Music therapy.

Music therapy.
Leslie Bunt and Catherine Warner

https://doi.org/10.1093/omo/9781561592630.013.90000361441
Published online: 30 September 2020

Definitions of music therapy change over time and are culturally, historically, and contextually specific
relating to different emphases within music therapy. Bunt and Stige define it as ‘the use of sounds and
music within an evolving relationship between patient/participant and therapist to support and
encourage physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual well-being’ (Bunt and Stige, 18). This
presents a holistic definition stressing music therapy’s relational contribution to the overall well-being
of the individual and adopts the terms patient and participant to distinguish between medical and
clinical contexts (patient) and more social and community-based areas of practice (participant).
Bruscia defines music therapy as ‘a reflexive process wherein the therapist helps the client to optimize
the client’s health, using various facets of music experience and the relationships formed through them
as the impetus for change. As defined here, music therapy is the professional practice component of
the discipline, which informs and is informed by theory and research’ (Bruscia, 2014, p.48). Bruscia’s
definition focuses on music therapy as a health-optimizing process and adopts the term client.

1. Historical and contextual background

The profession of music therapy is relatively new although music has been used extensively throughout
history as a feature of healing. Such uses occur in tribal medicine and shamanistic healing practices
and are mentioned in the Bible and within Eastern and Western mythology. The growth of specifically
therapeutic approaches to music can be observed in different cultures, ranging from its use in healing
ceremonies to the evolution of rational and scientific ideas about medicine and music (Gouk; Horden).

Late 19th/early 20th century examples of the recreational use of music for convalescence exist. For
instance, in the UK in 1891 Canon Frederick Harford formed the Guild of St. Cecilia within which
groups of musicians played and sang to hospitalized patients (Tyler), while in the USA in 1903 Eva
Vescelius set up the National Therapeutic Society of New York (Davis and Gfeller). The use of music for
the rehabilitation of post-World War II combatants in the USA is generally regarded as the watershed
moment for the understanding of the potential of a more professional approach to music therapy. In the
USA the first academic courses were established in the mid-1940s, and the National Association of
Music Therapy was founded in 1950, the first such body of its kind. Europe quickly followed suit; the
British Society for Music Therapy was established in 1958 and a training course begun in Vienna in
1959. Since then the profession has developed rapidly. In the UK, for example, the profession gained a
Career and Grading Structure within the Department of Health and Social Security in 1982, and was
regulated by the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine from 1997 and by the Health
Professions Council (now the Health & Care Professions Council) from 2002.

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Music therapy.

An active World Federation of Music Therapy organizes international congresses and hosts a number
of commissions including one for research and ethics, one for clinical practice and one for education
and training. The location of world congresses demonstrates the world-wide spread of music therapy
including in recent decades Oxford, UK (2002); Brisbane, Australia (2005); Buenos Aires, Argentina
(2008); Seoul, South Korea (2011); Krems, Austria (2014); Tsukuba, Japan (2017) and Pretoria, South
Africa (2020 – an online congress). As more people turn to music therapy as a career, training and
practice opportunities are on the increase. Online journals, such as Voices: a World Forum for Music
Therapy and Approaches: an Interdisciplinary Journal of Music Therapy, extend international access to
collaborative discussion. For example, in Voices Aluede provides an overview of music therapy
practices and research in Nigeria; in the first issue Barcellos gives an overview of South American
practice, including reference to the pioneering work of Benenzon, and in a later issue Ikuno discusses
the growth of music therapy in Japan. In other issues Konieczna relates experiences of setting-up a
new music therapy programme in Poland and Sundar interviews a music therapist/sound healer, Mr.
Aurelio, on the cultural interface between Eastern and Western approaches to music therapy and
traditional healing in India.

In addition to the international undergraduate and postgraduate trainings available, a growing number
of institutions worldwide offer music therapy doctoral studies and support research programs. These
developments run in parallel with progress in music therapy assessment and published research,
furthering the development of music therapy both as a profession and academic discipline.

