Highway I Notes

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)
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CHAPTER ONE
HIGHWAY ROUTE SURVEYS AND LOCATIONS
1-1Highway Alignment
Definition: The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on
the ground is called the alignment. It is of two type viz horizontal and
vertical
Horizontal alignment is layout of the road on a horizontal plane and consists

of straight paths and curves
Vertical alignment is layout of the road on a vertical plane and consists of
grades and curves
A new road should be properly aligned because improper alignment of a
road facility implies capital loss initially in construction as well as loss in
costs of maintenance and vehicle operation. Once the road is aligned and
constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of
adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the roadside.
An ideal alignment between two terminals should be
 Short
 A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several
practical considerations which would cause a deviation from the
shortest path
 Easy
 Easy for construction
 Easy to maintain
 Easy for operation with easy grades and curves
 Economical
 Design should consider initial capital cost, maintenance cost,
and operation cost
 Safe
 Safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view
point of stability of natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes,
and foundations
 Safe for traffic operations with ease geometric features such as
sharpness of curves, grades, side slopes etc.
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
The factors controlling a highway alignment include-
• Obligatory Points
i) Points through which the alignment is to pass
 Chosen Bridge Site, Intermediate town to be accessed between
the termini, a mountain pass, etc.
ii) Points which should be avoided
 Areas requiring costly structures, highly developed expensive
areas, marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly
terrain where there is a possibility of land slides, etc.
– The alignment should suit the traffic requirements
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• Traffic
– Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted
– Traffic “Desire line” should be drawn showing path of traffic flow
• Geometric Constraints
– Design factors such as max. Gradient, minimum radius of curve,
minimum available sight distance, maximum allowable super-elevation, etc.
should be within the limits of allowable design values which are governed by
the expected traffic speed
• Economy
– Total transportation cost including initial construction cost,
maintenance cost, and operation cost
• Example:
– Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to be
constructed, etc. increases the initial cost of construction.
• Other considerations
– Drainage considerations
– Hydrological factors
– Political considerations
– Monotony
Special considerations on Hilly Roads
• Slope Stability
– A common problem in hill roads is landslide. Special care should be
taken to choose the side that is more stable
• Drainage
– Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the water across the
road should be provided
– But, attempts should be made to align the road where the number of
cross-drainage structures are minimized
• Geometry
– Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances, speeds and
other related features are followed in hill roads
• Resisting Length
– The resisting length should be kept as low as possible. Thus, the
ineffective rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum
1.2 Route Location Surveys
• In order to select the best road corridor, the following engineering
surveys are usually carried out:
 Reconnaissance Surveys
 Preliminary Survey
 Detailed (Location) Surveys
Reconnaissance Surveys
• 1st phase of Reconnaissance: Desk Study
– Involves an examination of a relatively large area between terminal
points for the purpose of determining a broad corridors through
which a road alignment may pass
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– Usually such survey is made by the use of available maps and Aerial
Photographs (stereoscopy)
• Probable Alignment is identified on the map by:
 Avoiding valleys, ponds, etc.;
 Avoiding river bends where bridges should not be located;
 Keeping in view of geometric standards (e.g. avoiding steep
topographies, etc)
• 2 phase of Reconnaissance: Field Study
nd
– Involves inspection of each band (identified during the desk study) to

determine the most feasible route based on some basic criteria
– A survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along the
proposed routes identified on the map during the 1st phase and
collects all relevant details not available on the map
– Some of the details include:
• Valley, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent
structures, & other obstructions;
• Gradient, length of gradient, and radius of curves;
• Number & types of cross-drainage structures, and maximum flood
level;
• Soil types from field identification;
• Sources of construction materials, water and location stone quarries;
• Geological formation, type of rock, depth of strata, seepage flow, etc
to identify stable sides of a hill
– A rapid field study of the area, especially, when it is vast and the
terrain is difficult may be done by aerial survey.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance survey the proposed
alignments are weighted or evaluated against the basic criteria to determine
the most feasible one.
Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes
• Design standards
– Minimum design standards (max permissible gradient, etc ) are
normally fixed prior to the survey and any one of the feasible routes
that economically fits in these standards would be practicable.
• Grading and Earthwork
– Grading is a function if ruggedness (severity) of terrain and routes
following the contour of the area is cheaper than one that cuts the
natural ground slope.
– The type of material encountered is another factor in the cost of
earthwork. Excavation of Hard Rock might need blasting and thus
expensive!!
• Foundation Conditions
– Complete foundation study is not done during Reconnaissance, but
the presence of Marshy and bogy areas are unsuitable
• Geological Conditions
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– Related to stability of side slopes, good quality and quantity of
construction materials near site
• Drainage
– Likely surface & sub-surface drainage problems, type and number of
drainage structures
• Right of Way
– Acquisition of land for the location of a transportation system may
cost much; shifting the alignment a little may reduce the cost
considerably
• Effect on Population
– Services offering the nearby population, its effect on the development
of the community – schools, churches, public buildings, etc,
undesirable effects such as pollution, etc
• Traffic Characteristics
– How best will a route fit with traffic requirements of the area
• Maintenance Costs
– An extraordinary maintenance cost (landslide, etc), and user costs
from inconveniency due to closure of the facility due to maintenance
problems
After evaluating the alternative routes proposed, one or more routes will
be recommended. If more than one routes passed the reconnaissance
survey detail study is made to choose one best route in the preliminary
survey.
Preliminary Surveys
• Consists of running an accurate traverse line along the routes already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey in order to obtain
sufficient data for final location
• Objectives
– Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage, soil, etc.) on
alternate alignments
– To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, of different alternatives
– Compare alternate alignments
– Finalize the best alignment from all considerations
• The preliminary survey may be carried out by one of the following two
methods:
– Modern: Aerial Survey – using photo interpretation techniques,
information on topography, soil, geology, etc. can be obtained
– Conventional: a survey part carries out surveys using the require
field equipment taking measurements, collecting topographical and
other data and carrying out soil survey
Conventional Method
 Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in the
reconnaissance survey
 Record all topographical features
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 Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical Cross-
sections (just sufficient to approximate earthwork)
 Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-drainage
structures, and the grade line is decided based on the hydrological
and drainage data
 Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally
decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage
helps to workout details of earthwork, slopes, suitability of materials,
sub-soil and surface drainage requirements, pavement type and
approximate thickness requirements
After finishing the preliminary survey
Select the most suitable alignment by conducting a comparative study
considering economy, geometry, etc.
Final Location Survey
Purpose
To fix the centre line of the selected alignment and collect additional data
for the design and preparation of working drawings. If extensive data is
collected earlier the survey work here might be limited.
Tasks during Final Location Survey
• Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at 30m
intervals with reference to preliminary traverse/ base line (if used
earlier) or a control survey (if aerial survey was used).
• Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate points
between stations where there is a significant change in the slope to
obtain the representative profile of the ground
• Cross-section Levelling: at each station (!) and at points with
significant change in ground slope
• Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all intersecting
roads, profiles, and cross-sections for some distance on both sides
• Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross section
levelling of the banks of the stream/river
Drawings & Reports
• The data, after the necessary investigation and final location survey, is
sent to the design office to be used for
– Geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other
structures, preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
• A complete set of drawings for a road design includes:
 Site plan of proposed alignment
 Detailed Plan & Profile
 Cross-sections for Earth work
 Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions)
 A mass-haul diagram
 Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts,
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CHAPTER TWO
2) DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls,
engineering criteria, and project specific objectives which include
 Functional classification of the road
 Design traffic volume and composition
 Nature of terrain
 Design speed
 Density and character of adjoining land use
 Economic & Environmental Considerations (right of way impact and cost)
 Road users characteristics
 Vehicle size and performance
 Level of service to be provided
 Available fund
 Safety, etc.
2.2.1) Highway Functional Classification (Road Hierarchy)
Objectives in setting a hierarchy
 To obtain best use of an existing network
 To ensure that each type of traffic is using the most appropriate route
 To minimize the risk to users and to the natural built environment
 To ensure better management, maintenance regimes and design policies
 To ensure funding for routes is targeted appropriately
Roads are therefore classified according to their respective functions in
terms of the character of the services they are providing.
The most frequently used functional classification includes
 Principal arterial
 Minor arterial
 Major collectors
 Minor collectors
 Local roads ( streets)
ERA with corresponding classification
 Trunk roads(class1)
 Link roads(class2)
 Access road(class3)
 Collector roads (class4)
 Feeder roads(class5)
Trunk roads: - are roads linking the capital city with centers of
international importance and inter boundaries. They carry present AADT
≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT.They are
numbered with an “A “prefix. An example is Addis –Gondar road (A3).
Link roads:-are roads linking centers of national importance or
international importance such as principal towns and urban centers. They
carry 400- 1000, 1st year AADT although the values can range from 50-
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1000AADT. They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical
link road is the Woldiya-Debre Tabor-Woreta Road (B22), which links, for
instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar of Road A3.
Access roads:-are roads that link centers of provincial importance and 1 st
year AADT ranges between 30-1000.they are numbered with a "C" prefix.
Collector roads: - Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to
a more important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a
collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-400. They are numbered
with a "D" prefix.
Feeder roads: - Any road link to a minor center such as market and local
locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.
They are numbered with an "E" prefix.
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to
provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The
roads of intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and
access.
Table 2-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional Design Design Traffic Surface Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr) Urba
Classification Standard Flow (AADT)* Type n/
Carriagewa Shoulder Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpme Peri-
y nt Urba
n
DS1 10000–**15000 Paved ***

Dual 2 x See T.4-2 120 100 85 70 50
7.3
DS2 5000–10000 Paved 7.3 See T.4-2 120 100 85 70 50

T
R
U
DS3 1000–5000 Paved 7.0 See T.4-2 100 85 70 60 50
N
L K
M I
A N DS4 200–1000 Paved 6.7 See T.4-2 85 70 60 50 50
I K
C N
O DS5 100– 200 Unpaved 7.0 See T.4-2 70 60 50 40 50
L
F E A
E C C DS6 50–100 Unpaved 6.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
E T C
D O E
E R S DS7 30–75 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
R S S
DS8 25–50 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50
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DS9 0–25 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40
DS10 0–15 Unpaved 3.3 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40
* The design two-way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Standard step in excess of the first year AADT (excluding DS7). ** For
traffic volume more than 15000 a different design approach should be followed. *** The width of each lane is 3.65m
Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths
Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)

Standard Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Parking Foot
Lane*** Way Median!
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5(min) 5.0
(min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DS3 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
3.0++ 3.0++
DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5 +++
2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 1.0 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
(earth) (earth)
DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
* Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 4-1

** Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 4-1
*** To be provided where urbanization requires this facility
+ Where these classes of roads pass through urban areas, the road shall be designed to
Standard DS6
++ The actual shoulder width provided shall be determined from an assessment of the total
traffic flow and level of non-motorized traffic for each road section
+++ Depending on the development of the town & Includes a shoulder
! Median with trees (DS1) is allowed for cross section shown in the table i.e. 2 lane
+parking lane + Footway if otherwise the median should be a covered and an open one
without trees or a lower width of a median barrier shall be designed. Similarly for DS2 Roads
in the town section i.e. one lane + parking lane +footway should have a covered median with
no trees or other wise a lower width of a median barrier should be designed.
2.2.2) NATURE OF TERRAIN
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The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain
through which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are
categorized into four classes as follows:
FLAT: - Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and
vertical alignment (the transverse terrain slope is up to 5 percent).
ROLLING: - Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise
and fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered,
resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope vary
from5%-25%).
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MOUNTAINOUS: - Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river

gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of
alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight
distance. (Transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).
ESCARPMENT: Escarpment include situations where switchback
roadway sections are used or side hill transverse sections which cause
considerable earthwork quantities, with transverse terrain slope in excess of
50 percent.
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and
higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads
in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and
therefore adjust their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will
therefore vary with transverse terrain.
2.2.3) TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION
Traffic data indicates the service for which the road is being planned and
directly affects the geometric elements such as width, alignment, etc,
Important points regarding traffic composition and volume.
 Traffic volume: – in terms of AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV
 Directional distribution: – the percentage of traffic volume flowing in each
direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different types of vehicles in the
traffic stream different types of vehicles are converted into passenger car
unit (pcu) to design a road width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a road (5-20 years) a
reliable traffic projection should be made considering the following
elements
2.2.4) TRAFFIC CAPACITY/ROAD CAPACITY/
Traffic capacity of a road facility is the number of vehicles passing at a point
per unit time under a given prevailing conditions.
The maximum traffic flow occurs when the speed falls down to nearly a half
of the free-flow speed, And Hence it is not desirable to design the road
facility for maximum capacity conditions.
Factors affecting traffic capacity include:
 Roadway factors – geometric characteristics such as number of
lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical
alignments, lateral and vertical clearances, design speed,
pavement surface conditions etc.
 Traffic factors – composition of traffic, lane distribution, variation
in traffic flow, traffic interruptions, etc.
 Traffic control conditions – traffic signs, traffic signals, traffic
regulation, etc.
Without the consideration of these factors, early attempts were made to
determine capacity using
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Where c= capacity (vehicle/hr/lane)

V= speed in km/hr
d=average headway distance (m).
The value of d can be determined from actual observations or can be
calculated from consideration of perception breaking distance.
L
Car1 Car2
Given by the formula

d=L+0.278Vt +V2/254f =(L+SSD)
example:-determine the capacity of a single lane rural highway designed at
50km/hr. the average length of a passenger car can be taken to be 5m.the
perception breaking reaction time is 2.5 sec.the coefficient of friction f can
be assumed to be 0.5
Design Traffic Volume
An influencing factor in the development of road design standards, and in
particular the design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The
design of a road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic
indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design
such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section
of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual
average daily traffic (AADT).
Using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design
class, or standard, is selected from Table 5-1, with reference to the design
parameters associated with that class.
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from

feeder to main collector to link then to the trunk roads. However, the actual
flows will vary from region to region and it is important that the designation
of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-design for the traffic
levels actually encountered.
Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as was
shown in Table 5-1.The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000
motorized vehicles per day (excluding motorcycles), and covers the design
conditions for all single and dual carriageway roads.
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A lthough the levels of flow at which design standards change are based
on the best current evidence, the somewhat subjective boundaries
should be treated as approximate in the light of uncertainties inherent in
traffic estimation and future forecasting. Therefore, the Design Traffic Flow
shall normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher
than the average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening. For
example, a road with a first year traffic flow of 190 vehicles per day rising to
1,100 vehicles per day in the last year of it’s design life, should be
constructed to Design Class DS4 rather than Design Class DS3 (see Table
5.1)
The design traffic flow band in this case is therefore 200 – 1000 vehicles per
day (DS4) Design to the higher Design Class DS3 would result in an over-
design of the road during almost the whole of the life of the road and may
provide a solution that was less than economic.
Notes
It may be desirable, especially for primary roads, to develop geometric
standards that are consistent despite variations in traffic volumes.
Conversely, a policy dependent on AADT would result in a more
economical allocation or resources. This dichotomy requires a special
attention of the engineer in choosing the geometric design parameters.
The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance
than whether a road exists and whether it is passable at all times. In
such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards
that enable the further developments of a system of such feeder roads at
minimal cost. This policy encourages overall national economic
development.
2.2.5) Design Speed

Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing specific section of
road Considering the terrain, land use, classification of the road, etc.
It is the speed of a design vehicle in certain portion of the road that most of
the drivers are using. It is used as an index, which links road function,
traffic flow, and terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and
curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent
speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to
minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super
elevation, sight distance, and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with
design speed. Thus, all of the geometric design parameters of a road are
directly related to the selected design speed. The design speeds given in
Table 5-1 have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:
(i) Drivers on long-distance journeys are able to travel at higher speeds
than local traffic.
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(ii) On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high
speeds are undesirable.
(iii) Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and
prevailing traffic conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to
the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of operation.
(iv) Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs)
may justify a higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes
of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
(v) Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class,
should not be affected abruptly, but over sufficient distances to
enable drivers to change speed gradually. The change in design
speed should not be greater than one design speed step, and the
section with the lower geometric standards should be long enough to
be clearly recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single
curve).
(vi) It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e.-
from mountainous to flat terrain. Where possible in such
circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided with
limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this
is not possible, i.e.- a Departure from Standards, special attention
shall be given to the application of warning signs and/or rumble
strips to alert the driver to the changing conditions.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen
design speed should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have
to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum
values for one or a few of the elements at a particular location when the
other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
 Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
 Weather conditions of the area
 Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these vehicles, and
 Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law or by mechanical
devices fitted in vehicles
2.2.6) Design Vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are
controls in geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions
affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and
travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements
affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal
curve widening, and junction design.
Note: The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-
wheel drive utility vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until information that is
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more detailed becomes available regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet in
Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-3 should be used in
the control of geometric design:
Table2-3: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min.

Vehicle (m) (m) Design
Designation Turning
Height Width Length Front Rear Radius (m)
4x4 Utility Vehicle DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Single Unit Truck DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4= 13.7
Combination 13.2
The maximum turning path for a single unit truck, a single unit bus, and a semi-trailer
combination are shown in Figures 5-1 through 5-3, respectively.
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Figure2-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck (DV2)
Figure 5-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)
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Figure 5-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination (15m overall) also
Applicable for Truck
: Roads conforming to Design Standards DS1 trough DS5 should be designed to
accommodate the most restrictive of the above design vehicle. Standards DS6 and DS7, two
lane roads should accommodate all but the semi-trailer combination DV4. Standards DS8
and DS9, for single lane roads should be designed similarly to DS6 and DS7; and Standard
DS10 roads need only accommodate the requirements for utility vehicle and passenger cars -
DV1.
2.2.7) Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced
by other factors. In such areas, speed controls are frequently included.
Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the presence of other vehicles
traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right-of-way
constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of
note is the fact that the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It
is possible that this limit will be increased in the future. A design speed
through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h shall be used; although such
segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits should not
necessarily be used as design parameters.
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CHAPTER THREE
ROAD CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs,
drainage features, and earthwork profiles. These terms are shown in fig. 4-4
below.
Figure 2-4 Road Cross Section Elements
Major elements are defined here for clarity:

 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving
traffic, including traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and
deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays
and lay-byes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking
lanes and viewing areas.
 Earthwork profiles- include side slopes and back slopes.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and

characteristics of the terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular
route because these controlling factors vary. The basic requirements are,
however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within
each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-section
shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or
isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and
reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction operations.
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In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions
in cross-section standards, for example when an existing narrow structure
has to be retained because it is not economically feasible to replace it. In
such cases a proper application of traffic signs and road markings is
required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all
such narrow structures must be widened or replaced however when the
width across the structure is less than the adjacent carriageway width.
ROAD WIDTH
Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction

and maintenance, whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading
efficiently and safely.
The following factors need to be taken into account when selecting the width
of a road:
i. Classification of the road: A road is normally classified according to its
function in the road network. The higher the class of road, the higher
the level of service expected and the wider the road will need to be.
ii. Traffic: Heavy traffic volumes on a road mean that passing of
oncoming vehicles and overtaking of slower vehicles are more frequent
and therefore the paths of the vehicles will be further from the center
line of the road and the traffic lanes should be wider.
iii. Vehicle dimension: Normal steering deviations and tracking errors,
particularly of heavy vehicles, reduce clearances between passing
vehicles. Higher truck percentages require wider traffic lanes.
iv. Vehicle speed: As speed increase, drivers have less control of the
lateral position of vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic
lanes are needed.
LANE WIDTHS
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the

width of the carriageway. The wider 3.65m lane provides desired clearances
between large commercial vehicles on two-way rural highways.
Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for

carriageway widths are shown in Table 5-1 for all Road Design Standards.
Tip: The carriageway width should be increased on low radius curves to
allow the swept paths of longer vehicles and the necessary tolerances
flow a curve path. Widening may occur in high fill embankments of
tangent portion. Auxiliary lanes at intersections often help to facilitate
traffic movement.
SHOULDERS
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A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway:

 For the accommodation of stopped vehicles;
 Traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians;
 Emergency use;
 The recovery of errant vehicles; and
 Lateral support of the pavement courses.
Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural

environment are presented in Table 5-2. They vary from no shoulder on
minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater
sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design
classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for a parking lane in
urban/peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a
single bituminous surface treatment. The followings are advantages of
sealed shoulder, it would:
 Prevent edge raveling and maintenance problems associated with
parking on a gravel shoulder,
 Provide paved space for vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow,
 Provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs,
 Provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the villages,
traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use
the roadway.
Tip: All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway
safety.
The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban

areas where a provision for a parking lane is required. The degree of
urbanization determines whether a parking lane is required. In urban
areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.
In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and
where the shoulder width could only be maintained through an excessive
volume of earthwork – e.g. at escarpment conditions, standards can be
reduced through the Departure from Standard process.
NORMAL CROSS FALL
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide

adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering
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difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its smoothness
and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross fall
should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the
pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion
of material starts to become a problem.
According to ERA manual, the normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on
paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads. Shoulders having the same
surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross fall. Unpaved
shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the cross fall
of the roadway. The precise choice of normal cross fall on unpaved roads
will vary with construction type and material rather than any geometric
design requirement.
SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES
Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety
aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the
slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope,
forming a ditch). Figure 4-5 illustrates these three regions.
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly
reduce the hazard
potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
Figure2-5: Designation of Roadside Regions

