1882, in the days of Chancellor Bismarck. The
German Reich and the Austro-Hungarian Empire constituted the
core of this alliance.
 The Triple Entente, which was made up of Britain, France,
Triple Entente and Russia, concluded by 1907. The increasing German
aggression led to Britain and France ending their colonial
differences.
 The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the
Balkans pushed Russia into the alliance.
COURSE WORLD WAR I (WAR TO END ALL WARS)

 The First World War was the first truly global conflict the battle raged not just in trenches of the western front
but in Africa, the Middle-east and Asia. Huge armies were deployed with new weapons which created
devastating effects.
 Over nine million soldiers and an unknown number of civilians lost their lives. Empires crumbled, revolution
engulfed Russia, and America rose to become a dominant world power.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28th July 1914
Germany declared a war on Russia, Belgium and France in 3rd August 1914.
Austria-Hungary attacked Russia on 6th August
France and Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary on 12th August
Time Line –
28 June 1914 Assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro- Hungarian throne in Sarajevo, capital
of Bosnia. The killer was backed by Serbian terrorist group. Austria-Hungary issues Serbia
with an ultimatum of one month to fulfill demands presented by Austria. Serbia agrees to most
of it except one i.e. allowing Austria-Hungary to be represented in proceeding against the
guilty.
28 July 1914 Europe descends into war. Backed by Germany, Austria-Hungary declares war on
Serbia. Russia quickly steps in to protect Serbia and mobilises its army. On 1s Aug 2014,
Germany responds by declaring war on Russia. France being Russian allies stared mobilising
its army.
3 Aug 1914 Germany attacks France through Belgium.
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4 Aug 1914 Although initially Britain remained neutral and it appealed both Germany and France to
maintain neutrality of Belgium. But when Germany invaded Belgium on its way to invade
France, Britain declared war on Germany on 4th August 1914.
6 Aug 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. Serbia joined the allied forces and Bulgaria
joined the Axis forces. Italy, although an ally of Germany, remained neutral and finally joined
war in 1915 on allied side. It was promised region in Adriatic area in a secret treaty. Ottoman
Empire joined Axis forces thus taking the war to Asian region. Japan joined allied forces
as it was promised the Shantung region in China after the war.
Finally, in April USA joined the allied forces but at the same time Russia had to withdraw from the war
1917 due to Russian revolution. Thus, we can see that a small conflict in the Balkan region took
the form of a world war.
THE PEACE TREATIES

 On January 18, 1919, representatives of the victorious countries met at the Conference of Paris, under the direction
of the Committee of Four: U.S. President Wilson, British Prime Minister Lloyd George, French Prime
Minister Clemenceau, and Italian Chief Executive Orlando.
 The victorious countries negotiated the treaty and they demanded strict penalties against the defeated countries.
 The German representatives of the fledgling democratic Weimar Republic signed the treaty on 28 June 1919, under
threat of a total invasion of their country if they did not sign. In Germany, there was talk of diktat, the imposition
of Versailles.
 The victorious countries signed different peace treaties with each of the various defeated nation's 
o The Treaty of Versailles with Germany,
o The Treaty of Saint-Germaine with Austria,
o The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary,
o The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria and on the treaty of Sevres and later Lausanne treaty with Turkey.
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

 The position of the victors following the end of the war was different. Clemenceau personified a harder stance with
Germany. Clemenceau, the French leader, insistently claimed that "Germany will pay". British and Americans
were willing to punish Germany; however, they opted for a more conciliatory attitude.
 Finally, Italy, who were less interested in the fate of Germany, tried unsuccessfully to obtain new territory. The
Treaty of Versailles is organized in several chapters which each have different clauses:
 France regained Alsace and Lorraine

 Eupen and Malmsey passed into the hands of Belgium
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 Eastern territories were annexed by Poland which caused East Prussia to become
Territorial clauses territorially isolated.
 Danzig and Memel, former Baltic German cities were declared free cities
 Denmark annexed northern Schleswig-Holstein
 Germany lost all of its colonies and the victors annexed them
 Drastic limitation of the German navy.
Military clauses  Dramatic reduction of the Army (only 100,000 troops, prohibition of having tanks,
aircraft and heavy artillery).
 Demilitarization of the Rhineland region.
 The treaty declared Germany and its allies responsible for all 'loss and damage'
suffered by the Allies and as a consequence they were forced to pay war reparations to
the victors.
War Reparations  The London Conference of 1920 established the total amount of repairs that had to be
paid by Germany: 140.000 million gold marks, an enormous amount for the time.
 At the Spa Conference, also in 1920, the 140.000 million gold marks were divided into
a fixed percentage and given to each country: France received 52%, Britain 22%, Italy
10%, and Belgium 8%.
OTHER TREATIES
 This was concluded between the Allies and the Austria-Hungary. Hungary was cut off
Treaty of Germaine from Austria and the latter was made to recognize the independence of the former.
(1919)  Bohemia and Moravia were taken away from Austria and were formed the part of a
new state by name Czechoslovakia. Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina was given to
Serbia.
 Montenegro was later on added to it. Thus, the new state of Yugoslavia was formed.
Treaty of Trianon  This treaty was concluded between the Allies and Hungary. Slovak provinces were
(1920) given to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania to Rumania and Croatia was given to
Yugoslavia.
Treaty of Neuilly  This treaty was concluded between the Allies and Bulgaria. Bulgaria gave up most of
(1919) those territories which she had got during the Balkan wars of 1912-13 and the First
World War. Bulgaria gave up Macedonia to Yugoslavia.
 This treaty was signed between the Allies and Turkey. Armenia was made into a
Christian Republic and she was put under an international guarantee.
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Treaty of Severes  Syria was given to France, and Mesopotamia, Palestine & Trans-Jordan were given to
(1920) England under the mandate of the League of Nations. The straits of Dardanelles and
Bosporus were internationalized
WOODROW WILSON’S 14 POINTS (1918): They more or less served as the war aims of Allied Powers
-
1. Abolition of secret diplomacy
2. Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace
3. Removal of economic barriers between states
4. All round reduction of armaments
5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned
6. Evacuation of Russian territory
7. Restoration of Belgium
8. Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality
10. Self-government for people of Austria-Hungary
11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given sea access
12. Self-government for the non-Turkish people of Ottoman empire and permanent opening of Dardanelles
13. An independent Poland with secure access to Sea
14. A general association of nations to preserve peace
Treaty of Versailles: On June 28, 1919, World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The
Treaty of Versailles was an attempt to prevent the world from going into another war.
Wilson under pressure from Britain and France added two more points regarding Germany viz disarmament of Germany
and war reparations by Germans for civilian losses caused by them in occupied territories.
THE IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR - I

 Rise of new nations states  Turkey, Austria and Hungary were created as mentioned above. Further,
Czechoslovakia and Poland were created.
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 Serbia fulfilled its dream of uniting the Slav people under Yugoslavia which was formed by merging Serbia and
Montenegro. Also, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were made independent nations.
 Germany had ceased them from Russia after the Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1917).
 Terrible loss of life  eight million dead, millions wounded people, maimed, widows and orphans, and the material
destruction suffered especially by Europe.
 U.S.A  which had won the war but had not experienced the conflict on its territory, became a first world power.
 The mass mobilization of men led to the incorporation of women into the work force, which was a major step
forward for women's rights.
 The extreme nationalism experienced during the war, coupled with fear of a Communist revolution, encouraged
the middle-class populations of some countries to move to the extreme right. This created a hotbed of fascist
movements.
 Russia became Communist  World War I led to rise of revolting Bolsheviks who were against the Russian
participation in the war due to the economic burden it brought upon the Russian population. The triumph of the
Soviet Revolution and the social crisis that followed the war encouraged workers in many countries to protests,
creating a pre-revolutionary climate.
 League of Nations  The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed post World War
I as a way to solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open warfare. A precursor to the United
Nations, the League achieved some victories but had a mixed record of success.
 Dismemberment of Ottoman Empire  The Ottoman empire disintegrated after its loss in the World War I and
the new nation state of Turkey came into being.
 Disintegration of Habsburg Empire  Austria-Hungary separated on their own just before the end of the World
War I and the Habsburg Empire came to an end.
 Social Consequences  World war changed society completely. Birth rates declined because millions of young
men died (eight million died, millions wounded, maimed, widows and orphans). Civilians lost their land and fled
to other countries.
 Introduction of new Weapons  Many new weapons were used for the first time in World War I. Barbed Wires,
Machine Guns, Tanks, Poison Gas and Shelling were put to great use. This pushed the world away from peace and
ensured that the future wars were more dangerous.
 Imperialism continued  The German colonies were converted into Mandates. Mandates were handed over to
the victors for preparing them for independence at a suitable future date. The British got the German colonies in
Africa. Ottoman Empire’s territories of Iraq, Syria, Trans-Jordan and Palestine were distributed as Mandates
among France and Britai.
 Economic consequences  World War I cost the participating countries a lot of money. Germany and Great
Britain spent about 60% of the money their economy produced. Countries had to raise taxes and borrow
money from their citizens. They also printed money in order to buy weapons and other things they needed for
war. This led to inflation after the war.
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CH-18 LEAGUE OF NATIONS

INTRODUCTION
 League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established on
January 10, 1920, at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers at the end of World
War I.
 The terrible losses of World War I produced, as years went by and peace seemed no
nearer, an ever-growing public demand that some method be found to prevent the
renewal of the suffering and destruction which were now seen to be an inescapable part
of modern war.
 So great was the force of this demand that within a few weeks after the opening of
the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, unanimous agreement had been reached
on the text of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
 Although the League was unable to fulfill the hopes of its founders, its creation was an event of decisive importance
in the history of international relations. The League was formally disbanded on April 19, 1946. Its powers and
functions had been transferred to the nascent United Nations.
AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

 Settle international disputes to prevent war in future. This was to be achieved through the principle of collective
security.
 All the member nations were to collectively act against a nation who tried to wage a war. This action against the
aggressor nation would take form of economic sanctions and military action, if required. Thus, maintenance of
international peace and security was the primary goal of the League.
 Economic and Social work - The League of Nations was to seek international cooperation for socio-economic
development across the world. For this purpose various organizations within the League of Nations were
created.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Membership:
There were 42-member nations to begin with. By 1926, when Germany was granted membership, the total number of
member nations had reached the tally of 55.
Security Council:
 The League of Nations had a United Nations Security Council, like Security Council with eight members to begin
with, four permanent members and four non-permanent members.
 The non-permanent members were elected by the General Assembly for a term of three years. By 1926, the
council had thirteen members with the seats for non – permanent members now increasing to nine.
 The four permanent members were France, Italy, Japan and Britain.
 The decisions in the council had to be unanimous. The mandate of the League of Nations Security Council was to
deal with political issues.
Peacekeeping Function:
 All disputes that could boil down to a war were to be referred to the League and any member that resorted to war
was to face collective action by the rest of the members.
 The Security Council would have the authority to recommend the amount of resources – naval, air, military, that
each member of the League should contribute for collective action against the aggressor.
General Assembly:
 Members of the League of Nations constituted the General Assembly. The Assembly met annually and the
decisions were to be taken unanimously.
 All members of the Assembly had one vote.
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 The Assemble was a policy making body of the League and thus its mandate was to decide on the general policy
issues.
 It also controlled the finances of the League of Nations and had powers to change a peace treaty.
 The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-
permanent members to the Council, the election with the Council of the Judges of the Permanent Court, and
control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.
Permanent Court of International Justice:

