Forensic science

SUBMITTED TO- Dr. Ajay Ranga

SUBMITTED BY- VAIBHAV KATOCH

B.B.A. LL.B. (9th SEM.)

1120171829

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 DECLARATION

I, Vaibhav Katoch, hereby declare that the work below is my original work, and the parts which have
been used by me while preparing the below research paper have been duly acknowledged in footnotes
by me.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude towards those people given their contribution in
completion of this assignment.

I would like to express my gratitude towards H.P. National Law University for giving me this
opportunity and providing resources required to complete the task. I would like to acknowledge with
much appreciation guidance of our Vice-Chancellor Prof. Dr. Nishtha Jaswal, and our Registrar Prof.
Dr. S.S. Jaiswal, who have vast experience in the field of legal education. They have provided their
strong support and guidance with their words of wisdom.

I am highly indebted to Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Ranga, Faculty of Law at Himachal Pradesh National Law
University, for guidance and providing necessary information regarding the assignment & also
support in completion of the assignment.

I would like to thank my family for kindness and constant motivation they have provided. I would like
to thank my friends and classmates for providing their aid whenever I needed it.

Lastly, I am eternally grateful to almighty God for blessing me with good health and making
everything possible.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 4

PROBLEM PROFILE 5

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4

OBJECTIVES 4

IMMEDIATE CHANGES 5

EARLY POST MORTEM CHANGES 5

LATE POST MORTEM CHANGES 9

CONCLUSION 12

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 POST MORTEM CHANGES AND TIME SINCE DEATH

Introduction

A body undergoes complex and intricate changes after death1. These post mortem changes
depend on a diverse range of variables. Factors such as the ambient temperature, season, and
geographical location at which the body is found, the fat content of the body, sepsis/injuries,
intoxication, presence of clothes/insulation over the body, etc. determine the rate at which
post-mortem changes occur in a cadaver. Understanding the post mortem changes is
imperative to estimate the time since death (TSD) or the post mortem interval (PMI).

Changes that occur to a body after death are a result of complex physicochemical and
environmental processes. They are affected by factors within the cadaver and outside it.
These factors affect the onset and either increase the rate of post-mortem changes or retard it.
Factors that hasten the rate of post mortem changes include hot and humid climate, presence
of body fat, open injuries on the body, sepsis or infection, and the location of the cadaver in
the open. Inadequately dressed persons, cold weather, and storage of the cadaver in a cold
storage unit retard the rate of the post mortem changes.

PROBLEM PROFILE
A human body undergoes various changes after death. And these postmortem changes depend on
various factors. The present paper aims to deal with the post mortem changes and time since death.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The present paper has been based on non-empirical and doctrinal method of research as the same is
based on aspects using theoretical sources, and is educational research.

OBJECTIVES
The present paper aims to deal with the post mortem changes and time since death. A human body
undergoes various changes after death. And these postmortem changes depend on various factors

CHANGES
1
Leadbeatter S, Knight B. The history and the cause of death. Med Sci Law. 1987 Apr;27(2):132-5

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Based on the order of their appearance, the post mortem changes classify as immediate
changes, early changes, and late changes.

Immediate changes:

Immediate changes after death relate to the ‘somatic death’ or ‘systemic death.’ Somatic
death deals with the irreversible cessation of the vital functions of the brain, heart, and lungs.
Thus, immediate post-mortem changes are dubbed as the “signs or indications of death.”
Immediate changes include insensibility, loss of voluntary movements, cessation of
respiration, cessation of circulation, and cessation of nervous system functions. During this
time, primary relaxation of muscles occurs. Though insensibility and loss of voluntary
movement are considered as one of the earliest signs of death, these can also appear in cases
of trance, fainting attacks, narcosis, catalepsy, and electrocution, etc.

Cessation of respiration is checked by placing a stethoscope over the upper parts of the lungs
where the slightest sound of breathing, if any, can be detected. An important consideration
here is that the respiratory cessation can be seen in cases of drowning, electrocution, in
newborn infants, and due to Cheyne-Stokes breathing. Cessation of circulation is checked by
placing the stethoscope over the precordial region and listening to the heartbeats. Another
alternative to using a stethoscope is the use of electrocardiograph (ECG). A flat ECG is
indicative of cessation of circulation. Nervous system function cessation is detected using an
electroencephalograph (EEG). Brain stem reflexes require checking, as well. Absence of
respiratory sounds and movements, heartbeats, brain stem reflexes, ECG, and EEG activity
signifies death and are noted as the signs observed immediately after death.