Source: AASHTO
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as

recoverable, non-recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all
embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable
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slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the
roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not
extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from

which most motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway
easily. Typically, vehicles on such slopes typically can be expected to reach
the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this
category.
Since a high percentage of encroaching vehicles will reach the toe of these
slopes, the clear zone distance extends beyond the slope, and a clear runout
area at the base is desirable.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper

than 1:3 generally fall into this category.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety

considerations, height of cut or fill, and economic considerations. Table 5-4
indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according
to the height of fill and cut, and the material.
Table 2-4: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal [ERA]

Material Height of Side Slope Back Zone
Slope Slope Description
Cut Fill
0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Earth or Soil 1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-
recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock 0.0 - 2.0m 1:2 5:4 - Critical
Over 2.0m 1:4 1:1 -
However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns

applicable standards in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost.
Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope stability
problems should be addressed as a final design issue.
ROADSIDE DITCHES
When a highway is located in cut, runoff may be collected in shallow ditches

till discharged by cross drainage (culverts or bridges). Ditches are typically
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have a trapiziodal, triangular, or rounded shapes. But usually ditches are
constructed in a shallow V- shaped section, since this section:
 Is easily maintained by graders
 Is less hazardous to vehicles, and
 Permitte the shallow flow necessary to avoid erosion.
However, in urban areas trapezoidal sections are used.
The cross section should be deep enough to convey the design storm flow to
a discharge point. For larger water flows than the capacity of a shallow
ditch, paved gutters or drain pipes with larger capacities will have to be
used.
According to ERA, however, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is

given as follows. Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in
mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-
ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally be no less than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the
slopes given in Table 5-4.
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as
black cotton soils. Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a
minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on
functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 4-6. The
ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.
Figure 2-6: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils [ERA]
CLEAR ZONE
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result
of an encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the
roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable slopes will minimize
overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas are options in the
development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard
cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for whatever reason,
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consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is readily
visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside

recovery area that is as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The
cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters each side from the edge of
the roadway for the higher road standards.
It should extend beyond the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between
roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of

1.0m from the edge of the carriageway.
RIGHT-OF-WAY
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road

width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads.
The width of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of the
highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic
considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to
accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border
areas, right-of-way widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both
rural and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.
Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left
and to the right of the carriageway. It should always be determined and
shown on the final design plans of road projects.
Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are
50m,30m,and 20m for DS1-DS5,DS6 & DS7, and DS8-DS10 respectively. In
mountainous or escarpment terrain, a cut section may be of such depth
that the right-of-way width is exceeded from the top of cut on one side to the
other top of cut.
Tip: Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found
necessary for economic, financial or environmental reasons in order to
preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or when
provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs
because of physical constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that
the right-of-way should extend a minimum of a nominal 3 meters from
the edges of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable
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to restrict building activity along the road to prevent overcrowding, to
preserve space for future improvements, and to provide for sight
distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway from building
line to building line should be a minimum of 15m.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve
width above the given values.
MEDIAN
A road on which traffic in one direction of travel is separated from that in

the opposite direction is called a divided highway and dividing a strip in the
middle of the road way is known as median strip.
Positive segregation of traffic between opposing streams is essential for

efficient and safe movement of vehicles in the two directions. Median strips
are required on very busy roads, which have four or more lanes, especially
in crowded cities. Median strips from 3to 9m wide are recommended. If
these strips are narrow, separation is provided by raised kerbs and where
greater space not available. In addition to expensive road lands, medians
are narrowed at grade separation to effect reduction in the length or width
of structures.
Wide median strips are to be preferred for the following reasons:

 Chance of accidents resulting in head collusion are reduced,
 Head light glare at night from opposite direction is less troublesome,
 At intersections these provides a refuge for the cross traffic.
CHAPTER FOUR
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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

2.1) INTRODUCTION
Highway geometric design involves the design of geometric elements of a
highway and fixation of standards with respect to various components.
It is dictated within economic limitations to satisfy the requirements of
traffic in designing elements such as
 Cross-section
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Sight distances
 Lateral and vertical clearances
 Intersection,
 Etc.
The safety, efficiency, and economic operation of a highway is governed
largely by the care with which the above geometric design elements are
worked out. The design engineer has to consider the following points when
selecting design standards
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of
design
 Faulty geometries are costly to rectify at a later date
 The design should be consistent and the standards used for the different
elements should be compatible with one another
 The design should embrace all aspects of design including signs, markings,
lighting, etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total environment and
its location and design should enhance rather than degrade the
environment
 The design should minimize the total transportation cost
 Safety should be built in the design
 The design should be enabled all road users to use the facility
I. SIGHT DISTANCE
To promote adequate safety and also to have the maximum capacity on roads, it is necessary
that the road be open to view from all points from a distance known as sight distance,
sufficient for a driver to see ahead and control the speed or adjust the path of the vehicle in
order to avoid any stationary obstruction or to stop the vehicle well in time, or to cross a
moving vehicle safely with out collision.
Sight distances are of three
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Intersection sight distance
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
It is the total distance traveled by a given vehicle before stopping during three time interval.
1st –the time required for the driver to perceive(dp)
2nd – the time required for the driver to react (dr)
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3rd – the time elapsed between reaction of the driver against the situation and stopping of the
vehicle (db)
dp+dr=0.278Vt,
db= v2/254(f ±g)
Therefore the minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the

following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time
and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:
d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the grade in decimal
Actual field tests have indicated that as speed increases the perception
reaction time decreases and vice versa.
Example:-calculate the SSD for a road designed at 50km/hr. assume co-
efficient of friction between the tyre and the road is 0.4and PIEV time =3
sec.
a) When the road is leveled
b) When the road has 6% slopes.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE: SINGLE LANE ROADS
Certain classes of roads only have a single lane, with passing pullouts. In these
circumstances, a stopping sight distance is required to enable both approaching drivers to
stop. This distance is the sum of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-
meter safety distance.
Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way two lane roads that must
be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area, the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised
in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in
the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
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d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver,
=it varies from 30-90
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less
the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance
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Example:-calculate the passing sight distance requirement of a road
designed at 50km/hr, assuming rate of acceleration a= 4km/hr/sec,
t1=3sec, t2=7sec.and m = 15km/hr.
Criteria for measuring sight distance.

According to AASHTO 1994
Sight distance height of eye height of object
SSD 1.07m (pc) 0.15m
(2.4m) (large truck)
PSD 1.07m 1.3m
(2.4m)
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to

meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used for
the determination of sight lines (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2):
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag
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Figure 7-2: Stopping Sight Distance at Crest
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves
Relevant formulae are as follows:

Sight Line (S) = 2R sin D where D = Deflection angle (o)
2
Middle ordinate (M) = R (1-cos D )
2
Example: Radius = 1000 meters, D = 20o;
S = 2R sin D M = R (1 – cos D)
2 2
= 2(1000)(sin 10 )
0
= 1000(1- cos 10o)
= 347 meters = 15.2 meters
The available sight distance needs to be checked separately for both stopping and passing
sight distance, for each direction of travel
II. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
A horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and
circular curves, with or with out transition curves. This alignment should
always be designed to the highest standard consistence with the topography
and be chosen carefully:
 to provide good drainage,
 to minimize earthwork, and
 to achieve a uniform operating speed.
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Since the horizontal alignment is developed to accommodate a given design
speed, typically the alignment dimensions and distance are tabulated in a
manner that facilitates construction staking as conducted by a field
surveying crew.
Tip: Elements must be considered in horizontal alignment are:
 Minimum curve radius (max. degree of curve);
 Minimum length of tangent between compounds or reveres
curves;
 Transition curve parameters; and
 Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance
on horizontal curves.
TANGENT SECTIONS
From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in
flat country but are less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety
standpoint, they provide better visibility and more passing opportunities.
However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and
usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas, long tangents have
been shown to increase driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. This issue
needs to be addressed in the course of the horizontal design. According to
ERA, the maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0
kilometers.
On the other hand, short straights between curves in the same direction
should not be used because of the broken back effect. In such a cases
where reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of long,
transition, or compound curves should be considered.
Tip:
The unavoidable broken back effect may be improved by the
introduction of a sag curve.
The followings are guidelines concerning length of straights:
1.Straights  20V meter, V=design speed in KPH

2.Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction > 6V meter, V=in
KPH
3.Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular
curves should have > 2/3 of the minimum of total super elevation run-off.
CURVES
Curves are provided on the highway in order that the change of direction at
the intersection of straight alignments in horizontal plane shall be gradual.
The necessity of providing curves arises due to the following reasons:
1. Topography of the country
2. To provide access to a particular locality.
3. Restriction imposed by some unavailable reasons of land, etc
4. Preservation of existing amenities
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5. Avoiding of certain religious, monumental, or some other structures.
6. Making use of existing sight of ways.
The following factors will influence the design of curves:
 Design speed of the vehicles,
 Allowable friction,
 Maximum permissible super-elevation, and
 Permissible centrifugal ratio.
Curves are of two types, viz, horizontal and vertical. The horizontal curves
allow change indirection of the road while the vertical curves allow change
in gradient.
The horizontal curves used in the design of highways are:
i. Circular curves: are of three type a) simple b) compound, and c)
reverse circular curves
ii. Transition curves: can be divided into four group
a. True spiral or clothoid,
b. Cubic spiral,
c. Cubic parabola, and
d. Lemniscates
. CIRCULAR CURVES
a) Simple Circular Curves
A simple circular curve consists of a single arc connecting two straights. The
following figure illustrates how two tangents are joined by simple circular
curve and show same related circular curve terminologies.
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Fig. 4-14: Simple circular curve elements [terminology].
Variables
PC, TC, BC = Point of Curvature,[Tangent to Curves], Beginning of Curve

