Stage 2 Biology

Topic 2: Cells as the basis of Life

 Continuity of life requires the replication of genetic material and its transfer to the next
generation through processes including binary fission, mitosis, meiosis, and fertilisation.
o Explain why the amount of DNA in a cell doubles before division.
 Diploid cells contain pairs of homologous chromosomes.
o Recognise, describe, and represent the process of meiosis in eukaryotic cells.
o Explain why the products of meiosis are haploid cells and contain a single set of
chromosomes.
o Explain the importance of crossing over and independent assortment in meiosis.
o Explain that fertilisation restores the diploid number.
o Compare the products of mitotic and meiotic cell division.
 Compare the sources and degree of genetic variation of the products of asexual and sexual
reproduction.

Meiosis

 Gametes are produced in the sex organs or ___________________ by a process of cell division
called ___________________.
 While in ___________________ the number of chromosomes stays the same, in
___________________ the number of chromosomes is reduced by a half. In animals meiosis
only occurs in the ___________________ or ___________________.

 Diploid cells within these sex organs divide by meiosis to produce ________ gametes, which
contain the ___________________number of chromosomes. For example in humans, the
diploid cells inside the gonads contain _____ chromosomes. When these cells divide by
meiosis, they form sperm or ova with ________(the haploid number) chromosomes.

 The male and female haploid gametes then ___________________ each other which restores
the ___________________ number of chromosomes in the fertilised egg or zygote. For
example, in humans the sperm and ovum contain 23 chromosomes. When they fertilise each
other, they form a zygote with 46 chromosomes. This zygote then divides by mitosis to form
the complete embryo. Meiosis is essential to compensate for the doubling that occurs at
fertilization.
An overview of meiosis
 Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by replication of the chromosomes in ___________________
 This single DNA replication is then followed by 2 consecutive cell divisions called meiosis I
and meiosis II.
 These divisions result in the production of _________ daughter cells - the gametes (not two
cells as in mitosis).
 Each daughter cell has ___________________the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
In addition, where as mitosis produces daughter cells that are genetically
___________________ to the parent cell and each other, meiosis produces daughter cells that
are genetically ___________________ from each other and the parent cell.

The key events of meiosis I and II are as follows:

Meiosis I
 The 2 chromosomes of the homologous pair ___________________ and are packaged into 2
separate cells.
 Cells are haploid at the end of MI

Meiosis II
 The sister ___________________ of each homologous pair are separated from each other. The
product is haploid daughter cells containing one single chromosome from each homologous
pair.
Stages of Meiosis

Meiosis I
Prophase I
a) Chromosomes begin to condense and become visible.
b) In a process called s___________________, homologous chromosomes (each made up of 2 sister
chromatids) come together in their pairs.
c) Under the microscope, each pair of homologous chromosomes is now visible as a tetrad, a complex
of 4 chromatids.
d) The chromatids of homologous chromosomes overlap at various points along their length. They
form X shaped regions called chiasmata (single = chiasma). These chiasmata hold the homologous
chromosomes together. At these points, the homologous chromosomes can swop segments. This
process is called
crossing over_and allows rearrangement of the genes on the chromosomes.
e) Centrioles move apart and the spindle forms between them.
f) nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear.
Metaphase I

The chromosomes line up in their homologous pairs on the metaphase plate at the equator of the cell.
(not single chromosomes as in mitosis)

You can use this to determine if mitosis or meiosis. Pairs of chromosomes only line up like this in M1

Anaphase I

The spindle moves toward the poles and separates the homologous pairs of chromosomes. The sister
chromatids do not separate as they do in mitosis. The sister chromatids remain attached and they
move together towards the poles in the form of a single homologous chromosomes.
Telophase I and cytokinesis

a) The spindle continues to separate the homologous pairs of chromosomes until they reach the poles
of the cell. Each pole now has a haploid chromosomes set (each chromosomes is made up of 2
sister chromatids).
b) Usually cytokinesis occurs at the same time as Telophase I forming 2 h____________________
daughter cells.
c) There is no further DNA replication before meiosis II.
 Meiosis II

Meiosis II is virtually the same as mitosis and separates the sister chromatids.

Prophase II

a) A spindle reforms.
b) If the chromosomes have decondensed at the end of meiosis I, they condense once more.
c) If the nuclear envelope and nucleoli have reformed at the end of meiosis I, they break down once
more.

Metaphase II
The individual chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate as in mitosis.
Anaphase II
The _________________ of the sister chromatids finally separate.
The sister chromatids, now individual _____________________________, move towards opposite
poles of the cell.