Early post mortem changes:

Early post mortem changes are associated with cellular death. They include changes in the
skin, eyes, post mortem cooling (algor mortis), post mortem rigidity (rigor mortis), and post
mortem staining (livor mortis).

After death, the skin of an individual becomes pale, ashen, and it loses elasticity within a few
minutes of death. The lips become dry and hard. Numerous ocular changes are observable
after death, which includes corneal opacity, loss of pupillary and corneal reflex, and loss of
intra-ocular tension that leads to ocular flaccidity. If the eyes are left open after death, there is
a deposition of dust in the exposed part of the eye. This dust, along with the cellular debris
and mucous manifest as a yellow triangular region on the exposed sclera which is known as

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‘Tache noir de la sclerotique.’ An important ophthalmoscopic observation is fragmentation or
trucking of blood vessels known as the ‘Kevorkian sign. 2’ Kevorkian sign appears within a
few minutes after death and lasts for about an hour. A steady rise in potassium levels ensues
in the vitreous humor after death.

Changes in temperature:

After death and cessation of circulation, the convectional transference of heat inside the body
comes to a halt. Since no heat is being produced within the cadaver, the body starts losing
heat due to the temperature difference between the body and the surroundings. The heat loss
due to radiation is substantial at first but later ebbs down. Most of the heat loss is attributable
to conduction and convection of heat. This decrease in body temperature after death is termed
as ‘algor mortis,’ and is used to estimate the post mortem interval (PMI). For estimating the
PMI, the temperature of the body is measured using a ‘thanatometer,’ which is a 25 cm long
thermometer with a range of 0 to 50 degrees C. The thanatometer gets inserted inside the
rectum and records the temperature. Alternatively, thanatometer can get inserted into the
external auditory meatus, or up to the cribriform plate through the nose, or a subhepatic
insertion by making a small incision in the peritoneal cavity. PMI is estimated using the
following equation: 

PMI = (Normal body temperature – Rectal temperature)/ Rate of fall of temperature per hour

The rate of fall of temperature is measured by recording the rectal temperature at regular
intervals.

Multiple factors may affect the rate of cooling after death. The most important factor in
modifying the rate of cooling is the ambient temperature. The greater the difference between
body temperature and ambient temperature, the faster is the rate of cooling. The body will
lose heat faster in well ventilated or humid surroundings. If the body is wearing clothes or
other insulating materials, the rate of loss of heat will be slower.

Changes in the muscles:

Immediately after death, the muscles undergo primary relaxation, which is followed by
stiffening of muscles known as rigor mortis. With the onset of putrefaction, rigor mortis

2
KEVORKIAN J. The eye in death. Clin Symp. 1961 Apr-Jun;13:51-62.

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passes off, and secondary relaxation occurs. Secondary relaxation occurs at around 36 hours
after death due to the breakdown of the contracted muscles due to decomposition.

Rigor mortis is the post mortem stiffening/ rigidity of the body. It results from a decrease in
levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) beyond critical levels. When a person dies, calcium
ions flood muscle fibers due to the loss of integrity of the muscle cells. These ions cause the
binding of actin and myosin filaments, causing contraction. Relaxation of muscles is achieved
by ATP driven pumping of the calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the
muscle cells. As a result of the lack of ATP, the muscles fail to relax, and the actinomyosin
complex created during the contraction stays intact; this causes the muscles to become hard
and rigid. Rigor mortis first appears in the involuntary muscles of the heart, and apparently
follows proximal to distal progression. It is observed in eyelids, followed by the neck, lower
jaw, chest, upper limbs, abdomen, lower limbs, and then finally in the fingers and toes. Rigor
mortis appears in 1 to 2 hours after death, is completely formed 12 hours after death, is
sustained for the next 12 hours, and vanishes over the next 12 hours, sometimes referred to as
the ‘march of rigor.’3

Rigor mortis appears rapidly in children and the old aged individuals, in cases of persons
dying of diseases or conditions involving great exhaustion such as cholera, or due to
convulsions as in cases of strychnine poisoning. In such cases, the rigor disappears early as
well. The effect of rigor on individual muscles can be of additional significance. The rigor of
erector pilae muscles may cause elevation of hair leading to the pimpled appearance of the
skin. This phenomenon is termed ‘cutis anserina’ or ‘goose skin.’ In the heart, rigor causes
contraction of ventricles, which may be erroneously interpreted as ventricular hypertrophy.
The rigor of the dartos muscle in the scrotum may lead to post mortem ejaculation of semen
and may get wrongly interpreted to sexual activity just before death.