There is growing documentation of the diversity of music therapy practice with emerging theoriesthat
relate to different perspectives and approaches (Bruscia, 2012). Research is wide-ranging, from
projects utilizing quantitative and qualitative methodologies to work with a more historical and
philosophical reach (Wheeler and Murphy). Music therapists are also exploring music-centered and
arts-based methodologies from within the discipline itself, as well as those relating to Indigenous and
cultural perspectives (Aigen; Kenny).

2. Music therapy processes

The use of the elements of sound and music in music therapy

Sound arguably has four parameters – timbre, pitch, loudness, and duration – which manifest
themselves in more complex shape within music as melody, harmony, rhythm, texture, and form.
Silence is also an important element: spaces between sounds add meaning and significance to musical
events. How these elements are used in practice is the topic of one tradition of thinking in music
therapy, for example in part of the pioneering work and writings of Alvin and of Nordoff and Robbins.
In active music therapy practice, such as within improvisation, the music therapist observes and listens
to how participants make use of these different elements or combinations and provides music in
relationship to how participants create gestures out of these elements. The relational musical
processes between participant and therapist can be thought of in different ways, for example through
the concepts of ‘affordances’ (in this context, musical resources, and in keeping with the use of the
term ‘affordance’ created by the psychologist Gibson) and ‘appropriations’ (the way they are made use

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Music therapy.

of). Translation has been made into emergent music therapy theory by scholars such as Ansdell (2013)
and DeNora (2000), to understand a child’s or adult’s development of a sense of agency and action.
These processes then influence the therapist’s own musical responses and style of music-making.

Patterns in early child and healthy development

The microanalysis of patterns in early child–adult relationships underpins some aspects of music
therapy theory and practice. Musical parameters, such as stress, duration, timing, accent, phrase etc.,
can be used to describe these interactive patterns, and the concepts of intersubjectivity, joint attention,
and turn-taking can apply both to musical exchange and to early processes in child development. Much
can be learnt from observation of early attachment patterns of behaviour between young infant and
caregiver that stems from the work of Bowlby and Ainsworth (see Bretherton and Wallin for
summaries). Music therapists have drawn substantially on the theory of ‘Communicative Musicality’ as
developed by Malloch and Trevarthen, the subtle and ever-changing dance-like interplay between child
and adult caregiver, described originally by Malloch with the musical correlates of temporal ‘pulse’ and
expressive ‘quality’ that combine to form a sense of on-going ‘narrative.’ Aldridge (1996) complements
these connections between music and development, regarding forms within music and biology as
‘isomorphic;’ his notion of ‘symphonic’ beings describes how continuous processes of composition help
to redefine a person. These views present music in relation to health, so that an improvisation, for
example, may be seen as a ‘direct expression’ of the needs of the self, bypassing words. Capra regards
synchronisation, so much a feature of all musical play, as an indicator of health, ‘dis-ease’ being
observed in a lack of synchronisation within oneself, between self and others, and with the surrounding
environment.

Stern’s work (1985/1998, 2010) provides further stimulus for music therapists to explore the links
between early developmental interactive patterning and the ‘dynamic forms’ of emotion and music
(Pavlicevic). His constructs ‘affect attunement’ and ‘vitality affects’ help the therapist move beyond
imitating the child’s musical gesture to understanding the world of feeling that might lie behind, – a
kind of musical empathy. The therapist and child move towards joint and potentially reciprocal
communication and partnership within the music. Within musicology, Small’s holistic notion of
‘Musicking’ has been influential as has an ecological approach to psychology with the overlapping
‘nesting’ of ‘micro’ to ‘macro’ levels as explored by Bronfenbrenner, alongside the notion of ‘lifespan
development’ (Sugarman).