 It was setup in Hague (Netherlands). Its mandate was to deal only with the legal disputes between states and not
the political disputes.
 It had fifteen judges from different nationalities.
 It continues to function today as part of the United Nations and is known as the International Court of Justice.
Secretariat:
 The Secretariat of the League consisted of the Secretary-General who was appointed by the Council with the
approval of the Assembly and of such other staff as were required for its work.
 The Secretariat was located at Geneva and the staff was appointed by the Secretary General in consultation with
the Council.
 The member states had to pay towards the expenses of the Secretariat in certain proportions. While the meetings
of the Council and the Assembly were held from time to time, the Secretariat continued to work throughout the
year.
 The officials of the League enjoyed certain privileges and immunities while engaged in the work of the League.
Commissions & Committees:

 Commission was setup, with each commission dealing with specific problems. Examples of important commissions
included commission for handling issues regarding Mandates, Disarmament, Military Affairs etc.
 On the other hand, important committees were those dealing with areas of Health, Labor, Women Rights, Drugs,
Child Welfare etc.
SUCCESS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Economic and Social work through its Commissions and Committees:
ILO (International  The International labor Organization was the most successful. The goals of ILO
Labour Organization) included – fixing maximum working days and minimum wages, ensuring that
member nations provided for unemployment benefits and old age pensions.
 Its work included information dissemination with respect to performance of
different member nations and to push the governments for actions in the area of
welfare of the workers.
The Refugee Organization  It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to their homes outside Russia. In 1933,
it helped the Jews, who were fleeing to escape Nazi persecution, to resettle in
different countries where they would be safe.
Health Organization  It did good work in finding causes of different epidemics. It was especially
successful in combating Typhus epidemic in Russia which had the potential to
spread to the rest of Europe.
 It had the responsibility of monitoring the governance of territories given to
member nations as Mandates (former colonies of Ottoman Empire and
Germany).
 A separate commission, which was setup for supervising the governance in SAAR,
was very efficient and successfully held a plebiscite there in 1935. After the
plebiscite, SAAR was returned to Germany.
Mandates Commission  Although the Mandates Commission functioned well, it can be argued that it did
not do much against colonialism in former African colonies that were
converted to Mandates.
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 The Mandates were to be prepared for independence but the commission failed
to ensure that the colonial powers provide for participation of the locals in the
governance of Mandates
Resolution of minor International disputes:

 Here the League had partial success. It forced Greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria, when the former invaded
the latter.
 The League decided in favour of Britain when Turkey started claiming the Mosul province, which was a mandate
of Britain.
 The League solved a territorial dispute between Peru and Columbia.
 Also in 1921, when there was a dispute regarding Upper Silesia (an industrial region) between Germany and
Poland, the League successfully made both the parties reach a settlement and Upper Silesia was partitioned between
the two.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF LEAGUE:

 The Covenant of the League was made a part and parcel of the peace settlement. It would have been better if it
had been kept separate. There were many states which considered the Treaty of Versailles as a treaty of revenge
and were not prepared to ratify the same. By not ratifying the Treaty, they could not be members of the League.
 The absence of the great Powers from the international Organisation weakened her from the very beginning and
that was partly responsible for its ultimate failure. Japan, Germany and Italy left the League and that certainly
weakened it.
 The League was dominated by England and France and consequently, the other states began to lose their
confidence in that Organisation. The League was intended to perform a miracle by doing the impossible task of
maintaining the status quo in the world.
 That would have been possible if the peace settlement of 1919-20 had been based on justice and fair play further,
as countries like Germany were completely humiliated by that settlement, there were no chances of peace.
Germany was bound to defy the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles and that she actually did under Hitler.
 The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany weakened the chances of success of the League. Japan was
determined to acquire fresh territories and as the League criticised her on the question of Manchuria, Japan left
the League.
 Germany was not prepared to honour her commitments under the Treaty of Versailles with regard to her
armaments, and consequently she decided to leave the League.
 The states continued to be the members of the League so long as their national interests were not in any way
endangered or sacrificed. They preferred to pursue and achieve their national aspirations than to care for the
strengthening and perpetuation of the international Organisation which was the only hope of the world. Small
nations lost their faith in the effectiveness of the League to save them from any aggression.
 The examples of Manchuria, Abyssinia, Austria and Czechoslovakia could be cited as examples in this
connection. The League was given an effective weapon in the form of economic sanctions, but that weapon was not
used effectively to produce good results. The economic sanctions against Italy were applied in a halting manner.
 The League failed because it was an Organisation of the governmental authorities and the people of the various
states had no say in its deliberations. There was no popular backing or enthusiasm.
 While Great Britain and France joined the League, they did not change their attitude. Great Britain looked upon
the League as a means to perpetuate the balance of power. France looked upon the League as a means to encircle
Germany. She did not transform French security into collective security.
 The League failed because it was based on the principle of equality. The idea of one nation, one vote led to
Liberia being as important as the United Kingdom or France or the Soviet Union. That was not a sound basis on
which to found an international Organisation. The League though conceived as universal was in fact never
universal.
 The narrow nationalism prevailing in the world was also responsible for the failure of the League. If the nations
of the world were not prepared to sacrifice their national interests for the sake of the League or world interests, the
League was bound to fail.
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1923 resolution: It allowed each member the freedom to decide if it wanted to contribute any military resources
during activation of the collective security clause. This literally nullified the responsibility that all the member
nations had in their duty of checking any act of war by another member nation.
IMPACT OF THE FAILURE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

 In the 1930s, the world economic depression encouraged nations to be more aggressive towards each other. Fascist
dictatorships took power in Germany, Italy and Japan, which were intent on empire-building and these countries
defied the League.
o Japan conquered Manchuria in 1932. The League objected, but could do nothing. When the League supported
China, Japan left the League.
o Hitler announced that Germany was leaving the League in 1932.
o Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935. Although the League officially condemned the Italians, France and Britain
were caught making a secret agreement to give Abyssinia to Italy.
 These crises destroyed the authority of the League, and it was powerless to stop Germany after 1935. By the
time of the Sudeten crisis of 1938, Britain and France were ignoring the League, and were trying appeasement
instead.
 World War II could not be prevented.
EVALUATION OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS

 To determine the success or failure of the League of Nations, we can analyze its performance with respect to two
major aims of the League as mentioned earlier.
 If the performance of the League of Nations is to be summarized, then it can be said that it failed with respect to
its aim of being a leading forum for resolution of international disputes and ensuring a peaceful world.
 But, it did important work for the socio-economic development across the world, specially, the work by
International Labor Organization (ILO) towards welfare of the workers and the contribution of League of Nations
for rehabilitation of the refugees of the World War I was commendable.
CONCLUSION
The League failed to implement its decisions in disputes, where the verdict of the League was against a major power.
Aggressive regimes like Japan, Italy and Germany defied the League. Britain and France did not do much to give
teeth to the League. The Economic Crisis of 1929 was also responsible in its own way. The Conference of
Ambassadors undermined League’s authority. Important powers like Germany, US, USSR were not its members.
The League Covenant was weak and it failed to provide a real collective security.
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CH-19 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (1917)
INTRODUCTION
 The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution across the
territory of the Russian Empire, commencing with the abolition of the monarchy in
1917 and concluding in 1923 with the Bolshevik establishment of the Soviet Union at
the end of the Civil War.
 The Russian Revolution was a series of revolutions in early 20th century that
ultimately resulted in the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a
communist government.
 The Russian Revolution dramatically changed Russia from an autocracy to a
communist system of government. The Revolution started during World War I, and
eventually the Soviet Union was formed.
 The Russian Revolution was, while a huge economic, social, and political change, the
result of a number of different factors that built up over time, including economic, military, and political
circumstances.
Series of revolutions in
Overthrow of Tsar Establishment of a
Russia in early 20th
Nicholas II communist government.
century
CONDITIONS IN RUSSIA BEFORE THE REVOLUTION

1) Social Conditions
 The Russian Society was divided into two classes before the Revolution, i.e. the rich and the poor.
 The nobles, feudal lords and the rich belonged to the rich class. The peasants, labourers and serfs belonged
to the poor class. The vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists.
 About 85 per cent of the Russian empire’s population earned their living from agriculture. However, most
of the peasants only cultivated the land.
 The land mainly belonged to the Church and the nobility. In Russia, peasants wanted the lands of the nobles
to be given to them. They frequently refused to pay land rent.
 Workers were divided on the basis of their occupation. They mainly migrated to cities for employment in factories.
The peasant community was deeply religious but did not care much about the nobility. They believed that land must
be divided amongst themselves.
2) Economic Condition
 The First World War (1914-18) had a disastrous impact on the economy of Russia. While retreating from
various battlefields, the Russian army destroyed crops and buildings in the country to prevent the enemy
from using them as resources.
 The destruction of crops and buildings added over 3 million refugees in Russia. People in Russia began to
question their country’s participation in the war.
 Industrial production declined in Russia as able-bodied men were sent to the warfront to fight in the First
World War.
 Russia was going through a bad period economically. Prices of essential good rise while real wages decreased by
20% leading to the famous St. Petersburg strike.
3) Political Condition
 Political parties were illegal before 1914.
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 The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas. In
1903, this party was divided into two groups - Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.
 The Bolsheviks, who were in majority, were led by Lenin who is regarded as the greatest thinker on socialism after
Marx.
CAUSES
1) Dissatisfaction with the Tsar
 Nicholas II inherited a country with severe problems, largely unprepared for a newly industrializing world.
Nicholas II believed in the power of the Russian autocracy; however, he was unable to maintain the traditional
power of the Tsar during his reign.
 As a young man, he was largely interested in his military career, rather than the political operations of the
government. Around the time of his coronation, he told a friend he never wanted to be Tsar. He married and produced
children; however, his only son had hemophilia. His other children were all daughters.
 In 1905, Nicholas faced revolution in Russia for the first time. Before 1905, Nicholas II was, at least, tolerated
by his people. On January 22, 1905, 150,000 people gathered to ask Nicholas II for his support and assistance. In
their petition, they called themselves oppressed, and said they were looked on as slaves. They wanted relief, but
not rebellion.
 The people marched peacefully, heading toward the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, but were, for an unknown
reason, fired upon by Russian troops. Several hundred of the peasants died that day; the government claimed around
100 dead, but those in opposition claimed a much higher number. The day was soon dubbed Bloody Sunday.
 Widespread general strikes followed, and Nicholas II made a number of concessions to appease the rebels.
 His decisions during World War I were almost all remarkably bad. He failed to choose skilled leaders for his
military, and made poor strategic decisions throughout the war.
 Russia suffered horrific military losses, costing both significant resources and massive numbers of human lives.
When Nicholas II chose to take direct control of the army as commander-in-chief, he removed himself from a
political role. He was, however, no better a commander than a Tsar. His choices throughout the war years
condemned him to his final end.
2) Conditions for Peasants