PT, CT, EC = Point Of Tangent, [Curvet to Tangent End Of Curves]
PI = Point of tangent Intersections
=Deflection [central] angle
L =length of curve [BC to EC]
= Length of arc [BC to P]
=Central angle for arc length
T= subs tangent length [BC to PI & PI to EC]
= Deflection angle at PC between tangent and chord for P
=Deflection angle at PI between tangent and line from PI to P
x =tangent distance from BC to P
y = tangent offset p
D = Degree of curvature
R = Radius of curve
E = External distance [from PI to the mid of circular curve]
M = Middle ordinate [distance from the middle of curve to the middle of
Chord]
C =Chord length [straight distance from BC to EC]
Circular Curve Equations
1. Degree of Curvature, D
The sharpness of the curve is determined by the choice of the radius [R];
larger radius curves are relatively flat, where as small radius curves are
relative sharp.
Many highway agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the
curve. Degree of curve D is defined to be that the central angle subtained by
100 ft (m) of arc (i.e. arc definition). In railway design, D is defined to be
the central angle subtended by 100ft (m) of chord (i.e. chord definition).
L 100
R
50
D
50
R
 0.5D 0.5D
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Fig.4-15; Relationship between the degree of curve (D) and the circle for
100 ft (m) arc stations.
From figure,
Arc definition; = =>D =
Thus, L=100
Chord definition: sin [D/2] = 50/R
 R = 50Cosec[D/2]
Tip:
 In condition when one station is 20m, shall multiply the above
relation.
 Sub arc angle, di = angle subtended by an arc less than 100ft (m) xi.
di/xi = D/100
R
 di = D* xi /100
di xi < 100
 Sub chord angle, Ci = angle subtended by a chords less than 100ft (m)
yi
For, R = 50Csc(
yi < 100
2) Radius of curve, R
i. By Arc definition R=
ii. By chord definition, R =50Csc[D/2]
3) Tangent distance, T =R tan ( )
4) External distance,
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5) Length of curve, L=
6) Middle ordinate,
7) Chord from BC to EC, C = 2R sin

8) Deflection angle between tangent and C and chord for P,
= - Between tangent and chord C
- Deflection angle between tangent and chord for P.
NB: = length of arc (PC to P) =

9) For any tangent distance x,
Tangent offset P, y =
10) For any arc length
x = R sin
y = R(1-cos )
11) Point of curvature (PC) station, PC = PI –T
12) Point of tangent (PT) station, PT =PC + L
Remarks
The use of degree curvature and chord length in the design of circular
curves primarily stems from the methods used in surveying to locate and
stake out the highway curves for construction. Typically, a surveyor would
place his instrument at a point on the tangent where the curve begins and
then incrementally turn angles equivalent to D and measure calculate chord
distance until the entire length of the curve was locate.
The length of the radius is not as useful in field stake-out activities because
the center of the curve is typically to locate a considerable distance from the
construction area.
Most curve problems are calculated from fields measurement ( and the
chain age of PI) and from design parameters (R). Given R (which is
dependant on the design speed) and , all others curve components can be
computed.
Setting Our Curves
This is the process of establishing the centerline of the curve on the ground
by means of pegs at 10m to 30m intervals. In order to do this the tangent
and intersection points must first be fixed in the ground, in their correct
positions.
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F ig. 4-16: Setting out of curves.
The straight OI1, I1I2, I2I3 etc, will have been designed on the plan in the first
instance. Appropriate curves will now be designed to connect the straight.
The tangent point of these curves will then be fixed, making sure that the
tangent lengths are equal, i.e. T1I1 = T2I1 and T3 I2 = T4I2.
The difference of the bearing of the straights Provides the deflection angle (
) of the curves, which combined with the tangent length, enables chain
age and all setting out date.
The tangent and intersection points are set out from existing control survey
stations and the curves ranged between them using any one of the following
method:
1. Setting out with theodolite and tape

2. Setting out with two theodolites
3. Setting out using EDM
4. Setting out using coordinates
5. Setting out with two tapes [method of offsets]
6. Setting out by offsets with sub–chords
7. Setting out with inaccessible interaction point
8. Setting out with theodolite at on intermediate point on the curve
9. Setting out with an obstruction on the curve
10. Passing a curve via a given point
Sight Distance Requirements At Horizontal Curves
Adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of
horizontal curves. These restrictions on horizontal curves occur when
obstructions such as vegetations, building, or cut face are present. Such
obstructions are frequently encountered in highway design due to the cost
of the right-of-way acquisition and/or the cost of moving earthen materials
[ex. Rock outcropping].
When such an obstruction exists, the SSD is measured along the horizontal
curve from the center of the traveled lane [the assumed location of the
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driver’s eyes]. If the pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is
measured along the arc at the centerline of the inner lane. For a specified
stopping distance M [middle ordinate], must be visually cleared, so that the
sight is such that sufficient stopping sight distance is available i.e. the
required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of obstruction from
the centerline and the required safe SSD.
In deriving the equations for SSD relationships for horizontal curves two
cases can be considered:
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.
2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.
1. Sight distance S is less than the length of the curve L.
Fig.4-17; Simple curve when S<L
Middle ordinate [set back distance],

M= R[1-Cos]
Where,
Tip; When S=L,
2. Sight distance S is greater than the length of the curve L.
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Fig.4-18; Simple curve when S>L
S=L+2y  y=0.50[S-L]
From geometry,
But,
Also,
Hence,
Substituting on (i),
b) Compound curves
A compound curve consists of tow (usually) or more circular arcs between

two main tangents turning in the same direction and joining at common
tangent points. These curves may be two centered, three cantered or so,
according to the number of simple arcs these are composed of.
Tow center compound curve
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Fig. 4-19: Tow center compound curve.

The essential components of compound corves are:
 = total deflection angle
1= deflection angle of first curve
2= deflection angle of second curve
R1 = radius of first curve
R2 = radius of second curve
T1 = back word tangent length
T2 = forward tangent length
In the case of compound curve the total tangent length T 1 and T2 are found
as follows:
T1 = t1+ I1I
T2 = t2+ I2I
Where t1 = R1
t2 = R2
Applying sine rule to triangle II1I2,
= = =
 II1= (t1+t2)
 II2 = (t1+t2)
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Out of seven the essential part of a two centered compound curves i.e. T 1, T2,
t1, t2, R1, R2, D 1, D2, and D if any four of these quantities including at east one
angle are known the remaining parameters can be solved.
Under normal circumstance D1 and D2 or D are measured in the filed and R 1

and R2 are given by design consideration with minimum values governed by
design speed.
An important point to remember is, compound curves can be manipulated

to provide practically any vehicle path desired by the designer, they are not
employed where simple curves or spiral curves can be used to achieve the
same desired effect. Practically, compound curves are reserved for those
applications where design constraints [topography or cost of land] preclude
the use of simple or spiral curves, and they are now usually found chiefly in
the design of interchange loops and ramps.
TIP:
 All problems can be solved by use of the sine law or cosine law or the
omitted measurement traverse technique.
 Smooth driving characteristics require that the larger radius be no
more than 1-1/3 times larger than the smaller radius [this ratio
increases to 1-1/2 when dealing with interchange curves].
Setting out compound curves

As a compound curves may be consists of two or more simple curves, its
setting out involve setting out of two or more simple curves of different radii
in continuation. Compound curves may be set out any one of the methods
used for simple curves
However, to achieve better accuracy it is recommended that compound
curves may be set out by the method of deflection angle, using a theodolite.
1. Office work
a) Calculate all the seven variables of the curve, from four known
parameters.
b) Locate the point of intersection I, the point of commencement BC and
point of tangency EC.
c) Calculate the chain age of the point commencement, the pint
compound curvature, and the point of tangency.
d) Calculate the deflection angle for both the arcs from their tangent
2. Field work
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Setting up the theodolite at BC, in the first curve is set out in the usual way
to point PCC. The theodolite is move to PCC and back sighted to BC, with
the horizontal circle reading ( )
Set the instrument to read zero and it will then be pointing to I2. Thus, the
instrument is now oriented and reading zero, prior to setting out second
curve.
Summary
The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the
terrain and other controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use
of compound curves, because the driver doesn’t expect to be confronted by a
change in radius once he has entered a curve. Their use should also be
avoided where curves are sharp.
Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same

problems as are found at the transition from a tangent to small radius
curve. Where the use of the compound curves can not be avoided, the
radius of the flatter curve circular arc should not be more than 50% greater
than the radius of the sharper arc, i.e. R 1 should not exceed 1.50 R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a
flat curve or a tangent to a sharper curve, although as spiral is to be
preferred.
• Reverse curves
A reverse curves consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii

having their centers on the opposite side of the common tangent at the point
of reverse curvature.
Reverse curves are generally provided, in the highway or railway alignment,

when the straights are either parallel or the angle between them is very
small. The instantaneous change in direction occurring at the Point of
Reverse Curvature (PRC) would cause discomfort and safety problems for all
but the slowest of speed.
Additionally, since the change in the curvature is instantaneous, there is no

room to provide superelevation transition from cross-slope right to cross-
slope left. However, reveres curves can be used to advantage where the
instantaneous change in direction poses no threat to safety or discomfort.
These curves commonly used in mountainous highway route. Also they are
frequently used in cities where roads turn in different directions in
succession or where road approach flyovers.
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Moreover, this curve is particularly pleasing to the eye and is used with
great success a park roads, formal paths, etc.
Limitations of a Reverse Curve
When high-speed vehicles ply on highways, use of reverse curves should be

avoided for the following reasons:
a. Sudden change of super elevation is required from one side to the

other.
b. At the point of reverse curvature, no super elevation is provided.
c. Steering is dangerous in the case of high ways. Unless driver is
cautions, there are chances of overturning the vehicle.
d. Sudden change of directions causes great discomfort to the passenger.
Tip: It is, therefore, recommends to avoid the reverse curves by inserting a
small length of straight between the circular arcs.
Elements Of A Reverse Curve
 Radii R and R of two circular arcs
 Angle of total deflection ( ) of the straight.
 Angle of deflection ( ) of the common tangent.
 Angle (d 1, d2) between the straight and the line joining the points of
commencement and tangency.
Fig.4-20: Elements of a reverse curve.
a. Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves
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PRC=Point Of Reversed
Curve
Fig.4-
21; Non–Parallel Tangent Reverse Curves.
Let, L=
Since,
Applying sine rule on the triangle
= = ,
Therefore,
= +L
Length of first curve,

Length of second curve,
Chain ages:
i. Chain age of = Chainage of I-
ii. Chan age of PRC = Chainage of
iii. Chain age of = Chainage of PRC+
a. Parallel tangent reverse curves
Specified condition, Δ1 =Δ2, Alternate interior angel.

