CHAPTER 2

Background and Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will focus through the background of under and over voltage, as well as
how these abnormalities occur and a literature review on under and over voltage
protections. The findings of this research will be applied throughout the project
assessment.

2.2 Background of the study

A Overvoltage can be described as an increase in the r.m.s. value of the voltage

up to a level between 1.1 pu to 1.8 pu at power frequency for intervals ranging from a
half cycle to a minute (Paul et al., 2015) as shown in fig 1.

Figure 2.1.1: Overvoltage waveform

 Overvoltage is less common than undervoltage, but it can occur as a result of
system fault. A single line to ground fault can cause overvoltage, which raises the
voltage of the other phases. It can also occur as a result of huge industrial loads being
disconnected or capacitor banks being switched on. Overvoltage has more severe and
devastating consequences. Due to overheating produced by excessive voltage, it may
cause electrical equipment to fail. The electrical loads, electronic devices and circuits,
and electrical and electronic equipment connected to the supply mains can all be
damaged by this overvoltage. The energization of the capacitor bank is the primary
source of overvoltage. It can also be caused by a sudden reduction in load. There is a
sudden fall in current due to the disconnection of the load, which causes the voltage to
rise. (Paul et al., 2015)

Where L is the inductance of the line.

Furthermore, Overvoltage may be classified by their duration as shown in Table-1.

Table 2.1.1 : Classification of overvoltage according to IEEE 1159.

 An undervoltage is a condition in which the voltage level root mean square
(r.m.s.) value at the supply frequency is in the range of 0.1 p.u. to 0.9 p.u. and lasts for a
time period of half cycle to one minute. When large loads are switched on, such as an
induction motor, the lagging current draws 6-10 times the full load rated, causing a fall
in voltage across the system's impedance (Singh et al., 2019).

Figure 2.1.2: Undervoltage waveform

Furthermore, Undervoltage may be classified by their duration as shown in Table-2.

Table 2.1.2 : Classification of underrvoltage according to IEEE 1159.

 Over voltages on power systems are due to various causes.. External and internal
overvoltages are the two main types of overvoltages that can occur in a power system
(Ram & Vishwakarma 2011).

External Over Voltage These Overvoltages are caused by atmospheric

disturbances, primarily lightning. These overvoltages appear as a unidirectional impulse,
whose the highest possible amplitude has no direct relationship with the operating
voltage of the system (Ram & Vishwakarma, 2011, pg592).

These are are several factors that create the external voltages.

I. Direct lightning strokes.

II. lightning discharge taking place near the line (commonly known as ‘side
stroke’) Electromagnetically induces overvoltages.
III. Changing in atmospheric conditions along the line length will induce Voltages.
IV. the presence of charge clouds nearby Electrostatically induces overvoltages
V. frictional effects of small particles such as dust or dry snow in the atmosphere
or due to change in the altitude of the line Electrostatically induces overvoltage
.

Figure 2.1.1.1a: Over Voltage due to Direct Lightning Stroke on overhead line
(Source: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/overvoltages-caused-by-lightning2)
Figure 2.1.1.1b: Over Voltage due to indirect Lightning Stroke on ground
(Source: http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/overvoltages-caused-by-lightning)

Figure 2.1.1.1c: Over Voltage due to Presence of Charged Cloud

(Source: http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/art-139631/When-the-electricalcharge-
becomes-sufficiently-separated-in-a-thundercloud ).
 Internal Over Voltage These overvoltages are mainly caused by changes in the
operating conditions of the network. these internal over voltages can be either switching
over voltages (transient over voltages of high frequency) or temporary over voltages
(steady state over voltages of powerfrequency) (Ram & Vishwakarma 2011).

Switching overvoltages (or transient overvoltages of high frequency) The

transient phenomena that appear when the state of the network is changed by a switching
operation or a fault condition create these overvoltages. These overvoltages are usually
oscillatory and have a damped sinusoid shape Their frequencies may differ between
several hundred Hz to several kHz. For instance, switching on and off of equipment,
like switching of high voltage reactors and switching of a transformer with no load
causes overvoltages of transient nature.