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell and _______________ then follows.
Source: phschool.com
Comparison of mitosis and meiosis.
Feature Mitosis
Purpose Used for growth and repair,
division of the zygote and asexual
reproduction.
Number of cell divisions. 1 single division
Number of daughter cells produces 2 daughter cells
produced
Chromosome number in Each daughter cell contains same
daughter cells. number of chromosomes as parent
cell. A haploid parent cell produces
a haploid daughter cell. A diploid
parent cell produces a diploid
daughter cell.
Fate of homologous Daughter cell contains the same
chromosomes. homologous chromosomes as
parent cell.
Prophase The homologous chromosomes
never pair up. They remain
separate. No chiasmata and no
crossing over.
Metaphase The individual chromosomes line
up on the spindle at the equator of
the cell. They never line up in pairs. the spindle at the equator of the cell.
Result of meiosis
Four daughter cells (gametes) each
with the haploid number of
chromosomes.
Meiosis
Used to produce the gametes.
2 separate divisions
Produces 4 daughter cells.
Each daughter cell contains half the
number of chromosomes compared to
the parent cell. Parent cell is diploid.
Daughter cell is haploid.
Daughter cell contains only one
member of each pair of homologous
chromosomes (haploid). Parent cell
contains both members of pair (diploid
cell).
In prophase I the homologous
chromosomes pair up. Chaismata may
form and crossing over may occur.
In metaphase I the homologous
chromosomes line up in their pairs on
Each chromosomes consists of 2
chromatids. In metaphase II the
individual chromosomes line up on the
spindle at the equator of the cell.
 Causes of genetic variation in meiosis

In species that reproduce asexually, genetic variation in the offspring occurs only through
_____________. Otherwise the offspring are genetically identical to each other and the parent.
Sexual reproduction produces a great deal of genetic variation each generation. This genetic variation
is due to 3 main events:
1) _________________________________________ during meiosis.
2) _________________________________________during meiosis.
3) Random _________________________________________.

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

At metaphase I, the homologous pairs of chromosome, each consisting of one

_______________________ chromosome (from the mother) and one
___________________________ chromosome (from the father) line up on the metaphase plate. The
way in which the homologous pairs of chromosome are orientated with respect to the poles of the cell
is totally ___________________________ There are 2 alternative possibilities for each pair. Thus
there is a 50:50 chance that a particular daughter cell resulting from meiosis I will get the maternal
chromosome of a certain homologous pair and a 50:50 chance that it will receive the paternal
chromosome.

Each homologous pair of chromosome is positioned independently of all the other pairs in metaphase
I. Its orientation is totally ___________________________. Therefore meiosis I results in
___________________________ ___________________________ of the maternal and paternal
chromosome into the daughter cells. Each gamete represents one possible outcome of all the possible
combinations of maternal and paternal chromosome. The number of combinations possible when
chromosome assort independently during meiosis is 2 where n = the haploid number of the
n

organisms. In humans, the number of possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosome is
about 8 million. This is calculated as follows:
Crossing over

With independent assortment alone, each individual chromosome in a gamete would come entirely
from the mother (the maternal chromosome) or entirely from the father (the paternal
chromosome). Crossing over produces individual chromosome that contain genes inherited from
the mother combined with genes inherited from the father.

Crossing over occurs during ___________________________ of meiosis I. During this stage, the
homologous chromosome pair up in the process of ___________________________. The 2
chromosome align themselves precisely so that corresponding ___________________________ lie
next to each other. They lie physically close to one another and the chromatids of homologous
chromosome can be seen to be in contact with each other at certain points along their length. X shaped
arrangements called ___________________________ (singular = chiasma) appear. At these points,
the chromatids break and rejoin. The result is that portions of the chromatids belonging the 2
homologous chromosome change places, taking their ___________________________ with them.
Eventually, the chromatids finish up in separate ___________________________. As a result of this
crossing over, after fertilisation, new combinations of alleles occur in the offspring. In the case of
humans, an average of 2 or 3 such crossover events occur per chromosome pair.
Crossing over is important because by combining DNA from 2 parents into a single
chromosome it provides an important source of genetic variation in sexually producing
offspring.