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Through PRC, draw a line AB parallel to two starlight
Þ O1 T1 //O2 T2
Form Δ1 = Δ2, y= AT1 + BT2
But, AT1 = R1 – R1 cosΔ1=R1 (1-cos Δ1)
= R1 versineΔ1, 1- cosΔ1= versineΔ1
Similarly, BT2=R2 versineΔ2
Thus, y = R1 versine Δ + R2 versine Δ2
F y= (R1+R2) versin Δ1, Δ1=Δ2
Also, T1T2 = T1PRC +PRCT2
But, T1PRC=2R1 sin , PRCT2=2R2 sin
Þ T1T2=2(R1+R2) sin , Δ1=Δ2
\ L=2(R1+R2) sin , T1T2=L
Fig.4-22; Parallel tangent reverse curves

For triangle T1CT2,
Substituting the value of
Also, x =APRC+PRCB
=
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Setting Operation
 The first curve is set from T1 and the second arc from PRC by any one of setting
out methods for circular curves
 Or, both arcs can be set out from the common point PRC.
TRANSION CURVES
Consider a vehicle traveling at speed (v) along a straight. The forces acting on the vehicles
will be its weight (W), acting vertically down, and an equal and opposite force acting
vertically up via the wheels. When the vehicle enters the curves of radius R at tangent point
T1, an additional centrifugal force (P) acts on the vehicles, as shown.
Fig.4-23; Forces acting on the vehicle when a vehicle enters the curve.
If P is large the vehicles will be forced to the out side of the curve and may skid or overturn.
@ The resultant of the two forces shown as N, and if the road is superelevated normal to
this force, there will be no tendency for the vehicle to skid.
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Thus, as a vehicles moved from straight to curves the centrifugal force would increase
simultaneously from zero to its maximum value, assuming that speed (V) is not changed,
passengers in the vehicles would thus experience a lateral shock as the tangent was passed.
To avoid this a curve of variable radius is inserted between the straight and the circular
curves in order that the centrifugal force may build up in gradual and uniform manner. This
curve is called a transition, or easement curve.
Thus, the transition curve is a curve constantly changing radius i.e. its essential requirement
is that its radius decrease uniformly from infinite at the point where it meets the curve. This
is the reason why spirals are used in most highway and railway alignments to over come the
abrupt change in directions that occurs when the alignment change from the tangent to
circular curve, and vice versa. The length of the spiral curve is also used for the transition
from normally crowned pavement to fully superelevated (banked) pavement.
Tip: -
I n most cases two transition curves are joined by circular curves. In some cases, the circular
curve joining the two transitions of zero length so that the single circular curve is replaced
by two transition curves having one common tangent point called wholly transition curves.
D rivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence transition
curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of situations. For
large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are
not normally required. It is also being argued that transition curves are not a requirement for
certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where there is insufficient
justification, for the additional survey and design work required. Another possible warrant
would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant portion of the curve has a super
elevation in excess of 60% of the maximum superelevation.
@ For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link roads
segments having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 KPH.
A ccording to ERA manual, if the choice is made to employ transition curve the Euler
spiral or clothoid (i.e. commonly used in high way design) shall be used. The radius
varies from infinite at the tangent end of the spiral to the radius of the circular arc at the
circular curve end. By definition, the radius at any point of the spiral varies inversely with the
distance measured along the spiral.
Aim of a transition curve is:

1) To achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight
(r=¥) to the curve (radius, r=R).
2) To introduce super elevation in proportion to the rate of change of curvature i.e.
to permit the gradual application of superelevation to counteract centrifugal
force and minimize passenger discomfort.
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Requirements of an Ideal Transition Curve
TS (Tangent to Spiral) Tangent
Spiral curves SC (Spiral to Curve)
Circular curve
r =RC
r = Radius of spiral curve

RC =Radius of circular curve
Fig.4-24; Ideal Transition Circular Curve.
1) An ideal transition curve should be tangential to the straights as well as to the circular
curve.
2) The radius of an ideal transition curve at the junction of the circular curve should be the
same as that of the circular curve.
3) The curvature of an ideal transition curve should be zero at its origin on the straight.
4) The length of an ideal transition should be such that required superelevation attained at
its junction with the circular curve.
5) The rate of increase of curvature along an ideal transition curve should be same as that
of super elevation.
@It has been universally accepted that superelevation is introduce at a uniform rate and
curvature of the transition curve at any point is kept proportional to its distance
from the beginning of the transition curve.
Derivation Of Equation For An Ideal Transition Curve.
Since P cannot be eliminated, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase uniformly along

the curve. When the centrifugal force P acting on the vehicle as it reverse the curve, and the
centrifugal ratio are given by the expression:
P  wv 2 Rg
@P is inversely proportional to r, the basic requirement of the ideal transition curve is that
its radius should decrease uniformly with distance along it this requirement also permits
the uniform application of super elevation; thus at distance ℓ along the transition the
radius is r, and rℓ=c (constant)
\
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Fig.4-25; Transition curve.
From fig. tSC is an infinitely small portion of a transition dl of a radius r, thus:

dℓ=rdf
\
Thus,
Integrating,
@
When C =RL
Tip: The above expressions are for the clothoid curve or Euler spiral, which is the most used
in road design.
Curve Design
The basic requirements in the design of transition curve are;

1) The value of the minimum safe radius (R ), and
2) The length, Ls, of the transition curve
@ The value of R may be found using either of the approaches using
centrifugal ratio or coefficient of friction.
i. Centrifugal Ratio
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Centrifugal force is defined as P = wv 2/Rg; however, this“ overturning force” is

counteracted by the weight (w) of the vehicle, and may be expressed as P/w, termed the
centrifugal ratio. Thus, centrifugal ratio:
Where V is the design speed in m/s, g is acceleration due to gravity in , and R is the
minimum safe radius in m.
When V is expressed in KPH, the expression becomes.
Tip: Commonly used values for centrifugal ratio are 0.21-0.25 on roads, 0.125 on railways.
The minimum safe radius R may be set either equal to or greater than this value.
ii. Coefficient Of Friction
The alternative approach to find R is based on Road Research Laboratory (RRL) values for
the coefficient of friction between the car tires and the road surface.
For figure illustrated below a vehicle passing around a correctly superelevated curve. The
resultant of the two forces is N, the force F acting towards the center of the curve is the
friction applied by the car tires to the road surface.
PP
WP
PN
WN
Where, AB = w: - width of road way

WN and WP = weight normal and parallel to the roadway surface.
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Pp and PN = component of centrifugal force parallel and normal to the road surface
respectively.
F = the sliding frictional force
R = Radius defined to the vehicles traveled path.
Fig.4-26; Forces acting on the vehicle on superelevated curve.
For equilibrium condition,
 Pp =WP + F (i)
( )
 N=WN + PN (ii)
Where, WP=W
WN=W
F = ƒN
ƒ = coefficient of sliding friction
Thus,
F=ƒ (WN+PN)
=ƒ (W )
F=ƒW ( ) (iii)
Combining equations (i) and (iii),
Simplifying, dividing both sides by cos :
Since, ƒ and tan are very small

ƒ tan ≈0
Thus,
But, tan = e = super elevation
 , VD is design speed in m/s.
When VD is expressed in KPH,
, is fundamental equation in designing of curves.
Tip: R is the minimum curve radius.
To prevent vehicles slipping sideways,

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i.e. Design Radius RD  R
Meaning during design of curves, the consistence of the adjacent road sections and curves,
particularly when minimum radius of curvature is used, should be checked. In such a case,
the above fundamental relationship between design speed and curvature and also their
joint relations with superelevation and lateral friction should be adhered and practical
values of these parameters should be selected depending on the design conditions.
The lateral friction coefficient depends up on:

i. The type and condition of the road surface;
ii. The presence of moisture, mud, snow, etc.;
iii. The condition of treads and air pressure of tires; and
iv. Vehicle speed.
When checking minimum permissible radii based on velocity of the vehicle ERA geometric
design manual recommendation of lateral friction under wet condition shall be adopted in
the country and it is given below.
Table 4-9; lateral friction coefficients, ERA.
Design speed VD [KPH) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Side friction factors [ƒ] 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
Length Of Transition Curve
The length of transition curve is determined either using rate of application of super
elevation or rate of change of radial acceleration.
i. Rate of application of super elevation
For roads superelevation shall usually be applied at a rate of 1in200 i.e. 0.50m in 100m. In
this way the length of the transition is found.
From triangle of forces,
 V is in KPH.
Super elevation =1 in 127
The rate of cross fall, combined with the road width, allows the amount of superelevation to
be calculated. Its application at the given rate produces the length L s of the transition
required.
ii. Rate of change Radial Acceleration.
The radial acceleration is zero just as the vehicle is about to level the tangent straight at Ts,
whilst at the circular curve tangent point is:
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Thus, as radial acceleration is inversely proportional to R it will change at a rate

proportional to the rate of change in R. The transition curve must therefore be long enough
to ensure that the rate of change of radius, and hence radial acceleration is unnoticeable to
passengers.
Now, as radial acceleration is and the time taken to travel the length L s of the
transition curve is Ls/V, then rate of change of radial acceleration,
=
 V in m/s
VD in KPH
NB: This method was originally devised for railway practice; it is also applied to road
design. Should normally not be less than 0.30m/ for unrestricted design,
although in urban areas it may be necessary to increase to 0.60 m/ or even higher,
for sharp curves in tight locations.
Spiral Curve Computations
Fig.4-27; Basic Spiral Curve.

1.  is determined in the field
2. R or D (degree of curve) is given by design considerations (limited by design speed).
3. Chain age of PI is determined in the field.
4. Length of spiral, Ls, is chosen with respect to design speed and the number of traffic
lanes,
5. Calculate the shift,
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6. Compute tangent length TS,
7. Compute spiral tangent deflection,
 The deflections vary as the square of the distance along the spiral.
 Total deflection angle to SC is at Lx = Ls
s=S/3 = Ls/6R
 Since transition curves are usually setout at half station, deflection angle has
calculated for 10m interval.
8. Compute length of the combined curve,
 The central angle for the circular curve:

C =  - 2 s
The length of the circular curve.
 Thus, total length of the combined curve
9) Compute chain ages of main points of the curve;
i. Chainage of TS = Chain. of PI – TS
ii. Chain. of SC = Chain. of TS + LS
iii. Chain. of CS = Chain. of SC + LC
iv. Chain. of ST = Chain. of CS + LS.
Methods Of Setting Out A Combined Curve
The setting out of a combined curve is carried out in two stages;

i. Setting out of transition curves.
ii. Setting out of circular curves.
There are two methods in setting out:

1. Setting out by tangential offsets.
2. Setting out by deflection angles.
Widening on Curves
When a vehicle traverses a curve, the rear wheels may track inside the front
wheels. This is because of the slip angle assumed by the tires with respect
to the direction of travel, which results from the side friction developed
between pavements and rolling tires. The relative position of the wheel
tracks depends on the speed and the amount of friction developed to
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counteract the centrifugal force not compensated by super elevation or,
when traveling slowly, by the friction developed to counteract the effect of
super elevation not compensated by centrifugal force. With excessive
speeds, the rear wheels may even track outside the front wheels, an extreme
situation. The effect of variation in lateral placement of the rear wheels with
respect to the front wheels and resultant difficulty of steering should be
allowed for by widening on curves, but the amount cannot be determined as
positively as that for simple off tracking.
Traveled ways on curves, generally, are widened to make operating
conditions on curves comparable to those on tangents. Widening is needed
on curves for one of the following reasons:
 The vehicle or truck occupies a greater width because rear
wheels generally track inside front wheels (off tracking) in
rounding curves,
 The drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the
center of the lane, and
 In built-up areas, in order to have proper sight distances, extra
widening is sometimes essential
Design Values
Required extra widening has several components related to operation on
curves, namely the following:
 Track width of each vehicle, U;
 Lateral clearance per vehicle, C;
 Width of front overhang of the vehicle occupying the inner lane
or lanes, FA; and
 Width allowance for difficulty of driving on curves, Z.
Track width (U) (formula 3 of Figure 5 - ) is the sum of the track on tangent
u and the amount of offtracking. The amount a vehicle offtracks depends
on:
 The radius of the turn,
 The number of articulation points, and
 The lengths of the wheelbases.
Formula 3 of Figure 5 - can be used for any combination of radius and
number and length of wheelbases. The radius is the path of the midpoint of
the front axle; however, for most design purposes for two-lane highways the
radius of the curve at the centerline may be used for simplicity of
calculations.
Lateral clearance (C) per vehicle is assumed to be 0.6, 0.75, and 0.9 m for
tangent lane widths % of 6.0, 6.6, and 7.2 m, respectively.
The width of the front overhang (FA) to be accounted for on curves
depends on :
 The radius of the curve,
 The extent of the front overhang of the design vehicle, and
 Wheelbase of the unit itself.
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Formula 4 of Figure 5 - can be used for this computation. In the case of
tractor-trailer combinations, only the wheelbase of the tractor unit is used.
The extra width allowance (Z) is an additional radial width of pavement to
allow for the difficulty of maneuvering on a curve and the variation in
operation of drivers. This additional width is an empirical value that varies
with the speed of traffic and the radius of the curve. For open-alignment
roads, the additional width has been expressed as shown by formula 5 in
Figure 5 - .
Figure 5 - . Travelled way widening on curves
To determine width of widening, it is necessary to choose an appropriate

vehicle to represent traffic on the road and to serve as a basis for design.
The vehicle should be a design truck because off tracking of the truck is
much greater than that of a passenger car. Widening is costly and very little
is actually gained from a small amount of widening.
It is suggested that a minimum widening of 0.6 m be used. Note that no
widening is suggested for traveled ways 7.2 m wide where curves have radii
greater than 250 m.
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Attainment of Widening on Curve
Widening should be attained gradually on the approaches to the curve to
ensure a reasonably smooth alignment of the edge-of-traveled way and to fit
the paths of vehicles entering or leaving the curve. The following are the
principal points of concern in design. They apply to both ends of highway
curves.
 On simple (unspiraled) curves, widening should be applied on
the inside edge only. On curves designed with spirals, widening
may be placed on the inside or divided equally between the
curve inside and outside.
 Curve widening should be attained gradually over a length
sufficient to make the whole of the traveled way fully usable.
Preferably, widening should be attained over the superelevation
runoff length, but shorter lengths are sometimes used. Changes
in width normally should be effected in a distance of 30 to 60
m.
 From the standpoints of usefulness and appearance, the edge-
of- traveled way through the widening transition should be a
smooth, graceful curve.
 On highway alignment without spirals, smooth and fitting

alignment results from attaining widening with one-half to two-
thirds of the length along the tangent and the balance along the
curve. This fits a common method for attaining super elevation.
On highway alignment with spiral curves, the increase in width
usually is distributed along the length of the spiral, and most or
all the widening is attained at the SC(spiral to curve) point .
III. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of the
highway known as grades, or tangents, connected by vertical curves. The
design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable
grades for the tangent sections and the design of the vertical curves. The
topography of the area through which the road traverses has a significant
impact on the design of the vertical alignment.
Grades
The effect of grade on the performance of heavy vehicles is more pronounced
than that for passenger cars. The speed of a heavy vehicle can be
significantly reduced if the grade is steep and/or long. In order to limit the
effect of grades on vehicular operation, the maximum grade on any highway
should be selected with care. The selection of maximum grades for a
highway depends on the design speed and the design vehicle. It is generally
accepted that grades of 4 to 5 percent have little or no effect on passenger
cars, except for those with high weigh/horsepower ratios, such as those
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found in compact and subcompact cars. As the grade increases above 5
percent, however, speeds of passenger cars decrease on upgrades and
increase on downgrades. Grade has a greater impact on trucks than on
passenger cars. Extensive studies have been conducted, and results have
shown that truck speed may increase up to 5 percent on downgrades and
decrease by 7 percent on upgrades, depending on the percent and length of
the grade.
Control Grades for Design
Maximum grades. Maximum grades of about 5 percent are considered
appropriate for a design speed of 110 km/h. For a design speed of 50 km/h,
maximum grades generally are in the range of 7 to 12 percent, depending on
topography. If only the more important highways are considered, it appears
that a maximum grade of 7 or 8 percent would be representative for 50-
km/h-design speed. Control grades for 60-, 70-, 80-, 90-, and 100-km/h
design speeds are intermediate between the above extremes. The maximum
design grade should be used infrequently rather than as a value to be used
in most cases. At the other extreme, for short grades less than 150 m and
for one-way downgrades, the maximum gradient may be about 1 percent
steeper. For low-volume rural highways, grades may be 2 percent steeper.
Minimum grades. Minimum grades depend on the drainage conditions of
the highway. Zero-percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with
adequate cross slopes to laterally drain the surface water. When pavements
are curbed, however, a longitudinal grade should be provided to facilitate
the longitudinal flow of the surface water. It is customary to use a minimum
of 0.5 percent in such cases, although this may be reduced to 0.3 percent
on high-type pavement constructed on suitably crowned, firm ground.
Critical Lengths of Grade for Design
Maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is necessary
also to consider the length of a particular grade in relation to desirable
vehicle operation. The term "critical length of grade" is used to indicate the
maximum length of a designated upgrade on which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. For a given grade,
lengths less than critical result in acceptable operation in the desired range
of speeds. If the desired freedom of operation is to be maintained on grades
longer than critical, design adjustment such as change in location to reduce
grades or addition of extra lanes should be made. The data for critical
lengths of grade are used with other pertinent considerations (such as
traffic volume in relation to capacity) to determine where added lanes are
warranted. To establish design values for critical lengths of grade for which
grade ability of trucks is the determining factor, data or assumptions are
needed for the following:
 Size and power of representative truck or truck combination to

be used as a design vehicle
 Speed at entrance to critical length grade
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 Minimum speed on the grade below which interference to
following vehicles is considered unreasonable
Figure 3 - . Speed-distance curves for a typical heavy truck of 180kg/kw for

deceleration on upgrades
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade
to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
These curves are usually parabolic in shape. The expressions developed for
minimum lengths of vertical curves are therefore based on the properties of
a parabola. They are classified as crest vertical curves or sag vertical curves.
The different types of vertical curves are shown in Figure 16.11.
The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:
 Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
 Adequate drainage
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 Comfortable in operation
 Pleasant appearance

The first criterion is the only criterion associated with crest vertical curves, whereas all four
criteria are associated with sag vertical curves.
Figure 3 - . Types of vertical curves
Crest Vertical Curves. Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves as

determined by sight distance requirements generally are satisfactory from
the standpoint of safety, comfort, and appearance. The basic formulas for
lengths of a parabolic vertical curve in terms of algebraic differences in
grade and sight distance follow:
(1) When the sight distance is greater than the length of the vertical
curve: Let us first consider the case of the sight distance being greater
than the length of the vertical curve. Figure 3 - shows this condition.
This figure schematically presents a vehicle on the grade at C with the
driver's eye at height H1, and an object of height H2 located at D. If this object
is seen by the driver, the line of sight is PN and the sight distance is S. Note that the line
of sight is not necessarily horizontal, but in calculating the sight distance, the horizontal
projection is considered.
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Figure 3 - . Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S>L)
From the properties of the parabola,
X3 = L/2
The sight distance S is then given as
S = X1 + L/2+ X2
X1 and X2 can be found in terms of the grades G 1 and G2 and their

algebraic difference A. The minimum length of the vertical curve for
the required sight distance is obtained as
where, L = length of vertical curve, m;

S = sight distance, m;
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent;
H1 = height of eye above roadway surface, m;
H2 = height of object above roadway surface, m.
When the height of eye and the height of object are 1070 mm and 150
mm, respectively, as used for stopping sight distance, the length of
the vertical curve is,
When the sight distance is less than the length of the vertical
curve. When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest
vertical curve, the configuration shown in Figure 3 - applies. Figure 3
- . Sight distance on crest vertical curves (S<L)
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Also, the properties of a parabola can be used to show that the
minimum length of the vertical curve given as
Substituting 1070 mm for H1 and 150 mm for H2 gives
Design values of crest vertical curves for passing sight distance differ from
those for stopping sight distance because of the different height criterion.
The general formulas apply, but the 1300 mm height of object results in the
following specific formulas with the same terms as above:
When S > L,
When S < L,
Sag Vertical Curves
The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is usually

controlled by the following different criteria:
(1) Headlight sight distance,

(2) Rider comfort,
(3) Drainage control, and
(4) A rule-of-thumb for general appearance.
The headlight sight distance requirement is based on the fact that as a

vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position of the
headlight and the direction of the headlight beam dictate the stretch of
highway ahead that is lighted ---- and therefore the distance that can be
seen by the driver. Figure 3 - is a schematic of the situation when S > L.
The headlight is located at a height H above the ground, and the headlight
beam is inclined upward at angle  to the horizontal. The headlight beam
intersects the road at D, thereby restricting the available sight distance to S.
The values used for a headlight height, H and upward divergence of the light
beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle,  are usually 600 mm and a
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1o, respectively. The upward spread of the light beam provides some
additional visible length but this is generally ignored. The following formulas
show the S, L, and A relation, using S as the distance between the vehicle
and point where the 1o angle of light ray intersects the surface of the
roadway:
When S < L,
When S > L,
=
where: L = length of sag vertical curve, m;