Temporary overvoltages (or steady-state overvoltages of power frequency) These

overvoltages are the steady-state voltages of power-system frequency that might occur
when a load is disconnected, especially on long transmission lines. The overvoltage
factor, which is defined as the ratio of the peak overvoltage to the rated peak system-
frequency phase voltage, is used to assess transient overvoltages on the power system.
This ratio is also referred to as the amplitude factor. The examination of overvoltages on
the power system includes a study of their magnitudes, shapes, duration, and frequency
of occurrence.
There are various causes for which undervoltage is created in system voltage these
causes include (Paul et al., 2015).

I. Closing and Opening of Circuit Breakers: When a phase's circuit breaker opens
unexpectedly, the line it feeds is temporally disconnected. Other feeder lines
from the same substation system will operate as a voltage regulator.
II. Due to Fault: A power plant operation can be affected by undervoltage due to a
failure. The magnitude of undervoltage in each phase might be equal or uneven,
depending on whether the fault is symmetrical or unsymmetrical in form.
III. Equipment Failure: Insulation failure, temperature, short circuits, and other
factors that cause electrical equipment to fail.
IV. Pollution: When there is a storm in the coastal regions and the electrical lines are
covered in salt, a flashover occurs. Faults occur because this salt buildup
functions as an excellent conductor of electricity.
V. Construction Activity: In most urban locations, all electricity lines are
undergrounded; however, digging for foundation work can damage underground
cable and produce undervoltages.
2.3 Literature Review: Previous Study on Under and Over Voltage Protection

Rama Mohan et al., (2020) proposed Overvoltage and undervoltage protection

for industrial and home loads in the AC mains supply. The proposed system monitors
the voltage and safeguards the load by setting a breakpoint based on overvoltage and
undervoltage tripping mechanism. The main objective of this study was to create a low-
voltage and high-voltage indicator. The circuit for this system has an auto reset and uses
easily accessible components. It makes use of the available comparators inside the 555
timer ICs. The proposed protecting system consists of devices such as step down
transformer, rectifier, filter, voltage regulator, LM358 IC, resistors, capacitors, LEDs,
diodes . With the lamp load, the proposed system performed satisfactorily .

(Paul et al., 2015) designed Hardware Implementation of Overvoltage and Under

voltage Protection that will costly save electrical and electronic appliances from the
adverse effects of very high and very low mains voltages. The project goal was to create
a low and high voltage indication to protect a load from any damage. They used Single
phase transformer, Single phase diode bridge, Capacitor, Resistive load, D.C. voltage
source (Relay operation) and Relay with 1 NO and 1 NC changeover switches to
implement their work., As result, protection circuit designed to develop a low voltage
and high voltage tripping mechanism to protect a load from any damage has been
implemented and tested successfully.

(Bhosale et al., 2018) Designed a system that protects electrical equipment from
overvoltage and undervoltage. The goal of this project was to trip the relay based on
supply voltage changes to protect electrical household and industrial equipment from
overvoltage and undervoltage. They used a LM324 comparator, Transformer, Bridge
wave, rectifier Capacitors, micro farads, Regulator IC 7812, Potentiometer, Zener
diode, and Resistances to implement their circuit as result the circuit was the system
was designed using comparator and relay to disconnect supply when any overvoltage
and under voltage problem occurs and tested successfully.
 Singh et al., (2019) presented a microcontroller-based overvoltage and
undervoltage for electrical loads. The main objective of this study was to present a
microcontroller-based overvoltage and undervoltage loads safety system for residential
appliances that can be monitored via GSM. they successfully designed a system that
uses a microcontroller and a GSM module to disconnect the load from the supply in the
event of overvoltage or undervoltage, as well as send a message to a designated number.
They used an ATmega32 microcontroller and a Sim 900A GSM module to get the status
of the supply voltage at any moment, whether it was at the time of tripping or at any
other point in time by sending appropriate text to the GSM module. This triggering
mechanism has been implemented and tested successfully.

(Ali, 2019) designed a system of under voltage and over voltage monitor to
protect the electrical load. This aim of the study was to develop a system that can
monitor and safeguard electrical loads from under voltage and over voltage supply,
which can occur as a result of unexpected negative consequences of electrical voltages
or voltage variations. They implemented operational amp comparators, which is a 14 pin
LCM324 integrated circuit (IC). The proposed system was safely isolated during both
under-voltage and over-voltage scenarios, and the load was immediately reconnected
when the voltage stabilized and fell within the specified range. they pointed that their
proposed project could be further enhanced in the future by incorporating the usage of
short messaging services (SMS) to send a notification or communication to the end user
when the system trips due to a defect.