How music is used in sessions

Of all the elements, rhythm is often given a central position within music therapy because of its
energizing and ordering potential (Gaston). For example, an individual or members of a group may
explore and improvise with a wide range of tuned and un-tuned percussion instruments in a therapy
session. In music therapy practice, the instruments can be provided from a range of musical cultures,
and be accessible to people of all ages and abilities, regardless of musical experience and background.
This tends to free participants from reliance on preconceived views of what constitutes music, such as

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Music therapy.

the somewhat restrictive emphasis on diatonicism. For people with severe physical impairments the
approach may need to be more specialized, for example with the therapist needing to initiate much of
the music when movement is severely restricted; however recent developments in technology allow
active access to those with any purposeful movement (Magee).

Improvisation forms the basis of many music therapy approaches. Here the therapist as musician is
trained to match an individual’s own sounds, flexibly elaborating, containing, or structuring them into
coherent musical forms that are part of the ‘present moment’(Stern, 2004). Musical form provides
some semblance of order and cohesion to the creative expression of the musical gestures, however
fragmentary and disparate they might be. The technique of matching relates to the well-established
‘iso principle’ (Altshuler) which can also be adapted to group work, by which the therapist works to
find some kind of ‘musical common denominator’ to help create ‘some sense of group cohesion’ (Bunt
and Stige, 53). The therapeutic use of improvisation, extemporisation, songwriting, and pre-composed
and recorded music may be influenced by as many musical genres and cultural idioms as there are
individual musical tastes and diverse settings. For example, the creative psychodynamic approach of
Mary Priestley incorporated atonal improvisation alongside the use of selected themes, specific
musical structures, different musical repertoire, and the use of imagery for gaining access to
unconscious processes. A music therapist may also be called upon to arrange some music or to provide
some for another therapeutic intervention, working alongside physiotherapists or speech and language
therapists, for example, or as part of larger multi-disciplinary teams (Twyford and Watson).
Contemporary practice often involves community-based settings and larger groups, for example in
facilitating choirs for people living with dementia or aphasia. Currently there appear to be three over-
arching musical approaches in music therapy with different international emphases and individual
responses to context: improvisation (Bruscia, 1987; Wigram), songwriting (Baker; Baker and Wigram),
and receptive listening that includes the specialized form of the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and
Music (Bonny; Grocke and Wigram).

3. Applications.

The provision of a safe and consistent space where music therapy can take place is considered by many
therapists to be paramount, and for sessions to happen on a regular basis at the same time of day,
although there may be circumstances in which this is not possible or desirable, for example when
working at the bedside. Secure boundaries allow for trust to be established. Music therapy is used,
both individually and in small groups, to support people of all ages who experience mental distress or a
complex range of disabilities which may result in communication, identity, or relational difficulties or a
sense of loss. It is widely observed that there may be some form of musical response despite serious
degrees of cognitive impairment and brain damage. One well-documented application is with people
with autism for whom sometimes fragmented musical gestures can be placed within the holding,
connecting, and cohesive musical forms improvised by the music therapist (Robarts). The person is
helped to hear and find meaning in the sounds, and to move eventually to a position of more shared
meaning. These interactions may take place as indirect communications via the instruments made
available in the music therapy session, reducing the need for potentially over-arousing direct

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Music therapy.

communication (Berger). Some therapists may also work towards developmental objectives, the music
helping a child, for example, to gain further physical organization and control. Music therapists are
able to build on a child’s innate curiosity about making sounds: a child is often highly motivated to
attend in an active musical environment, where the emphasis is away from potentially divisive verbal
exchange to the more uniting aspects of music-making (Zuckerkandl).

With older children and adults, music therapy contributes in developing a wide range of emotional,
mental, social, and physical ways of being, and in helping develop identity, self-confidence, and self-
awareness. It can further independence and active choice-making. A withdrawn or tense person can be
encouraged to explore musical instruments, building a trusting relationship with the therapist through
the music over a period of time. A person with physical disabilities can be stimulated or relaxed by the
appropriate music, the musical parameters closely adapting to the specific needs of each individual. In
terms of mental health music can affect mood, decrease social isolation, and increase feelings of self-
esteem. Increasingly, music therapy narratives focus less on models of deficit and the acquisition of
skills to concentrate more on holistic notions of health and wellbeing, including the emotional and
spiritual, attributes that have long been associated with music and music therapy.

