Advances in Dynamic Relaxation

Techniques for Nonlinear Finite

R. G. Sauve
D. R. Metzger
Applied Mechanics,
Ontario Hydro Technologies,
800 Kipling Avenue, KB223,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M8Z 5S4
Element Analysis
Traditionally, the finite element technique has been applied to static and steady-state
problems using implicit methods. When nonlinearities exist, equilibrium iterations must
be performed using Newton-Raphson or quasi-Newton techniques at each load level. In
the presence of complex geometry, nonlinear material behavior, and large relative sliding
of material interfaces, solutions using implicit methods often become intractable. A
dynamic relaxation algorithm is developed for inclusion in finite element codes. The
explicit nature of the method avoids large computer memory requirements and makes
possible the solution of large-scale problems. The method described approaches the
steady-state solution with no overshoot, a problem which has plagued researchers in the
past. The method is included in a general nonlinear finite element code. A description
of the method along with a number of new applications involving geometric and
material nonlinearities are presented.

1 Introduction
Over the past number of years, numerous papers (Wood,
1967; Otters, 1966; Day, 1965; Underwood, 1983; Pica and
Hinton, 1980; and Brew and Brotton, 1971) have been pro-
duced that describe the use of dynamic relaxation (DR) in
the solution of finite difference approximations to the partial
differential equations. The purpose of this paper is to de-
scribe recent developments in the use of DR within the finite
element method for large-scale geometric and material non-
linear steady-state solutions. Traditionally, the finite element
method has been applied to steady-state problems using
implicit methods, where large numbers of equations are
formed and solved using direct solvers such as frontal, sky-
line, or Cholesky-type methods. When nonlinearities exist,
equilibrium iterations must be performed using Newton-
Raphson or quasi-Newton techniques at each load level. In
the presence of complex geometry, nonlinear material behav-
ior, large local material rotations, and large relative sliding of
material interfaces, solutions using implicit methods often
become intractable. Alternatives, such as iterative methods
which avoid the use of direct solvers, are available. An
interesting paper by Wood (1967) compared the convergence
properties of the Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel, successive over relax-
ation (SOR), and DR. The results obtained in (Wood, 1967)
indicate that SOR has the fastest rate of convergence with
DR running a close second; however, DR can be more
efficiently implemented into the finite element method.
The explicit nature of dynamic relaxation makes it espe-
cially attractive in computational mechanics since all quanti-
ties are treated as vectors and the large storage requirements
associated with large matrices (i.e., stiffness matrix) are
avoided. In addition, the computational effort increases only
proportionally to the number of degrees of freedom so that
large-scale problems involving tens of thousands of degrees
of freedom are possible (e.g., no bandwidth limitations). A
comparison between implicit and explicit methods regarding
computational effort and storage requirements are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. The simple logic of the procedure
permits an elegant algorithmic structure providing a conve-
nient framework for treatment of nonlinearities. For exam-
ple, the implementation of robust contact algorithms for
treating large relative sliding of material interfaces is
o
<J
c
o
•a
&
a.
O

N 1/3 *
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division and presented
at the Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana,
June 21-25, 1992, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Log(Number of Elements (N))
Manuscript received by the PVP Division, 1992; revised manuscript re- Fig. 1 Comparison of operation count for nonlinear transient anal-
ceived December 15, 1994. Associate Technical Editor: W. K. Liu. ysis