 Russia’s peasants remained in a state of near-slavery, called serfdom, for far longer than you might expect,
serfdom was only ended under Nicholas father, Alexander III, in 1861.
 Serfdom tied the peasants to the land, or to industrial complexes, like mines.
 The 1861 emancipation of the serfs enabled those who worked the land to purchase property from landowners;
household serfs received only their freedom. In some areas, emancipation came later, with state-owned serfs not
receiving their freedom until 1866.
 While the end of serfdom should have, in theory, provided benefits to the serfs, many lost the only support and
homes they had ever known.
 The government provided loans that allowed the former serfs to purchase land. However, these loans were costly
and the land sold by the landowners was quite poor.
 Many could not afford to make the payments on their land. Most had been charged significantly more than market
rates for the land, in some cases as much as a third. When state-owned serfs were emancipated, the terms were
somewhat more generous. A large number of former serfs sold their land back to the landowner to eliminate the
payments, and moved away from the land.
 In the years shortly after emancipation, the change helped to revitalize the Russian economy. New workers
were available for factories, including managers, and agricultural production increased.
 This positive change did not continue over time, however, and eventually the Russian working population became
increasingly dissatisfied. The institution of serfdom had also created a larger class divide than was present in
many areas by the late 19th century. Russians were either very poor or very rich.
 During the latter part of the 19th century, Russia experienced a massive population increase. Feeding a larger
population proved onerous for the agricultural community.
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 The risk of starvation increased in a relatively famine-prone region, particularly due to poor administration
and organization. Large parts of Russia had short growing seasons and long, harsh winters; however, Russia had
very large amounts of land, enabling more land investment in agriculture.
3) Worker’s Rights Issues

 The emancipation of the serfs led to a dramatic increase in population in Russian cities, as people moved away
from the countryside to urban areas.
 The industrial revolution reached Russia significantly later than the rest of Europe. The period after
emancipation was the first time the lower classes of Russia had been free to leave the land on which they were born.
 Many left the land not by choice, but out of financial necessity – they were in need of work, and lacked the
ability to support themselves on the land.
 Factories in Russian cities paid low wages, lower than in Western Europe, and offered no protections for workers.
 The government was reluctant to implement even the most minimal of regulations, like a ban on children
working at night. Eventually, a ban was put in place limiting night work for women and children, and the workday
was limited to no more than 11 ½ hours.
 Smaller workshops were entirely exempt from these regulations. These workshops employed the majority of
Russian workers, particularly Russian women. These smaller employers could continue to opt for abusive labor
policies.
 There were serious safety issues at many factories. Machinery and work conditions were unsafe.
 There was no insurance to protect against injuries or accidental death, and workers lacked the right to strike
over working conditions. Workers in late 19th and early 20th century Russia were largely treated like serfs, with
few rights and little control over their own work environments.
 In 1905, after Bloody Sunday, trade unions were legalized. Workers began to strike frequently, looking for better
conditions. Workers in Russia became more likely to strike and were more effective with their labor resistance than
anywhere else in Europe.
 The railroad strike in 1917 was critical to the abdication of Nicholas II.
4) Economic Collapse
 By the early 20th century, following the 1905 rebellion and the establishment of the Duma (Russian assembly
with advisory or legislative functions), efforts were made to dismantle the traditional organizational structure of
peasant communities, the commune.
 Communes organized serf communities, but remained after emancipation. These provided both social support and
a sort of welfare; the community could look after its own. While the peasants resisted, these efforts were relatively
successful, but the period of economic growth that followed was brief and ended with the beginning of World War
I.
 By the time of the Revolution, Russia was in a state of economic collapse, driven by the costs of war and poor
administration and management.
 As with other economic struggles, the greatest burden of this fell on the shoulders of the poor Russians,
including both the peasants and the urban working poor.
 The addition of the Ottoman Empire to the Central Powers of World War I in 1914 cut off essential trade
routes for Russia.
 This led to munitions shortages for the Russian army. Other countries, including Germany, were able to produce
adequate munitions, so Russia’s failure was the result of inadequate organization, administration, and infrastructure.
 As with the munitions shortages, food shortages were less an issue of agricultural production, and more an issue
of poor management and administration.
 Small Russian farmers lacked modern equipment and still relied upon traditional farming techniques, with
lower production output. In addition, a population explosion in the second half of the 19th century led to increased
demands for food.
 Even so, in the early 20th century, Russia was the largest exporter of food in the world. People simply couldn’t
afford to buy food, or food was not reaching the cities. This led to additional strife, and growing support for
rebellion.
5) Military Defeat in World War I
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 Russia entered World War I relatively underdeveloped. While the country had taken significant steps forward in
the 20 years prior to the war, it was distinctly less industrialized than its allies. Russia’s navy had been decimated
during a conflict with Japan in 1904 and 1905, as well as internal strife.
 When World War I began in 1914, Tsar Nicholas II was surprisingly unprepared for the conflict. He knew his
cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm, relatively well, and while he knew he was power-hungry, he did not expect all of Europe
to erupt into war.
 Nicholas’ poor leadership led to significant wartime failures in Russia. First, he appointed his inexperienced
cousin as commander-in-chief of the army, and then he planned an invasion of East Prussia. Russia suffered a
massive defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg. In total, some 150,000 troops were lost in this single battle. Additional
defeats followed.
 By the end of 1916, Russia’s already limited resources were severely depleted by the war. Food, goods, and
other essentials were scarce in Russian cities. Strikes and protests began in late 1916; however, the Tsarina failed
to respond appropriately.
 She blamed the rebellions and strikes on undesirables, and failed to address the concerns of the people. When
Nicholas attempted to return to Petrograd, he was faced with railway strikes, and was greeted by members of the
military and Duma (Russia’s national parliament). He was forced to abdicate.
 A provisional government replaced the autocratic government of the Tsar. However, the government did not
immediately withdraw from the war. Food and fuel shortages continued throughout much of Russia. As military
defeats continued, along with long lists of the war dead, negative feelings about the provisional government grew,
paving the way for the Revolution.
6) Rasputin and the Tsarina Alexandra

 In her husband’s absence, Tzarina Alexandra – an unpopular woman of German ancestry – began firing elected
officials. During this time, her controversial advisor, Grigory Rasputin, increased his influence over Russian
politics and the royal Romanov family.
 Russian nobles eager to end Rasputin’s influence murdered him on December 30, 1916. By then, most Russians had
lost faith in the failed leadership of the Tsar.
 Government corruption was rampant, the Russian economy remained backward and Nicholas repeatedly
dissolved the Duma, the toothless Russian parliament established after the 1905 revolution, when it opposed
his will.
 Moderates soon joined Russian radical elements in calling for an overthrow of the hapless czar.
TIMELINE OF THE EVENTS

Period Event
1900 Tsar Nicholas II rules over the Russian Empire with absolute power.
1904 Russian suffer humiliating defeat in a Russo – Japanese war against japan which led to
protest and call for reform
1905 After Bloody Sunday, Nicholas II agreed to allow a Duma.
1914 Russia entered WWI and quickly suffered heavy losses in major defeat to Germany.
March 1917 February Revolution
Revolt in Petrograd forced the Tsar to abdicate and a provisional republic was established.
Nov. 1917 October Revolution (Bolsheviks Revolution)
Bolsheviks take control in Petrograd and overthrow the republic.
1918 – 1921 Bolsheviks fight and win a Civil War against White Army.
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MAJOR EVENTS
Russian Revolution of 1905
 Russia industrialized much later than Western Europe and the United States. When it finally did, around the
turn of the 20th century, it brought with it immense social and political changes.
 The public unrest reached its peak in 1905. This was because the Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) had led to
further degradation of Russian economy.
 Between 1890 and 1910, for example, the population of major Russian cities such as St. Petersburg and Moscow
nearly doubled, resulting in overcrowding and destitute living conditions for a new class of Russian industrial
workers.
 A population boom at the end of the 19th century, a harsh growing season due to Russia’s northern climate, and
a series of costly wars starting with the Crimean War (1854-1856) – meant frequent food shortages across the
vast empire.
 Large protests by Russian workers against the monarchy led to the Bloody Sunday massacre of 1905. Hundreds
of unarmed protesters were killed or wounded by the czar’s troops.
 The massacre sparked the Russian revolution of 1905, during which angry workers responded with a series of
crippling strikes throughout the country.
 The revolution of 1905 failed due to following reasons:
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The army remained loyal to the Czar.
Czar made concessions in time in form of October Manifesto (1905).
Lack of unity among opponents.
Lack of a central leadership among the revolutionaries as the movement had erupted spontaneously without any plan and a
leader.
October Manifesto (1905):

The concessions by the Czar took the form of a promise named October Manifesto (1905) declaring the future
intent of the Emperor:
 Czar promised to establish an elected Parliament called Duma in Russian.
 He promised a pay hike to the workers and an improvement in the working conditions at factories.
 He promised cancellation of redemption payments by former Serfs.
 He promised greater freedom to the press.
 He promised a genuine democracy where there would be an important role of the Duma in governance of the
country
1917 Revolutions in Russia
the February Revolution the October Revolution.
• first phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917. February Revolution led

February Revolution 1917 to end of the rule of Czar and establishment of a Provisional government.
• Second and last major phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The
October Revolution 1917 October revolution resulted in overthrowing of the Provisional government
in a coup by Bolsheviks and consequent establishment of a communist
state in Russia.
February Revolution 1917

 The non-implementation of October Manifesto (1905) was the reason
for this revolution.
 In Russia, the February Revolution (known as such because of Russia’s
use of the Julian calendar) begins when riots and strikes over the scarcity
of food erupt in Petrograd. One week later, centuries of czarist rule in
Russia ended with the abdication of Nicholas II, and Russia took a
dramatic step closer toward communist revolution.
 By 1917, most Russians had lost faith in the leadership ability of the
czarist regime. Government corruption was rampant, the Russian
economy remained backward, and Nicholas repeatedly dissolved the
Duma, the Russian parliament established after the Revolution of 1905,
when it opposed his will.
 However, the immediate cause of the February Revolution – the first phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917
– was Russia’s disastrous involvement in World War I. Militarily, imperial Russia was no match for
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industrialized Germany, and Russian casualties were greater than those sustained by any nation in any previous
war.
 Meanwhile, the economy was hopelessly disrupted by the costly war effort, and moderates joined Russian radical
elements in calling for the overthrow of the czar.
 On March 8, 1917, demonstrators clamoring for bread took to the streets in the Russian capital of Petrograd (now
known as St. Petersburg). Supported by 90,000 men and women on strike, the protesters clashed with police but
refused to leave the streets.
 On March 11, the troops of the Petrograd army garrison were called out to quell the uprising. In some encounters,
regiments opened fire, killing demonstrators, but the protesters kept to the streets, and the troops began to waver.
 On March 14, the Petrograd Soviet issued “Order No. 1,” which instructed Russian soldiers and sailors to obey
only those orders that did not conflict with the directives of the Soviet.
 The next day, March 15, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Michael, whose refusal
of the crown brought an end to the czarist autocracy.
 The new provincial government, tolerated by the Petrograd Soviet, hoped to salvage the Russian war effort while
ending the food shortage and many other domestic crises.
 It would prove a daunting task. Meanwhile, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik revolutionary party, left
his exile in Switzerland and crossed German enemy lines to return home and take control of the Russian Revolution.
October Revolution 1917