Music therapy has thus found a place in numerous community-based and institutional settings:
hospitals and clinics; pre-school assessment units and specialist nurseries; special and mainstream
schools; residential and nursing homes for older people; day centres; prisons; hospices; private
medical settings; and specialist charities. Increasingly practices can involve less predictable or
boundaried settings in order to engage people without the impact of medicalization or
institutionalization. Here the emphasis may be on using the music as a means of establishing more
inner resources (Rolvsjord). Music therapy can help those needing stress and pain reduction (Hanser);
children and adults living with the scars of abuse, neglect, trauma, and violence (Sutton); and people
living with cancer or at the end of life (Dileo and Loewy), autoimmune disease (Lee), and dementia
(Aldridge, 2000). Music therapy is developing as a biopsychosocial intervention across the lifespan
(Bruscia, 1991; Bunt and Hoskyns; Edwards; Meadows; Wheeler 2015).

4. The Experience of music therapy: some frameworks.

Some therapists investigate the nature of the music therapy transactions through participant
collaboration, constructing accounts of their lived experiences within music therapy (Hibben). These
narratives attempt to keep the voices of the participants central. Where this is less possible, as with
people who are pre- or non-verbal, observations can be made by family members, carers, or others in
more regular contact.

Music therapists draw from a range of different theoretical and philosophical influences including
acoustics, aesthetics, anthropology, critical theory, developmental psychology, ecology,
ethnomusicology, musicology, neurology, philosophy (Eastern and Western), psychoanalysis, psychology
of music, sociology, and spirituality literatures. These influences can be observed in the way that music
therapy practice has evolved. Balances are struck in different ways, on the one hand drawing influence
and creating external synergies with other disciplines and traditions and on the other involving
internal traditions within music therapy practice and music-making itself. For example, a therapist will
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Music therapy.

balance consideration of social, political, and cultural norms with contextual issues such as the
orientation and philosophical ethos of their specific training background, personal qualities, musical
identity, and individual belief system. In the case of mental health, for example, psychodynamic
therapeutic thinking could be integrated with the concerns of social stigma and marginalization that
many people with mental health issues face. This then influences how the therapist thinks about health
and wellbeing. In such a way any musical transaction can be seen as an ethical, human, social, and
political act (Ruud; Stige).

5. Research Evidence

Research focussed on music therapy varies considerably, involving qualitative explorations of internal
patterns, moods, and themes but also externally observable and measurable outcomes. Recently the
rise of participatory methods and the emphasis on participant perspective has gained ground. Detailed
analyses of the musical process reveal a greater understanding of the microprocesses of musical
interaction in which music itself can be thought of as data or text (Wosch and Wigram). The psychology
of music offers further insights into musical mechanisms as does the sociology of music, the developing
field of the neuroscience of music, and philosophical, theoretical, and spiritual research.

The drive to provide evidence of effective practice, even within periods of economic restraint and
accountability, has challenged music therapists to construct evaluation and research projects. The
practice of music therapy involves a wide range of variable factors, creating significant methodological
challenges for designing control trials on a large scale. Over recent decades hard research evidence
for the efficacy of music therapy in different areas has evolved, including a number of large
randomised controlled trials emerging from a positivistic paradigm using quantitative data. For
example, in the Cochrane Collaboration Library, systematic literature reviews can be found relating to
the fields of music therapy and, variously, music and autistic spectrum disorder (Geretsegger and
others); acquired brain injury (Bradt and others, 2010; Magee and others); dementia (van der Steen
and others; also see McDermott and others); depression (Aalbers and others); cancer care (Bradt and
others, 2011); and schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like disorders (Mössler and others). However, this
work is still in the early stages.