170/ Vol. 117, MAY 1995 Transactions of the ASME

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 M
*" t+ C= F ext
t-Atl t t + At2
t - Atl/2 t + At2/2
e
a • C
3
** w$)V^*J ^ V ,/
i: r r
o
e
• x = M"1 rF * - E l ] (Acceleration)
1
-— N" —»
3 ext int*
. t + At2/2 .t-Atl/2 1/2 ..t ,,, . .. ,
Number of Elements (N) • x =x + At x (Velocity)
Fig. 2 Comparison of memory requirement for transient analysis t + At2 t ... . t + At2/2
• x = x + At2 x (Coordinates)
straightforward since drastic changes in model connectivity • Update Time t + At2
pose no problem. In addition, equilibrium is tested directly
on the current configuration considering the Cauchy (i.e., • Obtain F-t*t and Repeat
true) stress acting on the body and no iteration is necessary.
The underlying ideas behind the DR method proposed in Stability governed by Courant Condition
this work follow Underwood (1983) in which problem-depen- Fig. 3 Central difference operator
dent, adaptive damping, mass, and time step are derived
which attenuate the transient response leaving the steady-
state solution for an applied loading. The method described ations, x, velocities, x, coordinates/displacements, x, and
herein approaches the steady-state solution with no over- stresses, cr, are known at time /. In order to obtain the
shoot. In addition, special consideration is given to rotational quantities at a new time t + At, where A Ms a constant time
degrees of freedom for which DR was thought to be unsuit- increment, a new velocity is introduced as
able. Many previous works (Pica and Hinton, 1980; Brew and x'+A'^^x'~A'/1 + Atx' (2)
Brotton, 1971; and Kant and Patel, 1990) developed using
DR allow overshoot of the solution. While this is not a severe The superscript t + At/2 indicates that X ' + A , / 2 is a half-step
limitation for problems which are strictly linear in nature, approximation and is a constant velocity with which the
this is clearly not acceptable for nonlinear problems such as configuration moves from time t to time / + A/. The new
those involving hysteretic elastic-plastic materials and contact coordinates are then given as
problems where responses are history-dependent. Recent +A
+ Atx' '^ (3)
work (Kant and Patel, 1990) has suggested a DR method for
solving nonlinear structural problems; but it is plagued by In this new updated configuration, the stresses are evaluated
overshoot, thus limiting the solution to small deformation using appropriate constitutive laws. These stresses are used
and linear materials. An algorithm for DR which is applica- in the discretized equilibrium equations to obtain updated
ble to highly nonlinear problems and compatible with the accelerations.
finite element method is developed in this work. A number The temporal integration scheme described in the forego-
of new DR applications including material and geometric ing is explicit in that the unknown quantities x' + Al/7, xx+Al
nonlinearity, creep, and incompressibility are presented to are defined in terms of known quantities from a previous
demonstrate both the accuracy and efficacy of the proposed time increment when the equations are applied. It is impor-
algorithm. This paper covers the development and implemen- tant to note that the new configuration defined by the
tation of the DR algorithm along with applications followed coordinates x' is obtained first while the velocities \X+A'/2
by concluding remarks. which correspond to this current configuration are computed
at the end of the procedure. The name central difference is
obvious when the accelerations are obtained in terms or
2 Dynamic Relaxation and Explicit Techniques coordinates, for a constant time step, At
2.1 Explicit Operator. The central difference operator -A/
is used for the time integration of the discretized equations i< = I . . I (4)
of motion given by At2
dx At each time step, all constitutive calculations and element
M- = ¥•' ¥' (1) geometry are evaluated in an updated configuration frame
dt defined by current coordinates, x ' + 4 ' . Using a lumped (i.e.,
where M is the mass matrix, F' nt , Fe'xt are the element diagonal) mass matrix, M, avoids the need for a formation of
internal and external force vectors, respectively. system equations into a banded stiffness matrix and a system
solver. This operator is explicit and as such is conditionally
F/nt^/BVdV stable, so that values of the time step A? must be maintained
J
v at values below a critical time step based on the Courant
stability limit Atcr < 2/<*>max, where cumax is the highest fre-
B = matrix relating element nodal velocities to element ve- quency of the system. In other words, stability is only ensured
locity strains. when the time step is smaller than the time it takes an elastic
Here a brief description of the explicit central difference stress wave or acoustic sound wave to travel the smallest
integration is included, while a more complete presentation discrete element dimension in the overall finite element
on the topic is given in (Belytschko, 1983). In the explicit model. The temporal discretization using the central differ-
integration scheme, all discretized quantities such as acceler- ence operator is represented in Fig. 3. The choice of this