 October Revolution also called Bolshevik Revolution, (Oct. 24 – 25 1917), the second and last major phase of
the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the Bolshevik Party seized power in Russia, inaugurating the Soviet
regime.
 In the October Revolution (November in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks,
led by Vladimir Lenin, and the workers’ soviets overthrew the Russian
Provisional Government in Petrograd.
 On the night of October 24, 1917, Bolshevik Red Guards began to take control of
key points in the Russian capital – railway stations, telegraph offices, and
government buildings. By the following evening, they controlled the entire city
with the exception of the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government.
 The Bolsheviks appointed themselves as leaders of various government
ministries and seized control of the countryside, establishing the Cheka to quash
dissent.
 The October Revolution ended the phase of the revolution instigated in February,
replacing Russia’s short-lived provisional parliamentary government with
government by soviets, local councils elected by bodies of workers and peasants.
 To end Russia’s participation in the First World War, the Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
with Germany in March 1918.
 Soviet membership was initially freely elected, but many members of the Socialist Revolutionary Party,
anarchists, and other leftists created opposition to the Bolsheviks through the soviets themselves.
 When it became clear that the Bolsheviks had little support outside of the industrialized areas of Saint Petersburg
and Moscow, they simply barred non-Bolsheviks from membership in the soviets.
 The new government soon passed the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land, the latter of which redistributed
land and wealth to peasants throughout Russia.
 A coalition of anti-Bolshevik groups attempted to unseat the new government in the Russian Civil War from 1918
to 1922.
 In fact, at this crucial moment Provisional Government ministers could find almost no one willing to defend them.
That night, Bolshevik Red Guards broke into the palace and arrested the ministers, bringing the Provisional
Government to an end.
IMPACT OF REVOLUTION
Social
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 Revolutionary Russia not only changed the policies of Tsarist Russia, it also did many things that were different
and more just than what existed in capitalist countries of Europe.
 Its policies laid the foundations of socialism in Russia. Knowing fully well that people were tired of war and
wanted peace, and that war was not in the interest of people in any country, one of its first acts was to withdraw
from the war by signing the Brest Litovsk treaty even at the cost of losing some territory to Germany.
 The new constitution guaranteed free medical care, free and equal education for all, an unemployment
allowance, equal access to culture and cultural advancement. Not all of this was immediately available, but by
making these a right for all, the new regime showed the direction of its policy and commitment.
 The differentials between people holding middle class type of jobs and those working on land or in the factories
were far less than in other countries-both in terms of salaries and entitlement to facilities provided by the state.
 Standard of life was not dependent on whether one could personally pay, because many things did not have to be
paid for.
 Women were not just considered equal, a lot of measures were taken to make their equal participation in social and
political life possible – maternity leave, public canteens, free crèches at workplaces etc.
Economic
 The Bolsheviks abolished private property in the means of production i.e. land, factories, and banks, all of which
were nationalized and now owned by the state and not by private owners.
 This means that they could not be used to exploit the labour of others and make private profit anymore. Workers
organizations had a greater say in the decision making processes.
 Through the land decree of November 1917 landlordism was abolished and land was given over to peasants for
hereditary use.
 Peasants could not sell or mortgage the land or use it to exploit the labour of others, but they were masters of their
land and enjoyed the full fruits of their labour and produce from the land.
 They did not have to depend on former landlords in any way, whose powers over rural economy and society
were demolished.
International/global level
 Russia became the first country to establish a communist state. Soon after it, communist parties were formed in
many countries.
 The Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism as an influential political belief system around
the world.
 It set the stage for the rise of the Soviet Union as a world power that would go head-to-head with the United
States during the Cold War. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to follow their experiment.
 Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and
the Bolshevik-founded Comitern, an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties.
 Socialism became popular by the time of the outbreak of the Second World War.
 By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had declined
though it was recognised that socialist ideals still enjoyed respect among its people. But in each country the ideas
of socialism were rethought in a number of ways.
SIGNIFICANCE
 The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 opened up a fresh chapter in human civilization.
 The importance of this Revolution is no less than the French Revolution of 1789. The impact of the French
Revolution was confined to Europe, but, the influence of the Bolshevik Revolution was global.
 It encouraged the downtrodden and suffering people of the world to combine and fight for freedom.
 The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought about far-reaching social, economic and political changes in Russia.
 It led to the birth of the USSR or the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic.
 For the first time in the history of the world, a socialist state was created. Production and distribution were
hereafter controlled by the state. Private ownership of the means of production and private profit making were
no more allowed. Land was taken away from the landlords and redistributed among the peasants.
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 In time, the Bolshevik Revolution came to exert a far-reaching global impact. Germany, Italy, England, France,
Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America were influenced indirectly by the Bolshevik Revolution although the
degree of influence varied from place to place.
 The affairs of the Soviet Union were keenly observed by the rest of the world as it was the first implementation
of the philosophy preached by Karl Marx.
 The Bolshevik Revolution made possible the dream of the dictatorship of the proletariat a reality.
 The writings and speeches of Marx and Lenin were translated into various languages of the world.
 Under the forceful impact of Marxian-Leninism, communist parties were founded in different parts of the world.
 Through the Comitern, the Russian Revolution helped to strengthen the anti-colonial nationalist movements in
different countries of Asia. For example, the Indian nationalist struggle derived great stimulus from the
Bolshevik message.
 This great upheaval left a permanent imprint on the future course of world history. In a long term sense, it indirectly
contributed to the growth of Fascism in Europe and the beginning of the Cold War between Russia and United
States in the post – Second World War period.
COMMUNIST INTERNATIONAL (THIRD INTERNATIONAL OR COMINTERN)

 In 1919, two years after forming the Soviet government in Russia, Lenin established the
headquarters of the Third (Communist) International in Moscow. The Communist
International (Comintern) is known as the Third because two other international socialist
organizations of workers had previously been set up.
 These were the First (Workers) Inter-national, organized in 1864 by Friedrich Engels,
collaborator of Karl Marx.
 The Second (Socialist) International, formed in 1889 with headquarters in Brussels,
Belgium.
 Before it was dissolved in May 1943, the Third International was composed of
representatives of communist parties, in over 50 countries.
 Theoretically, the Russian Communist Party was only one of these 58 communist parties. Actually, however,
the Russian Communists played a dominant role in the Third International from the day it was organized.
 This was partly due to the fact that the Third International had its headquarters in Moscow. But most of all it
was because the Russian Communist Party was the only one which, since 1919, had succeeded in establishing and
maintaining political control of a country – and this country a great power.
 The proclaimed objective of the Third International, as set forth in its. Program, was to replace world capitalist
economy by a world system of communism through force and violence if need be.
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CH-20 INTER WAR PERIOD (1919-1938)

Economies during the Inter-War Years (1919-1938)
 During World War I, about 10 million Europeans were killed, about 7 million were permanently disabled, and
15 million seriously wounded, mostly young men of working age and middle-class backgrounds.
 This loss, combined with the destruction of land and property, led to a European situation of grave pessimism
and poverty for many. Living conditions declined dramatically at the close of the war, the infant mortality rate
skyrocketed, and life was quite difficult for Europeans of the period.
 The widespread material destruction totalled billions of dollars of damage in Europe. The war's prosecution had
cost the nations of Europe six and one-half times as much as the total national debt of the entire world during the
years from 1800 to 1914.
 The Allies bore the brunt of the debt, and material damages, France especially. But the Central Powers were
punished severely by the war's concluding treaties.
 Germany lost 15 percent of its pre-war capacity, all of its foreign investments, and 90 percent of its mercantile
fleet.
 The Treaty of Versailles imposed reparations payments which were generally considered intolerable and
impossible. In Austria, agricultural production fell 53 percent from pre-war levels, and starvation was a persistent
problem.
 Inflation hit all of Europe in the first years after the war, as pent up demand was released and production fell off
due to a shortage of raw materials. By 1920, prices in Hungary were 23,000 times what they had been before the
war, and in Russia the multiplier was 4 million. A sharp depression in 1920 and 1921 corrected prices to some
extent.
 Germany pleaded with Britain and France for a moratorium on reparations payments, but France would not
agree, and in fact, sent troops into the Ruhr in 1923, when Germany defaulted on its payments.
 In 1924, a solution was presented in the form of the “Dawes Plan”, presented by the American, Charles Dawes.
Under this plan the total sum owed by Germany would remain the same, but the yearly payments were reduced,
and Germany was granted a loan.
 Meanwhile, the European Allies had their own financial problems. They ended the war deeply indebted to the
United States. The United States demanded payment in gold and dollars, which the Allies borrowed from
creditor nations, creating even greater debt elsewhere.
 From 1925 to 1929, Europe entered a period of relative prosperity and stability. However, unemployment
remained high, and population growth outstripped economic growth.
 During this time, world trade increased and speculative investment increased as the result of better economic
times. US creditors, flush with capital coming in from Europe, led this speculative movement.
 In attempts to maintain benefits for the unemployed and drive prices down, taxes were hiked, and unemployment
shot up again.
 As the Great Depression that had struck the United States in 1929 began to set in throughout Europe in the early
30s, banks began to collapse.
 Despite international loans, Germany, and Europe as a whole, plunged into depression, during which currencies
collapsed and all hope of stability was dashed.
 Despite efforts to stabilize world prices and European employment, Europe remained mired in depression until
the outbreak of World War II.
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The League of Nations (1920-1935)

 American President Woodrow Wilson intended the League of Nations to be the primary body of a new style of
international relations based on the cooperation of all of the nations of the world.
 The League was to be centered in Geneva, Switzerland, a neutral location. Small nations as well as large nations
were asked to join, dependent on their acceptance of the Covenant of the League.
 The League of Nations first met in November 1920. Forty-two nations were represented at this first meeting.
Notably absent were German, Russia, and the United States. Germany, identified as the aggressor in World War
I, was barred from admission at first, and admitted in 1926.
 Russia, now the Soviet Union, was not invited to join the League due to the radical policies of the new communist
government. The Soviet Union finally became a member of the League in 1935. In November 1919, the US Senate
voted against accepting membership to the League, and the nation never joined.
 The League of Nations operated through three agencies: the Assembly, the Council, and the Secretariat.
Agencies of League of Nations
Assembly Council Secretariat
Assembly The Assembly met annually, and consisted of a delegation from each member nation. Each
member had one vote.
Council The Council was composed of four permanent members and four non-permanent
members, serving as a sort of cabinet, with some executive powers. The Council was
responsible for the prevention of war through disarmament, resolving disputes, and
supervising the mandates of the League.
Secretariat The Secretariat was the League's civil service, preparing the agenda for the Assembly and the
Council, serving a clerical purpose, and preparing documents for publication.
 The League of Nations succeeded in providing assistance to bankrupt nations, supervising its mandates, and
resolving conflicts between minor powers.
 During the early 1920s, the League made two attempts to outline a mechanism by which international conflicts
could be contained and resolved. Both methods aimed to identify the aggressor nation and pledge League support
to the victim.
 The “Treaty of Mutual Assistance”, the first of these two efforts, was drafted in 1923. It proposed that the Council
should declare which side of a conflict was the aggressor within four days of the outbreak of the conflict, at which
point the League's members would automatically have to support the victim nation.
 The treaty failed, due to consensus that deciding which side of a conflict was the aggressor was far too difficult to
do in just four days and without any concrete guidelines. The treaty also mandated military participation on the
part of the member nations, a clause distasteful to many. In 1925, the League tried once again to outline a mechanism
for the containment of war.
 The “Geneva Protocol” provided for compulsory arbitration of international disputes by the League. This
proposal was brought down by the British delegation, whose overseas colonial leaders feared that they would be
dragged into European affairs by the Geneva Protocol.
Italian Fascism during the Inter-War Years (1919-1938)