Random Fertilisation
The random nature of fertilisation adds to the genetic variation arising from meiosis. A human ovum
and a human sperm each represent one of approximately 8 million possible chromosome combinations.
Thus even without considering crossing over, any 2 parents will produce a zygote with any one of
about 64 trillion (8 million X 8 million) diploid combinations.
 Mitosis
Purpose Growth and repair of somatic
cells, division of the zygote and
asexual reproduction.
Cell divisions. 1 single division
Daughter cells 2 daughter cells genetically
produced identical to the parent cell
Chromosome Daughter cell has same number of
number in chromosomes as parent cell.
daughter cells. Haploid to haploid or
Diploid to diploid
Interphase Growth (G1), DNA replication
(S) and preparation for division
(occurs prior to (G2)
meiosis/meiosis Nucleoli visible. Chromatin
ONCE only) threads invisible. Centrioles
appear together
Nuclear envelope is intact
Prophase Chromosomes condense and become
visible.
Homologous chromosomes never
pair up. They remain separate. No
chiasmata and no crossing over.
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
disappear.
Meiosis
Used to produce the gametes (in the gonads)
2 separate divisions
4 daughter cells genetically different from each other and
the parent cell.
Daughter cell contains half the number of chromosomes
compared to the parent cell.
Diploid to haploid i.e. reduction division
Growth (G1), DNA replication (S) and preparation for
division (G2)
Nucleoli visible. Chromatin threads invisible. Centrioles
appear together. Nuclear envelope is intact
Prophase I Prophase II
Chromosomes condense/become Spindle reforms.
visible. Centrioles move apart and If the chromosomes have
the spindle forms between them. decondensed at the end of
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus meiosis I, they condense
disappear. Hom. chs (2 sister once more. If the nuclear
chromatids) come together in envelope and nucleoli have
their pairs (synapsis). Each pair is reformed at the end of
called a tetrad. The chromatids of meiosis I, they break down
hom. chs overlap at various points once more.
forming chiasmata (single =
chiasma). Hom. chs can swap
segments (crossing over).
Metaphase Individual chromosomes line up on
the spindle at the equator of the cell.
They never line up in pairs.
Anaphase Begins when sister chromatids are
drawn apart. Each chromatid is
considered a daughter chromosome
Chromosomes move to opposite
poles of cells by microtubules
(contraction)
Telophase Daughter nuclei begin to form and
(division of the the nucleoli reappear
nucleus) Chromosomes uncoil to form
chromatin
Cytokinesis
(Division of the
cytoplasm)
Metaphase I:
Hom chs line up in their pairs on
the spindle at the equator of the
cell. Each chromosome consists
of 2 chromatids.
The spindle moves toward the
poles and separates the
homologous pairs of
chromosomes. The sister
chromatids do not separate as
they do in mitosis. The sister
chromatids remain attached and
they move together towards the
poles.
The spindle continues to separate
the homologous pairs of
chromosomes until they reach the
poles of the cell. Each pole now
has a haploid chromosomes set
(each chromosomes is made up of
2 sister chromatids).
Usually cytokinesis occurs at the
same time as Telophase I forming
2 haploid daughter cells.
There is no further DNA
replication before meiosis II.
Metaphase II
The individual
chromosomes line up on
the metaphase plate as in
mitosis.
The pair of the sister
chromatids finally
separate.
The sister chromatids, now
individual chromosomes,
move towards opposite
poles of the cell.
Nuclei form at opposite
poles of the cell. Usually
cytokinesis occurs at the
same time as Telophase I
forming 2 daughter cells
(haploid)
NON-DISJUNCTION

Non-disjunction definition:

Non-disjunction in ANAPHASE 1 Non-disjunction in ANAPHASE 2

Describe: Describe:

Non-Disjunction and Down syndrome

The risk of a child having a trisomy such as

Down Syndrome increases greatly in older
mothers.
It is often advisable for mothers in a high risk
category to choose to have a prenatal (before
birth) test.
Amniocentesis or chorionic villus samples can be
taken and from them a karyotype can be
constructed.
Data from a positive test can be used to decide
the best course of action, which at times be to
abort the fetus.
The result of non-disjunction is gametes that either have one chromosome too many or one too few.
 T________________ is the term used to describe organisms with one extra chromosome (three
of one chromosome instead of pair)
 M________________ is the term used to describe rganisms with one extra chromosome
(three of one chromosome instead of pair)

Non-disjunction of many human chromosomes is so serious that either the zygote is not viable or the
individual does not survive.
If the gamete is involved in fertilization, the result will be an organism with too few or too many
chromosomes.

Prenatal Tests

 Non-invasive
 Carried out between 11-13 weeks
 Ultrasound allows the nuchal fluid (behind the neck of the fetus) to be measured
 A large amount of nuchal fluid is linked to Down’s syndrome