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 Initial Conditions

Forces
p. t+At Exerted on
Node DOF's
Contact ?t Accelerations
Surface at Node "'-M-'IFL-FL]
Conditions DOF's

z
Critical
X Rigid Wall
Time At, Boundary
Step Condition

Internal + Hourglass Velocities

p t + At= F t+At + F t+At at Node . t + At/2
Element Forces int int hg DOF's

DEVIATORIC
rRic^--A
VOLUMETRIC
Update Update
External Geometry
Load F„Clt New Node
Coordinates
Update
Time
t+At
Fig. 4 Explicit nonlinear transient computational cycle

operator is based on the premise that it has the highest stable M f+Al/2 it-to/2 ) + C(x l+At/2 + X t-Al/1 ) / 2
time step among the explicit operators available and that A7 (*
with a proper implementation, it does not require a special
starting scheme. The overall implementation into a solution + F.' = F' (8)
strategy which is applicable to both linear and highly nonlin-
ear problems is shown in Fig. 4. This strategy is identical for M
i(+A//2
dynamic relaxation, with the exceptions noted in the next A7 ~2
sections.
M
2.2 Dynamic Relaxation. The idea behind dynamic re- (V' - FM + c\ <-A«A1
_ _ X (9)
laxation is based on viewing the solution of a static problem At 2
as the steady-state solution of a damped wave equation. To maintain the efficiency and form of the central differ-
Thus, the equation of motion for structural dynamics is ence operator, as well as ensuring that the mode associated
pertinent to the development of dynamic relaxation, and the with the applied loading distribution is critically damped, a
central difference operator can be used to develop an algo- diagonal mass matrix M is used along with a critical damping
rithm for DR. matrix C, is given by
For time t, the equations of motion are given as
C = 2coM (10)
Mx' + Cx' + K(x')u' F
exl (5) where <w = undamped natural frequency corresponding to
the participating mode of loading.
The damping matrix and displacement vector are repre-
Substituting for C yields
sented by C and u', respectively. Time t in dynamic relax-
ation refers to an iteration (cycle) counter. As described in [AtM-i(F;n - F(M) + k>-W(l - coAt)]
jj(+A(/2 _
the section on explicit temporal integration, nonlinear prob- (11)
lems are handled using a nonlinear internal force vector F int (1 + o>At)
directly, in lieu of forming a tangent stiffness K(x') at every
The current coordinates are calculated as
time step. Thus, K(x')u' is replaced by F;'nt.
Referring to Fig. 3, the central difference expressions for x ' + A ' = x' + Atx,+^ (12)
acceleration and velocity are given as +A
The current displacement vector u ' ' is obtained as
+A/
J./ + A//2 u' = u' + Atx'+A,/2 (13)
(6)
At At
By a judicious choice of <w, A;, and M, the transient re-
where A? is a constant time increment. The average value of sponse can be attenuated, resulting in the steady-state re-
velocity is taken as sponse and the solution to

Fin. = Text (14)

x' = (x' + A '/ 2 + x ' - A ^ ) / 2 (7)
Thus, in the dynamic relaxation solution, F int and Fex[ repre-
Substituting into the equation of motion yields sent the real system, whereas, M, a>, and At are arbitrary.