Cause for rise of fascism in Italy:
 Discontentment among the people of Italy after the WWI as they were disillusioned by the term of Paris Peace
Conference.
 The attempt of defeated soldiers to regain glory.
 Discontentment among the capitalist class and landlords due to the increasing influence of the socialism.
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Factors behind the rise of Mussolini in Italy

 Italian ultra-nationalist was grieved by the treaty of St. Germain in which, they believed,
Italy was cheated (violation of secret treaty of Rome). Mussolini promised them that he would
remove such wrongs by rejecting certain provisions of the treaty.
 Being an opportunist politician, Mussolini made promise to almost every social group in
Italy e.g. middle class was worried about law and order situation, students were worried about
unemployment, industrialist were worried about labour strike and workers were worried
about lockouts. The success of Mussolini lay in the fact that he gave assurance to every class
for some gain.
 During this time communism was progressing in Italy. Mussolini, with his 'Black Shirt'
volunteers, attacked communists on streets. So he earned the sympathy of the propertied class.
 Even when fascism was progressing fast in Italy, the liberal & communist party could not
make a joint front to counter fascism. The liberal party was as much scared with communist
party as it was with fascist party.
 In elections of 1921, Mussolini's fascist party bagged 35 seats but it was short of majority. But Mussolini brought a
virtual coup to seize the power.
 In 1922, in association with 50000 “Black Shirt” volunteers, he carried a march to Rome. So the government of
King Victor Emmanuel III submitted before him and invited Mussolini to form government. So, in 1922 Mussolini
became the PM of Italy.
Consolidation of power under Mussolini

 He declared himself to be the head of education department, judicial department and the Army. (Total 8 major
departments)
 He dismissed the elected bodies like municipalities and corporations in towns and cities and started to appoint
officer like 'Podesta'. The officer reported directly to the central government.
 By 1928 election procedure was almost scrapped. Now Italian people had to elect only those members who were
in the list of members nominated by fascist party.
 Fascist party regulated the scholars & artists as well and they were supposed to glorify the state and the party.
 There was a change in educational curriculum as well. It was altered in such a way that it was reduced to a single
text prescribed by the fascist party.
 Fascist party in Italy created a separate labour front and capitalists were supposed to talk to the workers through
this front.
 When the World Economic Depression of 1929-30 surfaced, the fascist party presented a solution to it in the form
of ‘Corporate State System’. It was partially based on the medieval guild system & syndicalism (George sullen).
Under this system economy was divided in 7 regions and in every region a corporation of employers and those of
employees was formed.
 Here the basic objective was to organize the whole production under the state and put a check over class conflict.
(A member of fascist party headed these corporations to resolve issues). But in spite of his best of the efforts, Italy
was overwhelmed by the world economic depression.
 The state was inclined to take the support of youths and youths were suffering from a severe problem of
unemployment. So Mussolini decided to take a military adventure and he attacked over Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in
Oct 1935 and sent nearly 3 lakh youths in that war as soldiers.
Mussolini's Foreign Policy

 To nullify the unjust provisions of the Treaty of St. Germain.
 He was also inclined to create a big empire in Mediterranean region and Africa.
 In Paris Peace Conference, Italy was not offered 'Fume Port' as it was a disputed region between Italy and
Yugoslavia. This region was declared to be independent. But in 1924, by concluding a Treaty with Yugoslavia,
Italy captured Fume Port.
 Likewise, in Paris Peace Conference Italy had demanded its patronage on Albania but allied power refused.
Later on, the basis of Treaty of Triana Italy got the patronage over Albania.
 Mussolini invaded Corfu in Greece and captured it. Although, under British pressure he had to vacate the region but
he got 5 crore Lira in compensation.
Economic Crisis of 1929
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The Economic crisis of 1929 resulted in high unemployment in Germany. By 1932, there were 6 million unemployed
men in Germany. This resulted in boost to the growth of Nazis and fall of Weimar Republic. With the rise of Nazis,
the French attitude towards Germany hardened as the Nazis thrived on an extreme nationalist propaganda. They
wanted to bring all German areas into the Reich.
Nazi Germany during the Inter-War Years (1919-1938)

Causes behind the rise of Nazism in Germany
 The humiliating treaty of Versailles created a wide spread hatred among German ultra-
nationalist. They gave support to Nazi Party.
 The Great depression of 1929 - 30 created a favourable environment for the Nazism.
Actually, the depression ensues growing popularity of social democratic party in Germany
and the progress of this party terrified German capitalist and German ‘Junker’ class (Land
Lords). So, these people started to strengthen the hands of Hitler.
 According to some critics, the rise of Nazism was inherent in German history itself. In fact,
Germany was having a long tradition of militarism.
Factors behind the Rise of Hitler

 There was a formation of 'German Nationalist Workers Socialist Party' popularly known as 'Nazi Party'. Hitler
joined it and became its leader by 1921.
 Hitler was a good orator and he started to encourage a mass hatred against treaty of Versailles and created a
large following for his cult.
 He introduced a '25-point program' in which almost every class in Germany was given some promise. For example,
the ultra-nationalist were given the promise of - breaking out from the clauses of 'war guilt', Employment for
youths, Capitalists were promised security against worker unrest etc. Above all he continued to give hate speech,
against Jews, Communist, November Criminals, Jesuits (Roman Catholics).
 Hitler was inspired by the success of Mussolini who seized power and formed government in 1922 by means of
coupe. So, he also brought a coupe against German government in 1923 in Munich. Munich's coupe turned to
be a failure and Hitler was arrested and put to trial. He was given imprisonment of 1 year. He composed his famous
autobiography 'Mein Kamph’ (My struggle) in jail.
 After coming out of the jail, Hitler changed his strategy completely. Now he decided to seize power through
democratic means and after seizing the power the means should be demolished. So, he started wide propaganda
against the treaty and intensely - encouraged the hate politics.
 Hitler’s actual success was ensured after the economic depression as it created wide impact on different social
class i.e. unemployment as well inflation was a big, challenge. In the meantime, Hitler decided to spread his ideology
even in countryside and started campaigning in those regions.
 So, in the elections of 1932 he got clear majority. The then president Hindenburg in Germany invited Hitler for
the post of "Chancellor' and Hitler formed the government in Jan 1933.
Lausanne Conference (1932)

Here, Britain and France freed Germany from paying most of the remaining reparations. This was done so because
due to the Great Depression, there were six million people unemployed Germans by 1932.
Consolidation of power under Hitler

 After coming to power, Hitler invoked article 48 of Weimer constitution and imposed emergency in Germany.
 When President Hindenburg passed away in 1934, Hitler consciously amalgamated the “post of chancellor” and
the “president” and occupied the combined post.
 In June 1936, he committed a great purge within the party and eliminated the members with socialist
temperament (‘Night with the long knifes'). Then in 1938 he purged the army as well and eliminated unwanted
officers.
 Like Mussolini he too brought changes in educational curriculum. So it is rightly said that it was the “educational
curriculums and guns which formed a complete fascist government”.
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 He also commanded the artists and scholars to glorify the Nazi party and the state.
 Above all he successfully solved the problem of unemployment in Germany by creating the Public Works
Department (PWD) and started wider military conscription. In this way he converted whole German economy
into a 'war economy' (Capture new region to gain more resources to finance home economy).
 For women he took a very tough stand and recommended “Kinder, Kirch, Kuch” (Kid, Church, Kitchen) for
them. They were either suspended from the higher posts or for the same works their salary was reduced.
 In 1935, on the basis of 'Nuremburg law' he started to deprive Jews from citizenship of Germany and finally in
1938 he launched riots against Jews.
Hitler's Foreign Policy

 It was basically shaped by domestic policy of Hitler. As we know Hitler came to power in Germany on the basis
apart from that Hitler created a “war economy” in Germany, so naturally Germany had to move towards an
aggressive foreign policy.
 His foreign policy was guided even by racist ideas which are expressed in his "secret book'. He emphasised
racial superiority of Germans who he considered to be were purely “Aryans”.
 Being a competent race, he explained, Germans have been assigned limited space in Europe while even after being
of inferior racial origin 'Slavs' had occupied a larger chunk of land in Europe. So, Slavs should be expelled from
the region.
World Disarmament Conference

The World Disarmament Conference was held in 1932-33. Under League Covenant all members had agreed to
decrease armament, but it was only Germany which had to disarm following the Treaty of Versailles. Germany
demanded that either all should disarm or it should be allowed to at least have parity with France in terms of
armament. Britain and Italy sympathized with Germany. Finally, when the French did not budge, Hitler withdrew
Germany out of the conference and also from the League of Nations (both in 1933).
The Treaty of Versailles

 The Treaty seemed to satisfy the "Big Three" viz. US, Britain and France, since in their eyes it
was a just peace, as it kept Germany weak, yet strong enough to stop the spread of communism;
kept the French border with Germany safe from another German attack and created the
organization, the League of Nations, that would end warfare throughout the world.
 However, it left a mood of anger throughout Germany as it was felt that as a nation Germany had
been unfairly treated.
 Above all else, Germany hated the clause blaming her for the cause of the war and the resultant
financial penalties the treaty was bound to impose on Germany. Ordinary German citizens felt that
they were being punished for the mistakes of the German government in August 1914 as it was
the government that had declared war, not the people.
 The humiliating conditions of the treaty rankled Germans for years and in many ways led to the rise of Nazism
in Germany.
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CH-21 SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-45)

Introduction
 World War II, also called Second World War, was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during
the years 1939 – 45.
 The principal belligerents were the Axis powers – Germany, Italy, and Japan and the Allies – France, Great Britain,
the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China.
 It was the biggest conflict in history that had lasted almost six years.
 Nearly some 100 million people had been militarized, and 50 million had been killed (around 3% of the world's
population).
Cause of Second World War

1) Failure of the Treaty of Versailles:
 The Treaty of Versailles which was signed in 1919 at Paris formed the main cause of the First World War.
 The victors like France, England and other countries had threatened Germany to sign this treaty. The agreements
of this treaty were imposed upon Germany.
 Germany had lost her territories, colonies, coal and iron mines. This treaty reduced its lands and also
decreased the soldiers and armaments of Germany.
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 Germany was made responsible for the losses of the First World War and was forced to sign in a plain paper.
Inspite of her will, Germany had to sign this revengeful treaty.
 Thus, the desire of revenge was lighted among the people of Germany. In course of time, Germany had
disobeyed all the provisions of the treaty of Versailles. It contained germs for the Second World War.
2) Failure of the League of Nations

 The League of Nations was an international organization set up in 1919 to keep world peace.
 It was intended that all countries would be members and that if there were disputes between countries; they
could be settled by negotiation rather than by force.
 The League of Nations was a good idea, but ultimately a failure, as not all countries joined the league.
 Also, the League had no army to prevent military aggression such as Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in Africa or
Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in China.
3) Hitler and Nazism:

 After the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was crippled politically and economically and there was public unrest
and unemployment. At this time, Adolf Hitler rose as the Saviour of Germany.
 He established the ‘Nazi Party’ and accepted the ‘Symbol of Swostik’. By his speech he inspired the people
of Germany and promised them to return back the lost glory of Germany. In his autobiography ‘Mein Kamf’,
he has discussed about this.
 As the dictator of Germany, Hitler’s activities were violating the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.
 He reestablished the German army in 1935 and increased the number of its soldiers to 800,000.
 In 1936, he occupied the Rhine land and in 1938, he occupied Austria and annexed them to Germany. Thus,
the prestige of Germany increased.
 The rise of Hitler was the chief cause of the Second World War.
4) Mussolini and Fascism:

 As Italy was a winning nation, it was underestimated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.
 After the First World War there was unemployment, labour strikes, riots, movements and class struggle in Italy.
This critical juncture led to the rise of Benitto Mussolini. He declared in favour of War – “What War is to
man, maternity is to woman”.
 He promised to establish the pride of ancient Rome in Italy. He established Fascism in Italy in order to extend
its boundary.
 So, he established friendly relationship with Hitler, the Dictator of Germany. It created an environment of
fear in the whole of Europe. Mussolini occupied Ethiopia.
5) Great Depression of 1929

 The worldwide economic depression of the 1930s took its toll in different ways in Europe and Asia.
 In Europe, political power shifted to totalitarian and imperialist governments in several countries, including
Germany, Italy, and Spain.
 In Asia, a resource-starved Japan began to expand aggressively, invading China and maneuvering to control
a sphere of influence in the Pacific.
6) Emergence of Japan:
 The Emergence of Japan in the Far East was another cause of the Second World War. After the First World
War, Japan tried to emerge as an important and powerful nation.
 Its main aim was to extend its empire and to acquire several colonies. In 1931 Japan attacked and occupied
Manchuria. Then it captured one after another city of China.
 The imperialist policy of Japan increased largely under its Emperor Hirohito. His alliance with Hitler and
Mussolini created a volcanic situation which paved the way for the outbreak of the World War II.
7) Conflict of Ideologies:
 After the First World War, the whole world came under spell of the ideological conflicts.
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 Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain believed in Dictatorship and Militarism. On the other hand, the United States
of America, England and France believed in the Democratic Principles. Germany and Italy violated the system
of the Treaty of Versailles.
 This ideological conflict divided the world into two groups. Mussolini, the dictator of Italy had remarked –
“The Struggle between the two worlds can permit no Compromise-either we or they”.
 America, England and France who believed in the democratic principles prepared themselves to give a setback
to this ideology of Mussolini.
8) Failure Policy of Appeasement

 Hitler openly denounced the Treaty of Versailles and began secretly building up Germany’s army and
weapons.
 Although Britain and France knew of Hitler’s actions, they thought a stronger Germany would stop the spread
of Communism from Russia.
 An example of appeasement was the Munich Agreement of September 1938. In the Agreement, Britain and
France allowed Germany to annex areas in Czechoslovakia where German-speakers lived.
 Germany agreed not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia or any other country. However, in March 1939,
Germany broke its promise and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.
 Even then, neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action.
Battles and Turning Points of WWII
The Start
 Three years of mounting international tension - encompassing the Spanish Civil War, the
union of Germany and Austria, Hitler's occupation of the Sudetenland and the invasion of
Czechoslovakia led to deterioration of ties between Axis Power and Allied Powers.
 However, the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and subsequently two days
later, Britain and France declared war on Germany.
 This marked the beginning of World War II.
Phoney War
 It was a 6-month period, coined as the Phoney war, during which Germany did not attack any parts of the
Western Europe in the hope that Britain and France would call for negotiations for peace.
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 The German Generals were happy with the period of lull as they felt that Germany was not strong enough to fight
a war of bigger scale at that time.
 In the East, when Finland was attacked by USSR in 1939, the League of Nations expelled the Russians.
 Finland had gained independence from Russia during the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War (1917,
1918-20 respectively). Russia did not occupy the whole of Finland but forced it to cede a large part of its territory.
 Only those areas were taken away from Finland which would help the Russians deal with an attack from the West.
In 1940, Russia invaded and occupied the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania which were taken away
from it by the Germans under the Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1917) and then made independent states under the
Treaty of Versailles (1920). Stalin wanted them back under the Russian fold.
Ribbentrop Pact
 By the early part of 1939 the German dictator Adolf Hitler had become determined to invade and occupy
Poland.
 Poland, for its part, had guarantees of French and British military support should it be attacked by Germany. Hitler
intended to invade Poland anyway, but first he had to neutralize the possibility that the Soviet Union would resist
the invasion of its western neighbour.
 Secret negotiations in August 1939, led to the signing of the German-Soviet Non-aggression Pact in Moscow.
 Further, Russia followed Germany into Poland in September and Poland was carved up between the two invaders
before the end of the year.
Germany Invades Poland

 September 1, 1939 is the date most scholars give as the beginning of World War II in Europe.
Led by its führer (supreme leader), Adolf Hitler, Germany had, for several years, been
amassing a military powerful enough to conquer Europe and possibly even the world.
 Hitler chose Poland as a target for his ambitions and began the German invasion of Poland
on September 1.
 Both France and England had promised to help Poland should it ever be attacked, and so
on September 3, 1939, the two countries declared war on Germany. In the months that
followed, Germany troops either occupied or invaded Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and eventually France.
Winter War 1940

 The 'winter war' between Russia and Finland concluded in March, and in the following month Germany invaded
Denmark and Norway.
 Denmark surrendered immediately, but the Norwegians fought on - with British and French assistance - surrendering
in June 1940.
Battle of Britain 1940

 By June 1940, nearly all of Western Europe was under Nazi control. In a speech to the British House of Commons,
Prime Minister Winston Churchill told his fellow politicians, “The Battle of France is over. I expect the Battle
of Britain is about to begin.” The fighting that followed took place mainly in the air.
 Despite heavy losses, the British Royal Air Force defied the German Luftwaffe for three straight months and
ultimately took the air battle to the skies above Germany. As summer turned to fall, Hitler had no choice but to call
off the attack.
Operation Barbarossa
 After facing defeat in Britain, Hitler broke the Ribbentrop Pact and invaded Russia in
1941.
 The initial advance was swift, with the fall of Sebastopol at the end of October, and Moscow
coming under attack at the end of the year.
 The bitter Russian winter, however, like the one that Napoleon had experienced a century and
a half earlier, crippled the Germans.
 The Soviets counterattacked in December and the Eastern Front stagnated until the spring.
Japan Attacks Pearl Harbor
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 While Hitler’s forces marched through Europe, Japan’s military was attempting something
similar in Southeast Asia.
 The raid on the United States Navy base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 damaged or
destroyed more than 20 American ships and 300 aircraft. More than 4,000 Americans were
killed or wounded. The following day, the United States officially entered the war.
American Entry in to the War

 Through the Battle of Midway 1942, the US entered World War II. In this battle, US sea-based aircraft destroyed
four Japanese carriers and a cruiser, marking the turning point in World War II.
 Also, the news of mass murders of Jewish people by the Nazis reached the Allies, and the US pledged to avenge
these crimes.
Nuclear Bombing and the End

 Plans were being prepared for an Allied invasion of Japan, but fears of fierce resistance and massive casualties
prompted Harry Truman - the new American president to sanction the use of an atomic bomb against Japan.
 Such bombs had been in development since 1942, and on 6 August 1945 one of them was dropped on the Japanese
city of Hiroshima.
 Three days later another was dropped on Nagasaki.
 No country could have withstood such attacks, and the Japanese surrendered on 14 August.
 With the surrender of Japan, World War II was finally over.
Nazi Germany Surrenders

 As Allied forces drew closer to Berlin, they began to discover the full horror of
the Holocaust.
 They liberated multiple concentration camps, where hundreds of thousands of
Jews were still being held. For most, the rescue had come too late – an estimated
six million of them had already been killed.
 When Nazi leaders at last signed the document of surrender, on May 7, 1945,
people around the world took to the streets to celebrate. United States President
Harry Truman called it “a victory only half won,” however, as American soldiers
in the Pacific were, at that very moment, engaged in one of history’s most vicious
battles, on the island of Okinawa.
Japan Surrenders
 In August, the United States military dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, one over of the city of Hiroshima,
the other over Nagasaki.
 They hoped the powerful new weapon would convince Japanese leaders to surrender quickly. It did. Emperor
Hirohito made the announcement only a few days later over Japanese radio, and on September 2, 1945, the war that
had engaged nearly every country on earth was officially over.
 With the surrender of Japan and Germany World War II was finally over.
Impact of World War
Widespread Destruction
 More than 40 million people were killed of which half were Russians. Many people were uprooted from their
homes. The German industrial areas and cities were devastated. Similarly, cities in France and West Russia
were devastated by air strikes. Holocaust was another feature of the war.
 Hitler engaged in systematic execution of six million Jews in the concentration camps. The nuclear bombs
dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed and disabled countless Japanese and continued to affect the health of
succeeding generations for years to come.
Start of Decolonization
 After the war, Britain and France were confronted with various domestic and external problems. Both of them
could no longer hold onto their respective colonies Thus, the post-war world witnessed the end of colonialism in
Africa and Asia.
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Balance of Power
 The European domination of the world ended with the World War II and the balance of power shifted in favour
of the USSR and US. Due to high war costs, Italy, Germany, Britain and France were on the verge of bankruptcy.
 Britain was under high US debt which it acquired due to the US aid provided under the Lend-Lease Act (1941).
After the war, Britain was forced to ask for another US loan. Also, the European exports declined.
 The US was economically strong while the USSR had the largest army. The world after the World War II was a
bipolar world, which became engulfed in a Cold War rivalry between the two super powers.
Birth of UN (United Nations)

 One of the momentous results of the war was the birth of the United Nations Organisation.
 Although the League failed to deliver, mankind did not altogether lose its hopes of making the world a safer and
happier place to live in.
 The UN Charter enshrines the hopes and ideals of mankind on the basis of which countries can work together to
maintain lasting peace.
 However, the establishment of the UN was agreed, much before the end of World War II under the Atlantic
Charter.
Concept of “Third World” emerged

 The Third World meant to be non-Aligned to any of the two world powers. In 1973, the leaders of the independent
states that emerged after the war gathered at Algiers and declared themselves as the Third World. The Third world
was suspicious of both Communism and Capitalism.
Start of Cold War

 After the end of the war, a conference was held in Potsdam, Germany, to set up peace treaties. The countries
that fought with Hitler lost territory and had to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany and its capital Berlin were
divided into four parts.
 The zones were to be controlled by Great Britain, the United States, France and the Soviet Union.
 The three western Allies and the Soviet Union disagreed on many things and as time went on Germany was divided
into two separate countries: East Germany, which had a Communist government and West Germany, which
was a democratic state.
 This laid the foundation of the Cold War.
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CH-22 COLD WAR

Introduction
It was a psychological or diplomatic war whose objective was to extend the area of influence of the one bloc at the
cost of the other, just after the end of WWII, there started a WWIII, although it was different in nature from earlier wars.
It is characterised either as 'Cold war' or 'Hot peace'.
Background
It is said that friends during the WWII didn't remain to be together at the end of war as fresh issues of conflict appeared
between them –
 The issue of opening of 2nd military front during the WWII (difference between Russia and western power).
 The issue of the surrender of Italy in 1943 (Russia not invited).
 USSR put east European countries and a part of Germany under its control.
 The "percentage agreement" between British PM Churchill and head of USSR Stalin. But neglecting this
agreement, formation of communist government by Stalin in many countries (even USA opposed to percentage
agreement).
 Yalta conference in Feb 1945
 Potsdam conference in July 1945.
 Nuclear bombardment of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by USA in August 1945 (Nuclear 7. fear).
 In Feb 1946, Stalin declared that capitalism and communism are poles apart. In reply Churchill's declaration at
Fulton in USA in March 1946 (here he gave his famous 'Iron curtain' speech).
Causes of Cold War