The complexity of the experience and processes of music therapy have been revealed through
constructivist or critical paradigms and where the research material is phenomenological in nature.
Studies have used, for example, hermeneutics, heuristics, grounded theory, and methods such as
thematic, discourse, or narrative analysis. These kinds of studies are typically found in such journals as
The Arts in Psychotherapy and the Nordic Journal of Music Therapy. Barcelona Publishers have
produced series of monographs on qualitative research.

6. Conclusion

Music therapy as a professional discipline has developed a range of practices across the lifespan for
children and adults in diverse healthcare and social settings. Music therapists’ practices range from
the structured individual or small group work within the clinical setting of a hospital context to more

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Music therapy.

community-based settings. Practice is increasingly positioned within a developing music-in-health

arena with an emphasis on a resource-centred approach to exploring wellbeing, in contrast to earlier
deficit-based models. Practitioners can house their practice within a range of emerging theories
bridging both artistic and scientific traditions. As more complex understandings emerge of the
adaptability of music therapy within different practices, so the challenge increases for the resourcing
and development of professional infrastructures around the world.

Bibliography
A Music therapy books. B Music therapy articles, chapters, and papers. C Cochrane Database Reviews. D Other
writings. E Cited articles from Voices: a World Forum for Music Therapy. F Websites.

A: Music therapy books

E.T. Gaston: Music in Therapy (New York, 1968)

J. Alvin: Music Therapy (London, 1975)

K.E. Bruscia: Improvisational Models of Music Therapy (Springfield, IL, 1987)

K.E. Bruscia, ed.: Case Studies in Music Therapy (Phoenixville, PA, 1991)

M. Priestley: Essays on Analytical Music Therapy (Phoenixville, PA, 1994)

D. Aldridge: Music Therapy Research and Practice in Medicine: From Out of the Silence
(London, 1996)

C. Lee: Music at the Edge: the Musical Experiences of a Musician with AIDS (London, 1996)

R.O. Benenzon: Music Therapy Manual: Contributions to the Knowledge of Nonverbal Contexts,
nd
2 edition (Springfield, IL, 1997)

M. Pavlicevic: Music Therapy in Context: Music, Meaning and Relationship (London, 1997)

E. Ruud: Music Therapy: Improvisation, Communication and Culture (Gilsum, NH, 1998)

J. Hibben: Inside Music Therapy: Client Experiences (Gilsum, NH, 1999)

D. Aldridge: Music Therapy in Dementia Care: More New Voices (London, 2000)

D.S. Berger: Music Therapy, Sensory Integration and the Autistic Child (London, 2002)

H.L. Bonny: Music Consciousness: the Evolution of Guided Imagery and Music, ed. L. Summer
(Gilsum, NH, 2002)

L. Bunt and S. Hoskyns, eds.: The Handbook of Music Therapy (Hove, 2002)

B. Stige: Culture-centred Music Therapy (Gilsum, NH, 2002)

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Music therapy.

J. Sutton, ed.: Music, Music Therapy and Trauma: International Perspectives (London, 2002)

T. Wigram: Improvisation: Methods and Techniques for Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators and
Students (London, 2004)

F. Baker and T. Wigram, eds.: Songwriting: Methods, Techniques, and Clinical Applications for
Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators and Students (London, 2005)

C. Dileo and J.W. Loewy, eds.: Music Therapy at the End of Life (Cherry Hill, NJ, 2005)

C. Kenny: Music and Life in the Field of Play: an Anthology (Gilsum, NH, 2006)

D. Grocke and T. Wigram, eds.: Receptive Methods in Music Therapy: Techniques and Clinical
Applications for Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators and Students (London, 2007)

P. Nordoff and C. Robbins: Creative Music Therapy: a Guide to Fostering Clinical Musicianship
(Gilsum, NH, 2/2007)

T. Wosch and T. Wigram, eds.: Microanalysis in Music Therapy: Methods, Techniques and
Applications for Clinicians, Researchers, Educators and Students (London, 2007)