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 Care must be taken in the specification of M in order to
maintain the stability of the central difference operator. The
participating frequency w is dependent on M, F int , and F ext .
Consequently, focus is placed on the choice of the mass
matrix to ensure stability while optimizing the rate of conver-
gence.
In Underwood (1983), the convergence rate of dynamic
relaxation is given in terms of the spectral radius R of the
iterative error equations
R-W-l (15)
where wmax and w are the highest and lowest frequencies of
the discretized equations of motion representing the numeri-
cal model. By maximizing the ratio oj/com.dx (minimizing R), a
more rapid convergence rate is obtained. The highest fre-
quency wmax is mesh and material-dependent, whereas the
lowest frequency &> is based on the lowest participating mode
of the structure corresponding to the load distribution. For
numerical models where the mode of loading corresponds to
a very low structural frequency and the mesh discretization is
such that the local element frequencies are high, a slower
convergence rate can be expected. By adjusting the mass
matrix and choosing a suitable time step, this affect can be
minimized.
One of the key issues in the use of dynamic relaxation for
nonlinear analysis is the problem of overshoot. In problems
involving severe material nonlinearity (i.e., elasto-plasticity),
overshoot is unacceptable. In the past, work in dynamic
relaxation has been limited to linear elastic and in some
cases mildly nonlinear geometric problems. Thus, overshoot
was a minor issue in these cases. In problems involving
material nonlinearity, the solution using dynamic relaxation
must always approach from below the true response. Typi-
cally, the problem has been in obtaining accurate assess-
ments for the lowest participating frequency of the structure
for use in the critical damping approximation.
In the method used herein, the Rayleigh quotient is used
to obtain an accurate approximation for w as
T •i 1/2
u Ku
(16)
uTMu
where u is the current displacement vector, K is the current
tangent stiffness matrix, and superscript T indicates trans-
pose of the matrix. This avoids an eigensolution of the
problem, which would otherwise nullify the benefits of dy-
namic relaxation. Details of the dynamic relaxation algorithm
implemented for nonlinear problems are presented in the
following section.
3 Dynamic Relaxation Algorithm
The algorithm proposed herein is designed to exploit the
simplicity of an explicit nonlinear solution module in an
existing in-house computer code (Sauve, 1993). As discussed
in Section 2.2., it it important to obtain good estimates of M
and it) to ensure that the mode associated with externally
applied loads is critically damped and no overshoot occurs.
The key is to provide updated estimates of w at each cycle of
dynamic relaxation. In the algorithm, wmax is based on the
transit time of a wave over the smallest element in a struc-
tural continuum. That is,
2CD
«W - 7— (17)
where CD is the speed of sound of a dilatational wave, and
L m i n is the minimum effective element length in the problem.
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The critical time step A/ cr is then obtained as
^min
A<„r = (18)
~c7
In the implementation, the density is adjusted for each
element such that the transit time for each element is the
same. In the program, the element densities are obtained for
Afci. = 1.05. The dynamic relaxation solution is then calcu-
lated based on a unit time step (i.e., Af = 1.0) to ensure that
stability is maintained. If the time step drops below 1.001
during the solution, then the element densities are recalcu-
lated for Atcr = 1.05 and the solution resumes.
In addition, at cycle t, a current estimate of a> is obtained
as
-|V2
(u') K'u'
(19)
(u'fMu1
where the estimate of the stiffness K' is obtained as an
approximate diagonal stiffness as
[F.'
K' = (20)
In component form for degree of freedom (
\p.t -ff-M]
[ f mt; f
inl, J
Kh = 4 2 (21)
A/*'- '"
To account for the possibility of unstable regions which
may be encountered in nonlinear problems, only positive
values of w are admissible (e.g., co = max(<u', 0.0)). In deal-
ing with convergence problems, it is highly desirable to have
a measure of convergence upon which the final solution is
based. It is important to choose a criterion that will neither
lead to unproductive cycles nor inaccurate results. In this
algorithm the convergence criteria are based upon the follow-
ing inequalities:
+ A,/2
HFe'xt ~ F
i'ntll2 \\Atx' \\
</u +A < u,, (22)
W&.H2 llu' '|| 2
where || H2 denotes Euclidean norm. The tolerances / to , and
Mto, are normally taken as 0.01 and 0.001, respectively. For
most of the problems encountered, these tolerances provide
a good balance of accuracy and efficiency. All the numerical
cases presented in this work were run with these values. The
algorithm, as implemented in the finite element code (Sauve,
1993), is summarized in Table 1.
4 Applications
In order to demonstrate the DR algorithm, a number of
cases are presented. They describe problems which use a
variety of element formulations, available in the computer
code described in Sauve (1993), including nonlinear struc-
tural elements such as three-dimensional beams and shells
and a three-dimensional continuum element. The elements
have been derived to exploit the features of the explicit
method. All the solutions to the cases presented in this
section are obtained with the DR algorithm implemented in
the computer code described in Sauve (1993).
4.1 Nonlinear Geometric Cantilever Plate. A cantilever
beam shown in Fig. 5 was modeled using both three-dimen-
sional shell elements (Sauve and Dubey, 1991) and eight-
noded underintegrated solid elements. This model serves to
test the use of DR in problems involving geometric nonlin-
earity. It consists of a 1-in2 cross section of length 10 in. with
a uniformly applied pressure 2.85 psi. The modulus of elastic-
MAY 1995, Vol. 1 1 7 / 1 7 3
 Table 1 Dynamic relaxation algorithm
I Initialize M for Ata = 1.05 for each element, set At == 1.0.
II At cycle t for load increment ;'.
(0 x'=M-'[Fe'xt-F/nl]

GO (velocities)
(1 + <o'At) (1 + rn'M)
x ' + A ' = x' + A / x ' + 4 ' ^ (coordinates)
+A +A
u' ' = u' + A / x ' '^ (displacements)
Uii) Update external force vector Fc'xl
(iv) Check error norms