 During the World War Allied countries (US, UK and France) and Soviet Union fought together against the Axis
powers (Nazi Germany, Japan, and Austria). However, this wartime alliance could not workout after World War II,
due to multiple factors:
1) Potsdam conference
 The Potsdam conference was held at Berlin in 1945 among US, UK and Soviet Union to discuss:
o Immediate administration of defeated Germany.
o Demarcation of boundary of Poland.
o Occupation of Austria.
o Role of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe.
 Soviet Union wanted some portion of Poland (bordering Soviet Union) to be maintained as a buffer zone.
However, the USA and UK didn't agree to this demand.
 Also, the USA did not inform the Soviet Union about the exact nature of the atomic bomb, dropped on Japan. This
created suspicion in Soviet Union about the intentions of western countries, embittering of the alliance. This
created suspicion in the Soviet leadership.
2) Iron Curtain
 Iron Curtain is the political, military, and ideological barrier erected by the Soviet Union after World War II to
seal off itself and its dependent eastern and central European allies from open contact with the West and other non-
communist areas.
 On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union,
while on the west side were the countries that were allies of the US, UK or nominally neutral.
3) After almost every major war some political vacuum was created which was being tilled by new powers. After the
WWII, both USA and USSR tried to fill up this vacuum.
4) Conflict and political rivalry are inherent in world history. There is relatively a short time of co-operation and
a long time of conflict. For example, after WWI, Paris Peace Conference made an appeal for launching a new era
of co-operation but fresh conflicts appeared between communism and fascism.
5) Then after the WWII, a new era of peace was again being hoped particularly for the fact that western powers and
USSR where fighting against fascism together. But unfortunately, it was in the course of WWII itself cold war
started.
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6) Both USA and USSR became much concerned about their security after the WWII. USSR was haunted by its bitter
memory of being invaded from its western border thrice and eastern border twice, so it came to realise that it was
in urgent need of friendly government in its neighbourhood. That's why Stalin took initiatives to form friendly
government in its neighbouring regions.
7) Even USA was much concerned about its defence particularly after the experience at Pearl Harbour. It also came to
realise that so far Atlantic Ocean has worked as a natural 'defence fort' for USA, but after the invention of
aeroplanes, USA didn't remain to be impregnable.
8) One of the reasons behind the cold war was ideological difference between the western powers and USSR.
9) But in spite of the ideological difference both fought together in the WWII against fascist power, but unfortunately
during the WWII itself due to mutual distrust cold war started.
Formal declaration of cold war and its progress in Europe

 Britain withdrew from Greece, so security of Greece and that of Turkey
became a Lie issue and that fell on the head of USA. So US President
Truman made an appeal to US congress to sanction the money for military
expenses. As a result $450 million was sanctioned by the congress for
maintaining ÚS naval force in the Mediterranean Sea. Then in March 1947
there appeared ‘Truman doctrine'.
 Marshal Plan for economic re-construction of Europe in June 1947
(Molotov plan by USSR).
 Imposition of a communist government in Czechoslovakia by USSR in Feb
1948 and the formation of ‘Brussels pact’ by western countries in March
1948 (Led to NATO formation).
 The issue of 'Berlin Blockade' in May-June 1948 and formation of NATO in April 1949.
 In response USSR formed 'Warsaw pact' in 1955. But during the cold war, except some stray incidence of tension,
Europe remained to be relatively peaceful. Actual conflict appeared in the vast region of Asia, Africa and Latin
America.
Spread of cold war in Asia and Africa

 Up to 1940's two rival blocks (USA and USSR) already came into existence and both tried to assert its hegemony
over the other. So, both needed vast resources of Asia and Africa to consolidate their position.
 It was in this context cold war moved to new regions of Asia and Africa. Then both super powers adopted new
strategy and program to overpower the other.
USA (United States of America)

It invented new doctrines and military strategy –
a. In context of south-east Asia, particularly in case of Vietnam, 'Domino Theory' was
introduced. Here USA tried to emphasise that in volatile regions like south-east Asia,
if communism engulf one country it will certainly knock at the other. Then it was on
the basis of this doctrine USA made a military intervention in Vietnam.
b. In context of west Asia, 'Eisenhower Doctrine' was propounded. The objective of this
doctrine was to push USSR away from gulf countries.
c. Likewise, for Latin America 'Munroe doctrine' was re-invented and enlarged. Thus
US intervention continued in the matter of Latin America. The occasion for the revival of 'Munroe doctrine' was
'Cuba missile crisis' (1963).
d. Apart from that USA built its military base in different parts of the world i.e. Pakistan, Turkey, Okinawa (Japan)
etc.
e. Further USA formed military alliance like CENTO or Baghdad pact (1955) and SEATO (1954) in south-east Asia.
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)

a. Even USSR adopted new strategy to consolidate its position in cold war in Asia and Africa.
b. Although ideologically it was committed to socialist or communist model but pushing aside the ideology, it
developed relationship with the countries from various political background including rightist government and
military dictatorship.
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The Cold War Europe (1945 - 1989)
Major World crisis during cold war Period

1) Korean Crisis (1950-53) – Internationalised the cold war
2) Suez Canal Crisis (1956) – only case was UNSC veto was overruled by General Assembly (3/4 majority).
3) Taiwan Strait Crisis (1958) – nuclear threat to China by US. China decided to go nuclear Test (1964).
4) Vietnam Crisis (1954-75) – Ho-chi-Minh led the movement
5) Cuba Missile crisis (1963) – Fission in NATO
Conclusion
 The end of the Cold War marked the victory of the US and the bipolar world order turned into a unipolar.
 However, over the last decade, the position of the US as the world's most powerful state has appeared increasingly
unstable.
 The US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, non-traditional security threats, global economic instability, the apparent
spread of religious fundamentalism, together with the rise of emerging economic powers (like Japan, Australia,
India, China etc.) have made the world look more multipolar and has led many to predict the decline of the west
and the rise of the rest.
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CH-23 THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962)

Introduction
 In October 1962, the Soviet provision of ballistic missiles to Cuba led to the most dangerous Cold War
confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union and brought the world to the brink of nuclear
war.
 Over the course of two extremely tense weeks, US President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev negotiated a peaceful outcome to the crisis.
 The crisis evoked fears of nuclear destruction, revealed the dangers of brinksmanship, and invigorated attempts
to halt the arms race.
Origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis

 The origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis lie in the failed Bay of Pigs
invasion, during which US-supported Cuban exiles hoping to
foment an uprising against Castro were overpowered by the Cuban
armed forces.
 After the invasion, Castro turned to the Soviets for protection
against future US aggression. The Soviets provided Cuba with
nuclear weapons on the condition that the deal would remain secret
until the missiles were fully operational.
 Khrushchev claimed that his motivation for providing Cuba with
nuclear weaponry was to safeguard the Cuban Revolution against
US aggression and to alter the global balance of power in favor of the Soviet Union.
 In October 1962, US U-2 spy plane flights over Cuban territory revealed the missile installation sites. This
discovery inaugurated what became known as the “Cuban Missile Crisis”.
 The strategic implications of these weapons were enormous: the missiles could easily reach targets in the United
States, including New York City and Washington, D.C.
 The Kennedy administration established a naval blockade to prevent any more missiles from reaching Cuba, and
in no uncertain terms demanded the immediate removal of the missiles that had already been delivered.
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 The danger of this approach was that if the Soviets refused to remove the missiles, the United States would be
forced to escalate the crisis by authorizing air strikes over Cuba to bomb the missile sites.
 Contingency plans were drawn up for a full-scale invasion of Cuba and a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, in
the event that the Soviets responded militarily to Kennedy’s demands.
 Cuban Missile Crisis brought two superpowers on the brink of a nuclear war. However, the crisis was averted
diplomatically.
Negotiating a peaceful outcome
 Though Khrushchev initially refused to acknowledge the presence of the
missiles in Cuba and declared the US naval blockade to be an act of war, he
ordered the suspension of all weapons deliveries currently in transit.
 Over the course of approximately two weeks, Kennedy and Khrushchev
negotiated a peaceful outcome to the missile crisis.
 The Soviets compared their provision of nuclear weapons to Cuba with the
stationing of Jupiter missiles in Turkey, which were in range of Soviet
territory. Kennedy agreed to remove the missiles from Turkey, and also
pledged that the US government would not undertake another invasion of
Cuba.
 Throughout the negotiations, Khrushchev failed to consult with Castro. For Castro, this was humiliating and
seemed to prove that the Soviets prioritized relations with the United States over relations with their own allies.
 Castro hoped to negotiate the closing of the US naval base at Guantanamo and the cessation of US U-2 flights over
Cuban territory. Ultimately, Khrushchev agreed to remove all of the nuclear missiles from Cuba, while failing
to even broach the subject of Castro’s demands.
Consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis

 Although the Soviets attempted to portray the outcome of the missile crisis as a victory, one of the consequences of
the crisis was the ouster of Khrushchev.
 He was forced into retirement by other Soviet officials who claimed that the missile crisis was proof of
Khrushchev’s reckless decision-making and his inability to lead the Soviet Union. Khrushchev’s successor,
Leonid Brezhnev, came to power and sought to reduce tensions with the United States.
 John F. Kennedy came out of the crisis in a much better position. His calm but firm stance in the negotiations was
heralded as great statesmanship, though it is often forgotten that his bungling of the Bay of Pigs invasion had helped
lead to the missile crisis in the first place.
 The Cuban Missile Crisis also convinced Kennedy of the dangers of nuclear brinksmanship. He and Khrushchev
had peered into the abyss of nuclear destruction but had managed to pull back from it.
 In order to prevent future crises, a Moscow-Washington hotline was set up in the White House to facilitate direct
communication between the leaders of the Soviet Union and the United States.
 In August 1963, the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain signed a treaty banning atmospheric
and underwater nuclear testing. Nevertheless, the test-ban treaty failed to halt the arms race, as Kennedy
simultaneously authorized a massive arms buildup that vastly expanded the US nuclear arsenal and amplified US
strategic superiority in the Cold War.
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CH-24 FALL OF THE USSR