K. Twyford and T. Watson, eds.: Integrated Team Working: Music Therapy as Part of
Transdisciplinary and Collaborative Approaches (London, 2008)

R. Rolvsjord: Resource-oriented Music Therapy in Mental Health Care (Gilsum, NH, 2010)

A. Meadows, ed.: Developments in Music Therapy Practice: Case Study Perspectives (Gilsum,
NH, 2011)

K.E. Bruscia, ed.: Readings on Music Therapy Theory (Gilsum, NH, 2012)

G. Ansdell: How Music Helps: in Music Therapy and Everyday Life (Farnham, 2013)

K.S. Aigen: The Study of Music Therapy: Current Issues and Concepts (London and New York,
2014)

K.E. Bruscia: Defining Music Therapy, 3rd edition (Gilsum, N.H, 2014)

L. Bunt and B. Stige: Music Therapy: an Art beyond Words, 2nd edition (London and New York,
2014).

W. Magee: Music Technology in Therapeutic and Health Settings (London, 2014)

F. Baker: Therapeutic Songwrting: Developments in Theory, Methods and Practice (Basingstoke,

Hampshire, 2015)

B.L. Wheeler, ed.: Music Therapy Handbook (New York and London, 2015)

J. Edwards, ed.: Oxford Handbook of Music Therapy (Oxford, 2016)

B.L. Wheeler and K.M. Murphy, eds.: Music Therapy Research (Dallas, TX, 3/2016)
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Music therapy.

B: Music therapy articles, chapters, and papers

I. Altshuler: ‘The Past, Present and Future of Music Therapy’, Music Therapy, ed. E. Podolsky
(New York, 1954), 24–35

S. Hanser: ‘Controversy in Music Listening/Stress Reduction Research’, The Arts in

Psychotherapy, vol.15 (1988), 211–17

J. Robarts: ‘Music Therapy for Children with Autism’, Children with Autism, ed. C. Trevarthen
and others (London, 1995), 134–60

H.P. Tyler: ‘Frederick Kill Harford: Dilettante Dabbler or Man of our Time?’, Nordic Journal of
Music Therapy, vol.11/1 (2002), 39–42

W.B. Davis and K.E. Gfeller: ‘Music Therapy: Historical Perspective’, An Introduction to Music
Therapy Theory and Practice, ed. W.B. Davis, K.E. Gfeller, and M.H. Thaut (Boston, New York,
3/2008), 27-8

O. McDermott and others: ‘Music Therapy in Dementia: a Narrative Synthesis Systematic

Review’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, vol.28 (2013), 781–94. doi: 10.1002/gps.
3895

C: Cochrane Database Reviews

J. Bradt and others: ‘Music Therapy for Acquired Brain Injury’, Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews (2010), no.7, article no.: CD006787. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006787.pub2

J. Bradt and others; ‘Music Interventions for Improving Psychological and Physical Outcomes in
Cancer Patients’, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2011), no.8, article no.: CD006911,
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006911.pub2

K. Mössler and others: ‘Music Therapy for People with Schizophrenia and Schizophrenia-Like
Disorders’, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2011), no.12, article no.: CD004025.
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004025.pub3

M. Geretsegger and others: ‘Music Therapy for People with Autism Spectrum Disorder’,
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2014), no.6, article no.: CD004381. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub

S. Aalbers and others: ‘Music Therapy for Depression’, Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews (2017), no.11, article no.: CD004517, DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3

W.L. Magee and others: ‘Music Interventions for Acquired Brain Injury’, Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews (2017), no.1, article no.: CD006787, DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD006787.pub3

J.T. van der Steen and others: ‘Music‐based therapeutic interventions for people with dementia’,
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2018), no. 7, article no.: CD003477. DOI:
10.1002/14651858.CD003477.pub4.
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Music therapy.