\Kt ~ Fi'„tll2 l|Afx' + 4 * % „

tol
HFe'J|2 ^ l|u' + A '|| 2 <
"""
If satisfied go to next load increment i + 1
(o) Obtain current internal force vector F/ n j A '
and current stable time step A/cr
(vi) Update density if Afc < 1.001
(vii) Obtain current estimate of at'
^-[Fi'„t, A '-c,.i/A ? ir A ^
K'n = max (K'a, 0)

XM„(U;.)2
(viii) Go to ( 0 and repeat

1.0 .. ,. 1 , .1 —i—'—i i ,r,M

^ i 1 -i T • ' o.o
• 4 layer
. shell -
0.0 * .

:
\ x Y| ^ ^ ^
~^^
.
-400. ^
M
^
„ -1.0 : \ \ 1 X
^^^^-^
c Y
u • \ \ ^^^5~^^^^?^ j ^ ^ ^ i > & -600.
e \ 'N, _
I -2.0 - \ ^^~^c3§3^ -800.
Q \ ^~^y -
a.
\ -1000.
\x -
' • ' - - .
P
-3.0 -1200.
•
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
I . I . I
Cycles x 1000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
-4.0 Fig. 6 Element hydrostatic stress—dynamic relaxation confined
Cycles x 1000 uniaxial strain test for incompressibility condition
Fig. 5 Geometric nonlinear beam test dynamic relaxation
bility of the element formulation (Sauve, 1993) to handle the
incompressibility condition when Poisson's ratio approaches
ity and Poisson's ratio are 12,000 psi and 0.20, respectively. or equals 0.5. In this problem, the element hydrostatic stress
The application of this load results in a relatively large tip is equal to the applied pressure when the incompressibility
displacement of 3.35 in. This is in agreement with results condition is imposed by Poisson's ratio = 0.5. As observed in
obtained for the same problem in Bathe et al. (1974). The Fig. 6, 50 DR cycles result in a converged solution. It is of
deformed geometry is shown in Fig. 5 along with a history of interest to note that in the initial cycles a number of partici-
DR cycles versus tip displacement. As observed in Fig. 5, it pating frequencies corresponding to damped waves are con-
requires 600 cycles to obtain a converged result using the sidered by the algorithm, and gradually settles to the specific
shell elements, whereas it takes 1800 cycles with the three-di- mode in which the loading is dominant. No overshoot is
mensional solid elements. The slower convergence with the observed. A number of cases for various values of Poisson's
solids arises from the finer mesh used. This changes the ratio were run using DR. The results are in excellent agree-
spectral radius of convergence, in that wmax is far higher ment with classical results, as shown in Fig. 7.
than the lowest participating mode frequency.
4.3 Moment-Loaded Nonlinear Beam. This test repre-
4.2 Incompressibility Condition. A cube, shown in Fig. sents a severe case of geometric nonlinear deformation. As
6, consisting of 27 eight-noded hexahedron elements, is sub- shown in Fig. 8, it consists of bending an initially straight
jected to a pressure of 1000 psi in the y direction, with the beam into a circular shape. The moment, M, required to
remaining sides constrained. This test demonstrates the capa- bend the beam of length L into a circular shape is given by