Certain conditions simulate rigor mortis. The conditions simulating rigor mortis are; heat
stiffening, cold stiffening, gas stiffening, and cadaveric spasm. Heat stiffening is a condition
seen in individuals exposed to high temperature, high voltage electrocution, or scalding due
to hot liquids and is characterized by rigidity of the body due to coagulation and denaturation
of the tissue proteins. Cold stiffening occurs in individuals found in sub-zero temperatures
and results from freezing of the biological fluids and subcutaneous fat, which leads to

3
Lee Goff M. Early post-mortem changes and stages of decomposition in exposed cadavers. Exp Appl
Acarol. 2009 Oct;49(1-2):21-36.

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stiffening of the body. Gas stiffening is characterized by rigidity due to the accumulation of
putrefactive gases all over the body.

Cadaveric spasm is a condition in which a group of muscles that were used profusely just
before death becomes stiff and rigid immediately after death. This ‘instantaneous rigor’
mostly involves hands, very rarely, the entire body may undergo cadaveric spasm. It can
occur in assaults involving a scuffle before death, in suicides, and cases of drowning, etc. In
such scenario, the victim’s hand presents as rigid and clenched, holding/ grasping on to the
clothing, buttons, or hair, etc. of the assailant (in assault), maybe holding the weapon used for
committing suicide, or the weeds, gravel mud, etc. from the water bed (in drowning). While
rigor mortis provides information about time since death, the cadaveric spasm is valuable in
commenting on the manner of death.

Livor mortis:

Circulation of blood is a continuous process carried out by the pumping action of the heart in
a living individual. However, once the person dies, the circulation comes to a halt, and the
blood starts moving towards the dependant regions of the body due to gravity. This effect
results in reddish-blue staining of those low-lying dependent regions of the body, known as
the livor mortis, post mortem staining, post mortem lividity, or post mortem hypostasis.
During the initial phases, patches of discoloration start appearing in the dependent regions in
1 to 3 hours after death. These increase in size and spread all over the dependent regions in 4
to 6 hours and are fully developed within 6 to 8 hours. So, in case of the body of an
individual lying on the floor of a room, the back of the individual will show post mortem
staining.

Any change in the position of the body causes blood to settle down in the newer dependent
areas, referred to as ‘shifting of post mortem lividity.’ However, this shifting may not be
possible after 6 to 8 hours of death, due to post mortem coagulation of blood accumulated in
the dependent areas of the body. This phenomenon is termed as ‘fixation of post mortem
staining.’ Whether or not lividity is fixed is determined by the blanching test. The pressure is
applied to the livid area by the thumb of the observer for about a minute, then released. If the
area underneath the thumb becomes pale on the removal of pressure, the lividity is said to be
not fixed, while if the region stays stained even after removal of pressure, the lividity is said
to be fixed.

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The lividity does not appear on the parts of the body which are in contact with the floor/ bed/
slab, etc., or those compressed due to tight clothing, bands, etc., because of the obstruction
and compression effect of surface in the underlying vessels. The absence of discoloration in
these areas is called ‘contact flattening,’ ‘contact pallor,’ or ‘contact blanching.’

The appearance of post mortem staining depends on multiple factors, including, amount of
blood at the time of death and the coagulability status, etc. Lividity is feeble/ less marked in
deaths following blood loss/ in anaemics, while it is more intense in cases of asphyxia deaths.
Post mortem staining can be of a distinct color in cases of poisoning. Cherry red staining
presents in carbon monoxide poisoning, pink-colored staining is observable in cyanide
poisoning, and brown colored staining occurs in nitrate poisoning. Thus, postmortem
staining, besides PMI, can provide useful information on the position of the body, or even the
cause of death.