INTRODUCTION
 The largest empire of the world which reached at its pinnacle at the time of Russian monarch Peter, the Great,
finally collapsed in 1991. The process of change in USSR become too fast in 1989 which was the bi-centenary
year of French revolution.
 The changes in Russia proved to be a revolution and finally it brought a revolution in international relations as it
ensues the disintegration of USSR.
 Collapse of the Soviet Union, sequence of events that led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 31,
1991.
 The former superpower was replaced by 15 independent Countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and
Uzbekistan.
CAUSES
Economic Factors
 Socialist model of economy functioned well up to 1960's but after that it stagnated.
 The capitalist world encouraged USSR to be converted into the energy supplier of the world. As USSR started
to receive the easy money through selling out hydrocarbon products its attention was diverted from improving its
manufacturing sector and technology.
 Except in the field of defence and space, USSR lagged behind USA in technological development. Also, USSR
failed to catch up the third industrial revolution (Information technology).
 Russian economy felt a heavy burden of the cold war. Apart from maintaining the armed race against USA it had
to give economic support to many third world nations.
 Russian Industrialization was based on the foundation of the basic and heavy industries. So, there was a dearth
of consumer goods industries. The scarcity of consumer goods created wider discontentment among the people.
Political factors
 Autocratic nature of the government - After Bolshevik revolution, Lenin established dictatorship of the party.
But up to the era of Stalin it was converted into the dictatorship of a particular leader.
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 Even during the era of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev, there was not any substantial change in the system.
The basic freedom of Russian people continued to be suppressed.
 Racial division within Russia continued to be a major reason of conflict from centuries. Under the autocratic rule
of the communist government, all sort of racial and cultural divisions remained to be suppressed. But once
Gorbachev relaxed the system, different racial groups raised their heads and this led to the collapse of the system.
 Consciously or unconsciously Gorbachev played a role in demise of USSR. He introduced the policy of
‘Perestroika' (economic restructuring) and ‘Glasnost’ (openness of ideas).
 As due to the policy of economic restructuring the Russian society was going through a phase of major upheaval
and in the meanwhile the policy of glasnost proved fatal to contemporary polity as it created a chain reaction.
 In USSR, at the time of Gorbachev, the conflict was going on between the liberal and conservative members. The
liberal members, in order to strengthen their position vis-a-vis conservative members, consciously encouraged racial
division.
Cultural Factor
 The socialist government persistently failed to maintain high standard of living for their people. There remained
a clear-cut difference between West Germany and East Germany.
 Till now the people of East Germany had remained to be ignorant about the better life style of the people of West
Germany, but after 1988, once the satellite TV started to function, the people of East Germany got a glimpse of the
standard of living in West Germany. It created a huge discontentment among them.
Gorbachev’s reforms
 Once freedom was achieved by under Michael Gorbachev’s reforms, they demanded more for it. The demand
grew into a big force which turned very difficult to control. The people wanted to catch up on the western side
very quickly.
Rise of nationalism
 There was a rise of nationalism among countries like Russia, Baltic republics, Ukraine, Georgia etc. This is
the most important and immediate cause of the disintegration of the USSR.
 The national feeling was strong among the most prosperous areas in USSR and not in Central Asian republics.
Ordinary people among prosperous republics never liked to pay the big price to uplift the backward Central Asian
republics.
External Factors
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 Gorbachev worked as a factor behind the change in socialist world. In 1988 Gorbachev discarded the 'Brezhnev
doctrine' in case of East European countries and recalled Russian soldiers from there.
 The encouragement by the capitalist power - USA and its allies continuously encouraged change in the region.
They gave promise to pro-changers that, in case of demise of communist government in their country USA and its
allies would give economic and technological support to new government.
 Demonstration effect - Change in one region encouraged changes in another region too. For example changes
started from Poland and it influenced Hungary and thus started the chain reaction leading to demolition of Berlin
wall and re-unification of Germany. In sum total, the changes continued for about one year, while starting from
Poland it ended with the bloody conflict in Romania.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL OF USSR

 Disintegration of Soviet Union gave an end to Cold War confrontations and to ideological disputes between two
superpowers.
 Military alliances had been abolished and demand arose for world peace and security.
 Multipolar system was surpassed to exist where no single power could dominate and a group of countries could
play a crucial role in world politics like NAM Countries.
 The USA became the sole superpower and capitalist economy became dominant at international level. World
Bank and IMF became powerful advisors due to their economic support to these countries during transitional
period.
 The notion of liberal democracy emerged as a way to organize political life.
 Due to disintegration of Soviet Union many new countries emerged with the independent aspirations and choices.
 The Baltic and East European states wanted to join European Union and became the part of NATO. The Central
Asian countries took the advantage of their geographical location and continued close ties with Russia, West, China
and others.
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CH-25 UNITED NATION'S SYSTEM

Introduction
 The United Nations (UN) was created at the end of World War II as an international
peacekeeping organization and a forum for resolving conflicts between nations.
 The UN replaced the ineffective League of Nations, which had failed to prevent the
outbreak of the Second World War.
 The UN was established on October 24, 1945, with headquarters in Manhattan, New
York City, and reflected the rise of the United States to global leadership in the postwar
period.
Background of formation of United Nations

 In 1944, delegations from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China
– four of the main Allied powers in World War II – met in Washington, DC to negotiate the parameters of the post-
war world and to discuss the establishment of the international organization that would become known as the United
Nations (UN).
 The United Nations replaced the League of Nations, which had been created at the end of the First World War to
provide states with an international forum for the peaceful resolution of disputes.
 Even though US President Woodrow Wilson was one of the key supporters of the League of Nations, the United
States never officially joined the organization due to intense opposition from isolationist members of Congress.
 The League of Nations ultimately proved ineffective in preventing the outbreak of another world war and was
formally dissolved in 1946.
 The United States played an instrumental role in the founding of the United Nations.
 The UN Charter, with its emphasis on peace, security, international law, economic development, and human
rights, reflected the influence of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill,
who shared a vision for the postwar world.
 In 1941, the two leaders drafted the Atlantic Charter, which declared that there would be no territorial
aggrandizement as a result of the war that postwar international relations would be cooperative, and that disputes
between states would be resolved through peaceful negotiation and not the use or threat of force.
 The Atlantic Charter eventually became the basis for the UN Charter.
Components of United Nations

The main organs of the UN are –
1) The General Assembly,
2) The Security Council,
3) The Economic and Social Council,
4) The Trusteeship Council,
5) The International Court of Justice,
6) The UN Secretariat.
All the 6 were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.
1. General Assembly
 The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN.
 All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only UN body
with universal representation.
 Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary
matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly.
 Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.
2. The Security Council

 It consists of 15 members, of which five are permanent and ten are non-permanent.
 The permanent members have veto power.
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 The Security Council is known as the heart of the UN as diverse nature of work is done here including taking
important decisions like inclusion of new member, sanction on any errant country, declaration of war etc.
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

 It is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic,
social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals.
 It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms.
SPECIALIZED AGENCIES OF ECOSOC

 International labour Organization (ILO)
 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
 World Health Organization (WHO)
 World Bank Group
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
 International Maritime Organization (IMO)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Universal Postal Union (UPU)
 World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
 World Tourism Organization (WTO)
4. The Trusteeship Council

 It was formed in 1945 to oversee the Decolonisation of those dependent territories that were placed under the
international trusteeship system created by the UN charter as a successor to the League of Nations mandate system.
 It made sure that the imperial powers couldn't reassert their influence on these territories.
5. The International Court of Justice

 The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It was established in June
1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began work in April 1946.
 The ICJ is the successor of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which was established by the
League of Nations in 1920.
 Headquarter of ICJ is located In The Hague (Netherlands).
6. The Secretariat
 The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members who
carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other
principal organs.
 The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed by the General Assembly on
the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term.
 UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty stations and on peacekeeping missions
all around the world.
Conclusion
 Despite having many short-comings, UN has played a crucial role making this human society more civil, more
peaceful & secure in comparison to time of its origin at 2nd World War.
 United Nations, being the world’s largest democratic body of all nations, its responsibility towards humanity
is very high in terms of building democratic society, economic development of people living in acute poverty,
& preserving the Earth’s Ecosystem in concern with Climate Change.
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Comparison between UNO and League of Nation's
UNO League of Nations

The United Nations Organization is the largest This predecessor of the UN was the League of Nations.
intergovernmental organization to promote co- The League of Nations was an organization for
operation between countries and maintain peace. international cooperation.
It was formed after the Second World War, which The League of Nations was formed after the conclusion
happened due to the inefficiency of another organization. of the First World War whose principal mission was to
maintain world peace.
The United Nations is headquartered in New York Its headquarters were first in London and then were
City shifted to Geneva in Switzerland.
The organization was composed of major The main organs of the League of Nations were the
constitutional wings: 1. General Assembly,
1. General Assembly, 2. the Council
2. Executive Council, 3. the Secretariat.
3. Secretariat
4. Permanent Court of International Justice and
International Labor Organization
In UNO, apart from the equality of the nations, there is a Powerful countries were not having any special powers
concept of special status for powerful countries. This in the League of Nations. Thus, they did not get any
is in the form of ‘Veto’ motivation to put effort for world peace.
UNO has a provision of military arrangement. It could League of Nations did not have any such military
use military powers against those nations who are arrangement.
disturbing world peace.
Achievement of UNO
1) Political: UNO played an important role in deposing various international conflicts. The Suez Canal Crisis of
1956, Congo Crisis of 1961, the 1st Gulf Crisis of 1990-91, Cambodia Crisis of 1993 etc. are few good examples.
2) Economic: It encourages new research through its specialized agencies like the IMF, ILO etc. to improve economic
scenario of the world.
3) Social: It achieved major breakthrough in the field of health. Small Pox and Polio are under control now. It became
possible via huge vaccination programmes. Major efforts are being made for the control of AIDS.
4) Cultural: UNO's effort to restore remains of forgotten cultures of ancient world is commendable.
Limitations of UNO
 It has limited success in political field. Due to the veto arrangement the whole system couldn't work properly
during the cold war. Even after the cold war it was not much effective. For example, the Iraq war (US invasion on
Iraq) in 2003, the Libya war (2011) and the current Syria war couldn't be stopped or handled properly by UNO.
 It doesn't have any proper funding arrangements. Since it is mainly dependent on US funds, thus US enjoy
undue influence on the organisation.
 UNO depends on member nations for military support. But there is no clear arrangement for the fulfillment of
the same.
 UNO was formed in 1945 and its structure remained almost unchanged till date.
 Now a lot of things have changed including the power status of various countries. Countries in the Security Council
don't enjoy the same power status today. Thus this arrangement should be changed and new roles should be given
to rising powers like India, Brazil, Japan, and Nigeria etc.
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CHAPTER NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

CH-1 WORLD BEFORE 18TH CENTURY

The Greek civilization

The Roman Civilization

Division of Roman Empire

The dawn of 18th Century was characterized by:

TOWARDS MODERN TIMES

Disintegration of Feudal system

Beginning of new Era

RISE OF MODERN WEST

Impact of Commercial Revolution

Impact of commercial revolution

Crusades - resulted into discovery Decline of Constantinople and

 Mercantilism was based on certain peculiar assumptions –

Reformation Through reviving

Protestant Reformation Catholic Reformation

THIRTY YEARS WAR (1618-1648)

Treaty Of Westphalia (1648)

 Diplomacy appeared to be a substitute for war.

Nation – state of Europe in 19th century

Origin and spread of Enlightenment

2. Technological/ Scientific Basis:

Thinkers during the Age of Enlightenment:

CH-2 AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1765-1783)

Introduction and background

Reasons for American resentments against the British

2. American colonies were a Nation in making-

3. Class interest favored Revolution-

5. No Representation in British Parliament –

6. Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure –

7. Role of Enlightenment Thinkers –

Events of the revolution

1. The Massachusetts Assembly (1765):

2. The Boston Tea Party (1773):

3. The Philadelphia Congress and the Declaration of Independence:

5. The War of Independence:

Second Treaty of Paris 1783

Causes of American Success

Significance of the American Revolution

CH-3 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861 – 1865)

Relied upon a workforce where people worked

Relied heavily upon a slave workforce in the

Cause behind the Civil War

5. Fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and Republican party

Contribution of Abraham Lincoln

Significance/impact of the American Civil War

Previous years Questions

CH-4 FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789 - 1799)

Social condition in the 18th century France

Causes behind French Revolution

Events in French Revolution of 1789

The Role of Philosophers

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)

France become Constitutional Monarch

The Political system under the Constitution of 1791

Impact of French Revolution