S = light beam distance, m; and
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent.
Figure 3 - . Headlight sight distance on sag vertical curves (S>L)
To provide a safe condition on a sag vertical curve, the curve must be of

such a length that it will make the light beam sight distance S be at least
equal to the SSD. The SSD for the appropriate design speeds are therefore
used for S when the above equations are used to compute minimum lengths
of sag vertical curves.
The comfort criterion for the design of sag vertical curves takes into
consideration that when a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both the
gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater
effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act in opposition to
each other. Several factors such as weight carried, body suspension of the
vehicle, and tire flexibility affect comfort due to change in vertical directions.
This makes difficult for comfort to be measured directly. However, it is
generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial
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acceleration is not greater than 0.3 m/s 3. The general expression for such a
criterion is:
where L and A are the same as in previous formulas, and V is the design
speed, km/h.
The length of vertical curve required to satisfy this comfort factor at the
various design speeds is only about 50 percent of that required to satisfy the
headlight sight distance requirement for the normal range of design
conditions.
Drainage affects design of vertical curves of where curbed sections are used.
The drainage requirement differs from other criteria in that the length of sag
vertical curve determined for it is a maximum, whereas, the length for any
other criterion is a minimum. The requirement usually specified to satisfy
this criterion is that a minimum grade of 0.30 percent be provided within 15
m of the level point of the curve. It has been observed that the maximum
length of the drainage criterion is usually greater than the minimum length
for other criteria up to 100 km/h and nearly equal for other criteria up to
120 km/h for minimum-length vertical curves.
For general appearance, some use formerly was made of a rule-of-thumb for
length of sag vertical curves wherein the minimum value of L is 30A.
Experience has shown, however, that longer curves are frequently necessary
for high-type highways if the general appearance of these highways is to be
improved.
IV. COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

ALIGNMENT
Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements for which
thorough study is warranted. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct
alignment deficiencies after the highway is constructed. Horizontal
alignment and profile are among the more important of the permanent
design elements of the highway and should not be designed independently.
They complement each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil
the good points and aggravate the deficiencies of each. Excellence in their
design and in the design of their combination increase usefulness and
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safety, encourage uniform speed, and improve appearance, almost always
without additional cost.
Proper combination of horizontal alignment and profile is obtained by

engineering study and consideration of the following general controls:
1. Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Tangent

alignment or flat curvature at the expense of steep or long grades
and excessive curvature with flat grades are both poor design.
2. Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, or vice
versa, generally results in a more pleasing facility, but it should be
analyzed for effect on traffic.
3. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
top of a pronounced crest vertical curve. This condition is
undesirable in that the driver cannot perceive the horizontal
change in alignment, especially at night when the headlight beams
go straight ahead into space.
4. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the
low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve.
5. On two-lane roads and streets the need for safe passing sections at
frequent intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the length
of the roadway often supersedes the general desirability for
combination of horizontal and vertical alignment.
6. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible
at intersections where sight distance along both roads and streets
is important and vehicles may have to slow or stop.
7. On divided highways and streets, variation in width of median and
the use of separate profiles and horizontal alignments should be
considered to derive design and operational advantage of one-way
roadways.
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3.4 Computer Use in Geometric Design

The use of computers is continuing to revolutionize the field of highway
design. Digital data formats have allowed engineers to automate many of the
design tasks, translating design criteria through the design process, directly
reflecting the information in the project constructing drawings. This is
accomplished through an integrated design environment that links design
activities, such as horizontal alignment, cross sections, profiles, and
quantities, with the final production of drawings that are created through
the use of multifaceted software programs. An example flow chart of a
typical software design package is presented in Figure 5 - .
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Figure 5 - Design flow chart of a computer-aided design and drawing
preparation using CEAL design software
One of the primary benefits of using a computer design program is to

enhance the ability of an engineer to conduct numerous design iterations
for the purpose of improving and refining the design without expending a
large amount of time or effort. Another valuable feature is the ability to view
the resulting effect of the design modification on the construction plans
without the need to conduct the numerous intermediate steps that have
been associated with the more traditional manual design methods of the
past. It is important to note that the design engineer must have a firm
understanding of all the criteria, standards, and design methods necessary
to design a safe and efficient highway as described in the preceding sections
of this chapter in order to utilize the computer programs correctly.
A full discussion of computer applications in highway design is beyond the

scope of this text. The many companies that develop, distribute, and
support computer aided design and drafting (CADD) software programs
have numerous manuals describing programming commands and
techniques for efficiently using their respective software products. The focus
of the following paragraphs will be to present an overview of the most
important features that this computer technology has contributed to an
enhancement of the highway design process.
3.4.1 Digital Terrain Modelling
The utilization of this feature within an automated computer design process

involves creating a digital database for the project limits and in areas
immediately surrounding the proposed construction. Survey and
topographic information describing the project area can be collected through
conventional field survey techniques or through controlled aerial
photography. These spatially oriented data are located within the context of
a three-dimensional grid, which is referenced in the traditional variables x,
y, and z. Coordinates for x and y represent the horizontal location of the
data points, and the variable z serves to provide an elevation of each point,
typically measured with respect to sea level.
Field-collected survey points at consistently spaced intervals, perpendicular

to the centreline at approximately 20 m extending to the outer limits of the
project area, and at all surface-evident breaks in the terrain, such as
ditches and ridge lines, are located in a digital format with respect to x, y,
and z dimensions. A data collector is utilized that allows easy transfer of
survey information into a consistent format that can be read by a computer.
The field collected information is utilized by one of the numerous computer
aided design and drafting (CADD) programs, and an analytical method
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referred to as triangulated irregular network (TIN) is created through an
interpolation between the various data points that were collected within the
project limits. The results of the TIN are a digital terrain model (DTM) for the
project area, which serves to create a computer surface model that
represents the project topography. The results of this modelling procedure
can be used to efficiently evaluate construction requirements of a new
highway design.
Once a similar three-dimensional model of the proposed highway

improvements is designed, these models, which are commonly referred to as
surfaces, can be merged and further utilized in the design process. This
merging of data allows determination of earthwork quantities and a number
of other volume-based calculations, such as amount of rock excavation,
limits of de-mucking in low-lying areas, and asphalt pavement quantities,
given that the initial database can support such evaluations.
3.4.2 Coordinate Geometry
Another major feature of a computer aided design and drafting (CADD)

system is the ability to calculate alignments, bearings, lengths, and curves
within the context of a referenced horizontal grid system. The most
commonly used grid system for highway design purposes is the plane
coordinate system. Orientation of grid coordinates is commonly referenced
in north and east directional units, where point coordinates increase in
value or magnitude as one moves toward each of the respective coordinate
directions.
Once the existing database is located with respect to the local plane
coordinate system, a wide variety of alignment and location calculations can
be performed, allowing determination of a position for required
improvements in relation to existing project features. Bearing-to-bearing
intersections; concentric offsets for curb, sidewalk, and right-of-way
locations; curve-to-curve intersections; and station distance and
perpendicular offsets are but a few of the commonly utilized features that all
coordinate geometry programs can calculate. The ease of conducting quick
and efficient design iterations is a significant benefit derived from the use of
this program and is a valuable tool for refining and optimising the design of
a proposed highway improvement project.
3.4.4 Plan Preparation
Database information and intermediate design calculations conducted

during the creation of a DTM and coordinate geometry location of the
highway improvements are all utilized to generate plan sheets, which when
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correctly processed should require only a minimum amount of drafting
work. A small amount of drafting time is typically required to ensure
consistent formats, standard symbols, and other agency-specific
requirements that need to be incorporated into the plan set. Scripted
command routines, which are tailored specifically for agency standards, can
be developed and utilized to reduce the amount of effort required for
drafting and can be used to ensure consistency in the plan preparation
process. Uniformity is a significant aspect of the highway design process
that cannot be overlooked. Large transportation agencies typically have
numerous highway projects all being constructed by different general
contractors, and drawing consistency is often related to minimized
construction problems and other associated conflicts.
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CHAPTER FIVE
EARTHWORK AND QUANTITIES
Introduction
The term earthwork is applied to that portion of highway construction, which is
required to convert the rights of way from the natural condition and configuration
to the section and grades prescribed in the geometric design. It includes
 Clearing
 Grubbing - clear off roots
 Excavation of drainage channels & trenches
 Excavation of structures
 Borrows
 Haul & Overhaul
 Grading
 Preparation of Side Slopes
 Reconditioning of roadway
 Other operations for preparing the sub grade for highway or runway
pavement construction (Highway Eng. II)
The quantity and Cost are calculated in m 3 either in its original form or by
allowing for shrinkage and swell. The rate of payment generally includes full
compensation for excavation, formation of embankment, preparing of side slopes,
disposal or borrowing with in the free-haul distance, and the preparation and
completion of the sub grade and the shoulders.
Classification of excavated materials
Usually excavated materials are classified in to three categories:
1) Solid Rock: hard rock and boulders; Volume > 1m 3; can be best
removed by blasting
2) Loose Rock: detached masses or rock – 0.025<V<1m 3; could easily be
removed
3) Common/Ordinary Excavation: all others< 1m3 .
Shrinkage and swell factors
The processes of excavation breaks up earth and make it occupy more space
afterwards. This increase in volume is called Swelling. (E.g., excavated rock
occupies a larger volume in fill)
After placing the excavated earth in a fill and compacting, volume will become less
than the original. Difference between original volume in cut and final volume in fill
is termed as Shrinkage
Shrinkage depends on the material’s characteristics and moisture content;
climatic conditions; and method of placing.
Material % of shrinkage
Light excavated soil 10 – 20%
(on ordinary ground)
Light excavated soil 20 – 40%
(on swampy ground)
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Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%
Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 – 25%
Table showing shrinkage of compacted fills .
Amount of excavation required to make a given fill may be arrived at by:
Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh
Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw
Road Bed Sections
A highway sub-grade is usually formed with the travel lanes, shoulders and a
trench section upon which the pavement will be constructed, the finished surface
being crowned to facilitate drainage
 Ditches are provided on embankment sections to transfer water down the
fill slops into pipes or paved gutters to protect the embankment against
erosion.
 On curves of 5o or sharper sub grade is banked and widened. Width of
roadbed in cut is wider than on fills to allow for side-ditches.
 Some times ditches are provided depending on the drainage condition of
the site.
Fig .Typical sections of cut fill and cut&fill

 The slope of the side slope depends on the angle of repose of the
material.
Material Ht. of Side Slope Back Slope

Slope Cut Fill
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Soil 0–1 1:4 1:4
1–2 1:3 1:3
Over 2 1:2 1:2
Rock Any ht. See standard details
Black Cotton 0 – 2 - 1:6
Soil Over 2 1:4
Earthwork quantities
For calculating the quantity of earthwork, the areas of cross-sections and the
distance between them must be known.
From the data supplied by x-section note and the design of vertical alignment, the
area of the x- section my be calculated. If the ground is levelled, simple geometry
may be applied to calculate the area of the x-section. For irregular grounds, there
are two general methods used.
1) The graphical or planimeter method.
2) The coordinate or other approximate method.
Area by coordinate method
With the coordinate of all the corners of a x-section known, the end area may be
computed by means of coordinate method. The point of intersection of the centre
of formation of the road is used as the origin .the cuts above the formation are
retained as plus and those below as minus. The distances to the right are positive
and those to the left are negative.
Simple rule . Arrange the coordinates in ccw in the form of fractions, the initial
fraction repeated to give a closed boundary.
Then multiply along the marked diagonals and add the
products all positive, multiply along unmarked diagonals and add the products all
negative and add the products all negative. The difference gives the double area.
Trapezoidal rule.
sd sd
1 d 1
s s
b
Cut
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d s 1
sd sd
Fill
Area of cut and fill section
LC n
1 in
b/2
h2 1
s1 A2
d s2
1 A1 c
h1
d1 d2
A1=Area in cut
A2=Area in fill
When c is to the right of the point of zero fill
When c is to the left of the point of zero fill
Area of irregular section