Late post mortem changes:

Autolysis:

Autolysis (self-destruction) is an intrinsic activity brought about by the breakdown of cells

and tissues of the human body because of the constituents of the said cells. Just after death,
the cell membranes breakdown and release enzymes that start self-digestion. The first
external sign of autolysis is the whitish appearance of the cornea. On autopsy, the doughy
appearance of the parenchyma of the pancreas and lungs appears within hours of death.
Autolytic fermentation in the unborn fetus within the amniotic cavity is termed as maceration
and characteristically demonstrates as slippage of skin with blackish brownish discoloration
of the underlying tissues. The process of autolysis is devoid of any bacterial action.

Putrefaction:

Putrefaction is the decomposition of the body carried out by the microbial action. After
cessation of homeostasis, the natural flora of the body migrates from the gut to the blood
vessels and spreads all over the body. External micro-organisms enter the body through the
alimentary canal, respiratory tract, and open wounds. In the absence of body
defenses/immune mechanisms, the microbes keep growing, as they feed upon the proteins
and carbohydrates of the blood and body parts. The principal bacterial agent causing
putrefaction is the gram-positive, anaerobic, and rod-shaped Clostridium welchii. It releases
lecithinase, which causes hydrolysis of lecithin present in the blood cells, causing their lysis.

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Putrefaction begins within an hour of death, but the peak activity of the microbes occurs
around the 24-hour timeframe.

The first external sign of putrefaction is the greenish discoloration of the skin over the right
iliac fossa, the region overlying the caecum, the contents of which are mostly liquid and are
full of bacteria. The greenish discoloration gradually spreads to the abdomen and involves the
entire body in later stages. The bacteria generate hydrogen sulphide as a result of reductive
catalysis. Hydrogen sulphide reacts with the haemoglobin and forms sulfhemoglobin that
stains the surrounding region green. Microbes traverse throughout the body using the blood
vessels. Putrefaction of erythrocytes within the superficial blood vessels leads to the
formation of greenish-blue discoloration, which is observable through the skin. This outlining
of the superficial blood vessels is known as ‘marbling’ of the skin.

As the activity of the bacteria increases, the amount of the putrefactive gases produced rises.
The gases are produced due to bacterial reductive catalysis and include hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia, carbon dioxide, and methane, etc. These gases cause the distension of the
abdomen, swelling of the face and external genitalia, and purging of putrefactive liquids from
the mouth and nostrils referred to as ‘post mortem purging.’ Other external signs of
putrefaction are slippage of skin, the formation of putrefactive fluid-filled blisters, and
extrusion of hair and nails. Internally, the intestines get distended due to gas formation, the
liver becomes spongy and swiss-cheese-like, the brain appears to be soft and liquefied, and
all the internal organs may have gaseous blisters underneath their mucosal lining. The
prostate gland is usually the most resistant towards putrefaction. These changes take place in
18 to 36 hours after death.

By the end of 24 or 48 hours, maggots can be seen near the external orifices and/or the open
wounds. These maggots, depending on the species of the fly, pupate and become adults by 6
to 8 days and can be used to estimate the PMI. By 5 to 10 days, there is liquefaction of most
of the internal organs, the abdomen may burst due to the pressure exerted by the putrefactive
gases, and the ligaments become softer by this stage.4

Conditions affecting the rate of putrefaction:

4
Matuszewski S, Mądra-Bielewicz A. Post-mortem interval estimation based on insect evidence in a quasi-
indoor habitat. Sci Justice. 2019 Jan;59(1):109-115

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Optimum ambient temperature range for putrefaction is between 25 and 38 degrees C. With
every increase of 10 degrees C, the chemical activity doubles. The rate of putrefaction in
summer is about twice as much as the rate of putrefaction in winter. Advanced stages of
putrefaction can be seen as early as 24 to 36 hours in summer. Moisture is a prerequisite for
putrefaction as water is required for bacterial growth, chemical, and enzymatic processes to
take place. The rate of putrefaction is faster in a humid environment as compared to an arid
one. Bodies kept in open-air putrefy faster than those buried or in water. ‘Casper’s dictum’
states that a body decomposes in the air twice as rapidly as submerged in water, and eight
times rapidly as buried in earth. Clothed bodies decompose slower as tight clothes restrict the
supply of microbes through blood vessels in that area. In case there are multiple external open
injuries, putrefaction is faster as microorganisms have easier access to the insides of the body.
The greater the fat percentage, the quicker is the putrefaction due to the increased amount of
liquids and heat retention by the fat. The two modifications of putrefaction are adipocere
formation and mummification.