(Ponnle & Omojoyegbe, 2014) Developed a Low Cost Microcontroller Based Under
and Over Voltage Protection Device. The study goal was to safeguard loads such as
refrigerators, televisions, VCR/DVD players, and other electronic devices from
undesirable over and under voltages, as well as surges induced by sudden mains power
loss and resumption. They created a low-cost under- and over-voltage protection device
using a microcontroller, transistor, integrated circuit, and other discrete components. As
result the protective device was put to the test using 200W incandescent bulbs and
household appliances including televisions, DVD players, refrigerators, and single phase
surface pumps, and it performed admirably.
 (Pathak et al., n.d.) Designed a GSM Module with an SMS alert system to
automate the energy distribution system, The goal of this work was to build a system
that can be used to monitor low and high voltage and then trip in order to minimize
problems such as damage to appliances and industrial machinery that have a variable
fluctuating AC main supply. The proposed system was designed to obtain the required
high-quality power as well as power factor enhancement. Swell, sag, outage,
undervoltage, and overvoltage may all be readily removed with the use of this circuit,
which will benefit the end user. They used integrated circuit (IC), a quad comparator and
window comparator in their system to implement their work . The designed system was
fond to reduce the human effort as the AC main power supply will automatically turn on
and off in response to changes in the input supply voltage.

(Tung & Khoa, 2019) Developed experimental system based on Arduino Uno
microcontroller board for measuring electrical quantities and protecting overvoltage and
undervoltage conditions in a single-phase power supply. The purpose of their project
was to build a system based on an Arduino Uno microcontroller board for protecting
single-phase power supplies from overvoltage and undervoltage, as well as the
implementation of a simple method for measuring electrical quantities that can be
uploaded to the board. In this project, an Arduino Uno platform is used to read voltage
and current measurements from a voltage sensor (ZMPT101B) and a current sensor
(ACS712), respectively. The system hardware and software were designed and tested
successfully.
(Willoughby et al., 2014) Proposed An Automatic Mains Voltage Switch Protector
which protects demostic appliances from voltage fluctuation. The goal of this study was
to design an automatic mains voltage switch (AVS) protector that detects unwanted and
harmful fluctuations in mains voltages and disconnects the appliance when the mains
voltage supply goes above or below pre-set and safe acceptable limits or 'windows'. they
used anti-surge protection, a transformerless power supply for the circuitry, a window
comparator for the detection of low and excessively high mains voltages to the load and
a switching relay capable of switching high currents, ideal for compressor-based
appliances. The circuit presented In this project was designed and tested successfully
 Savita et al., (2018) projected a protection of electrical appliance from under and
over voltage supply. The aim of the study was to design a system that monitors and
provides a break-point based low and high voltage tripping mechanism that prevents
load damage and warns the user whenever an under-voltage or over-voltage condition
arises. The methods used in this paper include triggering mechanism that analyzes the
voltage level and trips when it crosses certain thresholds. ATmega328 microcontroller
GSM modem, 8-bit microprocessor with an externally attached and 16*2 LCDA
transformer, GSM modem, motor, self-made Arduino board and tripping circuit were
used to implement the project. The work on their project is successfully installed and
used for under-voltage and overvoltage protection of the load. It is a low-cost, low-
maintenance, and totally automated. The study also emphasis the access of the load in a
safe manner even when the operator is a long distance away from the load.

(Srinivas et al., 2018) Proposed a system of Under Voltage and Over Voltage
Protection of Electrical Appliances, the aim of the study was to design a circuit that
protects refrigerators ACs, Microwave ovens as well as other appliances from over and
under voltage fluctuations. They used Operational amplifier IC LM324 as a comparator
in which IC LM324 consists of four operational amplifiers, of which only two
operational amplifiers are used in the circuit. As result, the system has been modeled
using a relay and comparator, and it has been discovered to be effective in cutting off the
supply when it detects over voltage or under voltage in main AC supply.
(Hijrah et al., 2020) Proposed an auto cut-off mechanism for under- and over-
voltage tripping to protect electrical appliances. The proposed project was intended to
develop a low voltage and high voltage tripping mechanism to protect the load from
damage due to under voltage and over voltage problem. In this project, a relay,
transistor, operational amplifier, and other discrete components were used to design an
auto-cut circuit. As result a lamp was utilized as a load to verify that the circuit worked
as intended and it has successfully operated.