Assumes the boundaries could be approximated by a straight line, if the interval L
between offset measurements is very small
( trapezoidal rule )
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L L L
O1 A1 A2 A3 An On+1
O2 On
O3
Simpson’s rule
Assumes, instead, that the boundaries consist of a series of parabolic arcs
For this rule to apply, N must be an odd number
L L L
O1 A1 A2 A3 An On+1
O2 On
O3
Average end area method

Volume of a right prism equals the average area multiplied by the length
Prismoidal method
A prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose sides are plane or warped
surfaces
The Volume of a prismoid is:
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A1 & A3 are parallel end areas a distance l apart and A2 the area at the mid-
length, found out by interpolating the linear dimensions.
Mass haul diagram

Is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the cuts (+ve)
and fills (-ve) from some initial station to any succeeding station
Ordinates of the mass curve are plotted with reference to a horizontal scale of
distances
It is convenient to tabulate the cumulative sum of cuts and fills at a station before
drawing a Mass diagram
Mass haul diagram-drawing procedures
1) Calculate areas at cross-sections
2) Calculate the volume of fill and cut; cut is +ve and fill –ve.
3) Correct the volume calculated by shrinkage and swell factors
4) Tabulate the corrected aggregate volume
5) Plot the mass haul diagram
(scale: 1:2000 H and 1:500 or 1:1000 (cm:m3)V)
6) Join points by a straight line or curves
7)
Stations Individual Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Aggregate
volume Shrinkage volumes Vol.
Cut Fill factors Cut Fill

Characteristics of Mass-haul Diagram

 A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of
earthwork and embankment involved in a project and the manner in
which the earth is to be moved. Its horizontal or x-axis represents
distance and is usually expressed in meters or stations. It is drawn to
the same horizontal scale as the profile. The vertical or y-axis
represents the cumulative quantity of earthwork in cubic meters. The
quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and
embankment as negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve, it is
convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each
station.
 The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction of
haul and the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It
shows “balance points”, the stations between which the volume of
excavation (after adjustment for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and
embankment are equal.
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Figure 4.9 Profile and mass diagram. AC = free-haul distance; HJ – AC = overhaul

distance; BB = free-haul volume; A’A = C’C = overhaul volume; OD = length of
balance.
A study of the mass diagram (or curve) shown in figure 4.9 will verify the following
statements:
 The ordinate at any point on the mass curve represents the cumulative
volume to that point on the profile.
 Within the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right; within
the limits of a single fill, it falls from left to right.
 Sections where the volume changes from cut to fill correspond to a
maximum; sections where the volume changes from fill to cut correspond
to a minimum. Evidently the maximum and minimum points on the
diagram occur at, or near, grade points on the profile.
 Any horizontal line, as AC, cutting off a loop of the mass curve, intersects
the curve at two points between which the cut is equal to the fill
(adjusted for shrinkage). Such a line is called a balance line.
 The loops convex upward indicate that the haul from cut to fill is to be in
one direction (to the right in this case); loops concave upward indicate a
reverse direction of haul.
 The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the overall net
amount of earthwork for the entire project. This amount, if positive, would
indicate a surplus of excavation material and a need to waste that
quantity of material. If the final point on the mass diagram is a negative
amount, it indicates a net shortage of earthwork for the project and a need
to borrow that quantity of earthwork material.
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Determination Of Overhaul From The Mass Diagram: One of the important

uses of the mass diagram, aside from balancing cuts and fills and indicating the
most advantageous distribution of the same, is to establish definitely the overhaul
distance and the portion of the total volume which is to be regarded as hauled
beyond the specified free-haul limit.
Referring to figure 4.9, proceed as follows:
 Assuming the free-haul distance to be 150m, find by trial a horizontal line

intersecting the curve at points A and C, such that AC = 150m. Then the
material above line AC will be hauled at no extra cost. The amount of this
material is given by the ordinate from line AC to point B and is a measure
of the volume in cut from a to b, which makes the fill from b to c.
 Consider now the volume above the balance line OD. A study of the mass
curve and the corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b will
make the fill from b to d. But since part of this solidity, the part above the
balance line AC, is included in the free-haul limit, the other part between
lines OD and AC – which is measured by the ordinate A’A – is subject to
overhaul unless wastage and borrow take place. That is, some or all of the
volume from o to a may be “overhauled” to make the fill from c to d.
 The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the fill from c
to d is the distance between the centers of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to
d. The gravity lines are found as follows: Bisect AA’ at M and draw a
horizontal line intersecting the mass curve at H and J. These points H and
J are assumed to be vertically below the desired centers of gravity.
Therefore the average haul is given by the length of line HJ, and the
overhaul is this distance HJ less the free haul distance AC. The overhaul
distance (in stations) multiplied by the net volume gives the station-
volumes of overhaul.
 It should be note that the foregoing graphical method of determining the

center of gravity of the masses in cut and fill is inaccurate when there is
abruptness in the mass curve. In such cases, a more accurate method is
to divide the volume in parts and take moments about a vertical line of
reference just as is done in finding the center of gravity of a system of
forces.
 The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical procedure
for disposing of excavated material, what part of it should be moved
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forward or backward, and whether borrowing and wasting are advisable.
Thus if the balance line OD is continued horizontally to point X, it will be
seen that the cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity
represented by the ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be
carried forward, backward, or wasted. If the project ends at point g or if
there are no fills immediately ahead, then this excavated material should
be carried backward to help make the fill from b to c (it being downhill and
within the free-haul limit), while an equivalent amount of volume from the
cut o to a would be wasted, thus reducing the station-volume of overhaul.
Distribution Analysis of Earthwork Terminologies
1) Haul Distance: distance from point of excavation to point where the material
is to be tipped
2) Average Haul Distance is the distance from the centre of gravity of the
excavation to the centre of gravity of the tip
3) Free-haul Distance: is the distance (usually specified in the contract) over
which a charge is paid only for the volume of earth excavated and not for its
movement (300m). Free-haul is part of the haul, which is contained within the
free haul distance.
4) Over-haul Distance: is the distance in excess of the free-haul distance, over
which it is necessary to transport material. An extra charge will be paid for
transport. Over-haul is part of the haul which remains after the free haul has
been removed.
5) Haul: is the sum of the product of each volume of material and the distance
through which it is moved. On the mass-haul diagram, it is the area
contained b/n the curve and the balance line
6) Waste: is the volume surplus or unsuitable material, which must be
exported from a section of the site.
7) Borrow: is the volume of material which must be imported in t a section of
the site due to deficiency of suitable material
Limit of Economical Haul
When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and borrow
materials rather than pay for the cost of overhauling. Equating the cost of
excavation plus overhaul to the cost of excavation from both the roadway and
borrow pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul for making the
embankment. Thus, let
c = cost of roadway excavation per cubic meter

b = cost of borrow per cubic meter
h = cost of overhaul, on the bases of 1m3 per station
x = economical length of overhaul
Cost to excavate and move 1m3 material from cut to fill = c + hx………….(a)
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Cost to excavate from cut, waste, borrow, and place 1m3 material in fill
=b+c ……………………………….. ……….….………………………………..(b)
Equating equations (a) and (b) and solving for x, we have x = b/h (s + a) ..(c)
Adding the free haul distance to equation (c), we get the limit of economical haul.
Example
For the tabulated volume of cut and fill data given below:
1) draw the mass-haul diagram, and
2) estimate the total cost of excavating and moving earth
If, the cost of excavation is 6birr/m3, cost of borrow is 6 birr/m3, cost of overhaul
is 12birr/station-m3, and the free haul distance is 1.1km. Use a shrinkage factor
of 0.9.
Indiv. volume Bulking/ Corr. Indiv. Agg. Vol.

Sta *103 m3 Shrinkage Volumes
km+m factors *103 m3
Cut Fill Cut Fill

0+000
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 1.80
0+100
1.2 - 0.9 1.08 2.88
0+200
0.8 - 0.9 0.72 3.60
0+300
0.15 - 0.9 0.14 3.74
0+400
- 0.65 0.65 3.09
0+500
- 1.50 1.50 1.59
0+600
- 2.00 2.00 - 0.41
0+700
- 1.80 1.80 - 2.21
0+800
- 1.60 1.60 - 3.81
0+900
2.00 - 0.9 1.80 - 2.01
1+000
1.80 - 0.9 1.62 0.39
1+100
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1.60 - 0.9 1.44 1.05
1+200
- 1.00 1.00 0.05
1+300
- 1.00 1.00 - 0.95
1+400
3.00 - 0.9 2.70 1.75
1+500
1.00 - 0.9 0.90 2.65
1+600
(2)
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.

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (I)

Horizontal alignment is layout of the road on a horizontal plane and consists

– Involves inspection of each band (identified during the desk study) to

Table 2-1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

DS1 10000–**15000 Paved ***

DS2 5000–10000 Paved 7.3 See T.4-2 120 100 85 70 50

DS8 25–50 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 50 40 30 50

DS9 0–25 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40

DS10 0–15 Unpaved 3.3 See T.4-2 60 40 30 20 40

Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths

Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)

* Shoulders included in the carriageway width given in Table 4-1

2.2.2) NATURE OF TERRAIN

MOUNTAINOUS: - Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river

Where c= capacity (vehicle/hr/lane)

Given by the formula

The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from

2.2.5) Design Speed

Table2-3: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang Wheelbase Min.

Figure 2-4 Road Cross Section Elements

Major elements are defined here for clarity:

Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and

Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction

A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the

Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway:

Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural

The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban

NORMAL CROSS FALL

Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide

SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.

Figure2-5: Designation of Roadside Regions

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as

A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from

A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper

The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety

Table 2-4: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal [ERA]

However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns

When a highway is located in cut, runoff may be collected in shallow ditches

According to ERA, however, a summary of minimum ditch dimensions is

Figure 2-6: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils [ERA]

For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside

Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of

Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road

A road on which traffic in one direction of travel is separated from that in

Positive segregation of traffic between opposing streams is essential for

Wide median strips are to be preferred for the following reasons:

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

db= v2/254(f ±g)

Therefore the minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the

Passing Sight Distance

Figure 7-4: Passing Sight Distance

Criteria for measuring sight distance.

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Figure 7-1: Stopping Sight Distance at Sag

Figure 7-3: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Relevant formulae are as follows:

1.Straights  20V meter, V=design speed in KPH

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