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0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Poissons Ratio
Fig. 7 Comparison of analytical versus numerical results confined
uniaxial strain test for incompresslbility condition
-6.0
Q
a.
P
-12.0
-15.0
0.0 0.2 0.40.80.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Cycles x 1000
Fig. 8 Tip displacement (node 13) moment-loaded nonlinear
beam—dynamic relaxation
EI 2TTEI
M= — = — — (23)
R L
Nonlinear beam elements available in Sauve (1993) were
used in this case. When the moment M, corresponding to the
curvature formula, is applied, as shown in Fig. 8, the correct
fully circular shape is obtained. Again, no overshoot is ob-
served in the DR solution.
4.4 Creep of Nuclear Fuel Channel Assemblies. The
salient features of the proposed algorithm are demonstrated
in a larger-scale complex problem involving both geometric
and material nonlinearity. Throughout the operating life of
CANDU nuclear reactors, creep deformation of fuel channel
assemblies occurs. The horizontal fuel channel assembly is
comprised of a pressure tube (PT) contained by a concentric
calandria tube (CT), as shown in Fig. 9. The pressure tubes
are clamped at both end fittings by rolled joints and sup-
ported by the calandria tubes using garter springs at interme-
diate points. The pressure tubes contain the fuel bundles and
the D 2 0 coolant. The creep of zirconium alloys, from which
the assemblies are comprised, is dependent on time, temper-
ature, stress, and fast neutron flux. Creep deformation may
limit the useful lifetime of the pressure tubes. Sag due to
creep may cause the pressure tube to deflect to a point where
its curvature is large enough to inhibit the free passage of
fuel bundles and cause thermal problems due to redistribu-
tion of coolant flow. In addition, contact between the pres-
sure and calandria tubes in a region with a high concentra-
tion of hydrogen isotopes may lead to conditions which
reduce the fracture resistance of the PT.
One motivating factor for developing a DR scheme for
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Undeformed Geometry
Response Under Static Loading At Time= 0.0 Hrs
Creep Response At Time= 200400. Hrs
86 percent power fuel channel—mesh 60 x 8- DR creep
o 10 12 20
Hours (xlOOOO)
Fig. 10 Fuel channel creep using dynamic relaxation—time his-
tory of midspan displacement
handling viscoplastic problems was that nonlinear implicit
solution methods such as Newton or quasi-Newton methods
did not provide converged solutions in this application. This
is not surprising given the complexity of the creep law (Sauve
et a l , 1989) and the extensive sliding contact between the
tubes. The DR algorithm described in this work overcomes
this convergence problem by considering each time step for
creep as a load step while maintaining the initial operating
mechanical loads such as weight of fuel, deadweight, and
coolant. In Fig. 9, the finite element model is shown along
with the converged response under operating mechanical
loads and creep at 200,400 h, which corresponds to approxi-
mately 30 yr reactor life. The model consists of 960 three-di-
mensional shell elements (Sauve and Dubey, 1991) and 1098
nodes (6588 degrees of freedom). The time history of re-
sponse for the midspan displacement of the PT and CT is
shown in Fig. 10. Of interest is the way the DR algorithm
converges to a solution at each increment of time.
In Fig. 11, a map of DR cycles versus displacement of
node 271 (midspan of PT) is shown. As observed, the largest
number of cycles occurs at the initial loading stage followed
by a moderately decreasing amount of cycles during the
creep stage. In the initial creep stage smaller increments in
displacement correspond to smaller time steps for creep. The
increments at which the specified time steps for creep are
increased can be identified from the apparent increases in
DR cycles followed by a stable period in which the number of
cycles remains relatively constant. The evolution of contact
between the PT and CT gradually stiffens the system so that
a higher participating mode is excited. As discussed earlier in
Section 2.2, this leads to faster convergence. Comparison of
results with the approximate solution method given in Sauve
et al. (1989) indicate excellent correlation.
MAY 1995, Vol. 117/175

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cycles (x 1000)
Fig. 11 Fuel channel creep using dynamic relaxation —200,000 h
creep—DR cycles
5 Concluding Remarks
A DR algorithm which provides both an efficient and
accurate solution to problems involving varying degrees of
nonlinearity has been presented in this work. It is adaptive to
the problem and requires no special tuning factors or user
intervention. Accuracy is simply controlled by a tolerance on
displacement and force error. It has been implemented into a
general finite element code (Sauve, 1993) and is currently in
use on a wide variety of problems. Given the current ad-
vances being made in desktop computer hardware (i.e.,
RISC-based and parallel processors) and the class of highly
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nonlinear problems for which solutions are now being sought,
DR must be seriously considered as a viable alternative in
future finite element code development. The algorithm pre-
sented herein was easily adapted into an existing finite ele-
ment framework. In our implementation, it has been used
successfully with three-dimensional nonlinear beam, shell,
and hexahedron elements, a three-dimensional contact algo-
rithm, and objective material rate formulations. An area
where further research could contribute is in methods to
accelerate convergence for problems in which the participat-
ing frequency of the overall model is much lower than the
highest frequency of the mesh.
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Belytschko, T., 1983, "An Overview of Semidiscretization and Time
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eds„ T. Belytschko and T. J. R. Hughes, North Holland, pp. 1-66.
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by Dynamic Relaxation," International Journal Numerical of Methods in
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