Adipocere formation:

Saponification or adipocere formation is a modification of the putrefaction process, which

involves hydrolysis and hydrogenation of fatty tissues into a yellowish, greasy, rancid, wax-
like substance called adipocere. This adipocere consists of mainly palmitic, oleic, and stearic
fatty acids, and contains glycerol in smaller amounts. Adipocere formation most commonly
presents in fatty regions such as the cheeks, chin, abdomen, and buttocks. The formation of
adipocere requires the body to decompose in a warm, moist, and humid environment as water
is a prerequisite for hydrolysis of fats. It can occur as early as in three weeks, but usually, it
takes three months to form. Adipocere initially is yellow and soft, but after a few months
turns white and brittle. It becomes hard and tends to preserve the form of the face and the
body in recognizable form. Injuries such as stab wounds and bullet holes get preserved as
well. Adipocere formation can co-exist partially with other types of putrefaction in different
regions of the body.

Mummification:

Mummification is a modification of the putrefaction process characterized by the desiccation

or dehydration of the cadaveric tissues. The skin of the deceased becomes brown, hard, and
brittle and has a stretched appearance over prominences like the zygomatic bones, mandible,
etc. The body shrivels and shrinks in size, but the facial features and the injuries are

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preserved, as in the case of adipocere formation 5. Mummification requires a dry and arid
environment with a constant warm breeze to materialize. The body needs more time for
mummification than adipocere formation. Partial mummification can be seen to co-exist with
other putrefactive changes in different parts of the same body.

Conclusion

Identification of a person and injuries remain a possibility in bodies undergoing adipocere

formation or mummification due to the preservation of features.

Immediate post mortem changes have clinical significance in diagnosing death. Loss of
voluntary movement and insensibility are seen in cases of narcosis, catalepsy, fainting
attacks, drowning, and electrocution. Cessation of respiration may be observable in cases of
drowning, electrocution, in new born infants, and due to Cheyne-Stokes breathing. Doctors
need to be wary of these differential diagnoses while declaring an individual dead.

Suspended animation is the state in which the signs of life are absent, due to either cessation
or decrease in life-supporting functions. In cases of suspended animation, the rate of
metabolism of the individual declines to such an extent that the oxygen requirements are
satisfied through the use of dissolved oxygen of the biological fluids. Individuals who are in
the state of suspended animation can be resuscitated. Suspended animation can be voluntary,
as in cases of ascetics who pass into a trance through meditation, or involuntary as in cases of
electrocution, drowning, narcotic poisoning, shock, or hypothermia, etc. It is imperative for
doctors to rightfully diagnose the difference between systemic death and suspended
animation as animated people have been wrongly declared dead on multiple occasions.

Early and late post mortem changes are a sure indication that death has occurred. The post
mortem changes can be used to estimate the time since death (TSD) or post mortem interval
(PMI). PMI is a crucial aspect of medicolegal investigation as it helps in determining when a
crime has been committed. Based on this estimated time, alibis of suspected individuals may
be verified, and conviction or acquittal of a suspect may be determined. The medicolegal
expert needs to be extremely careful while opining about the PMI since a variety of factors
affect the post mortem changes. An estimate of ‘time since death’ should always be given,

5
Houlton TMR, Wilkinson C. Facial preservation following extreme mummification: Shrunken heads. Forensic
Sci Int. 2018 May;286:31-41.

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rather than a specific ‘time of occurrence.’ Besides, PMI, specific post mortem changes can
provide information on the cause and manner of death, position/ change in position of the
body, identification, etc. Medicolegal experts can determine the existence and location of
external injuries, if any, on a cadaver in advanced stages of putrefaction.

The human body undergoes sequential changes after death due to a combination of internal
and external factors. These changes primarily serve in estimating the post mortem interval.
Besides, these provide other useful information relating to the cause and manner of death too.
The post mortem changes depend on multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Thus, the experts
should be prudent while giving their opinion after taking into consideration the various
factors modifying changes after death. This caution is especially necessary as the nature and
direction of the investigation may vary depending on the description of post mortem changes
and its correct interpretation.

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