D: Other writings
V. Zuckerkandl: Man the Musician (Princeton, NJ, 1973)

U. Bronfenbrenner: The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design

(Cambridge, MA, 1979)

J.J. Gibson: The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Boston, 1979)

E. and B. Feder: The ‘Expressive’ Arts Therapies: Art, Music and Dance as Psychotherapy
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1981)

F. Capra: The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture (London, 1982)

D.N. Stern: The Interpersonal Word of the Infant (London, 1985/1998)

I. Bretherton: ‘The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth’,
Developmental Psychology, vol. 28 (1992), 759-75

C. Small: Musicking: the Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover, NH, 1998)

S. Malloch: ‘Mothers and infants and communicative musicality’, Musicæ Scientiæ, special issue
1999-2000, 3, 29-57

T. DeNora: Music in Everyday Life (Cambridge, 2000)

P. Gouk, ed.: Musical Healing in Cultural Contexts (Ashgate, 2000)

P. Horden, ed.: Music as Medicine: the History of Music Therapy since Antiquity (Ashgate, 2000)

D.J. Wallin: Attachment in Psychotherapy (New York, 2007)

S. Malloch and C. Trevarthen, eds.: Communicative Musicality: Exploring the Basis of Human
Companionship (Oxford, 2009)

L. Sugarman: Life-span Development: Frameworks, Accounts and Strategies (New York, 2001)

D.N. Stern: The Present Moment in Psychotherapy and Everyday Life (New York, 2004)

D.N. Stern: Forms of Vitality: Exploring Dynamic Experience in Psychology, the Arts,
Psychotherapy, and Development (Oxford, 2010)

E: Cited articles from Voices: a World Forum for Music Therapy

L.R.M. Barcellos: ‘Music Therapy in South America’, [S.l.], vol.1/1(2001), <https://
www.voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/40/24 <https://www.voices.no/index.php/voices/
article/view/40/24>>, doi:10.15845/voices.v1i1.40

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Music therapy.

R. Ikuno: ‘Fact Sheet of Music Therapy in Japan’, [S.l.], vol.5/1 (2005), <https://www.voices.no/
index.php/voices/article/view/217 <https://www.voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/217>>,
doi:10.15845/voices.v5i1.217

C.O. Aluede: ‘Bibliographical Sources on Music Therapy in Nigeria’, [S.l.], vol.9/3 (2009),
<https://voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/31 <https://voices.no/index.php/voices/article/
view/31>>, doi:10.15845/voices.v9i3.31

S. Sundar: ‘The Cultural Uniqueness of Indian Music Therapy: an Eastern and a Western Voice:
Aurelio interviewed by Sumathy Sundar’, [S.l.], vol.9/1 (2009), <https://voices.no/index.php/
voices/article/view/369/292 <https://voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/369/292>>, doi:
10.15845/voices.v9i1.369

L. Konieczna: ‘Building the First Music Therapy Programme…:a Reflection on New Music
Therapy in a New Place’, [S.l.], vol.9/3 (2010), <https://www.voices.no/index.php/voices/article/
view/55 <https://www.voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/55>>, doi:10.15845/
voices.v9i3.55

E: Cited articles from Voices: a World Forum for Music Therapy

L.R.M. Barcellos: ‘Music Therapy in South America’, vol.1/1(2001), https://doi.org/10.15845/
voices.v1i1.40 <https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v1i1.40>

R. Ikuno: ‘Fact Sheet of Music Therapy in Japan’, vol.5/1 (2005), https://doi.org/10.15845/

voices.v5i1.217 <https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v5i1.217>

C.O. Aluede: ‘Bibliographical Sources on Music Therapy in Nigeria’, vol.9/3 (2009), https://
doi.org/10.15845/voices.v9i3.31 <https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v9i3.31>

S. Sundar: ‘The Cultural Uniqueness of Indian Music Therapy: an Eastern and a Western Voice:
Aurelio interviewed by Sumathy Sundar’, vol.9/1 (2009), https://doi.org/10.15845/
voices.v9i1.369 <https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v9i1.369>

L. Konieczna: ‘Building the First Music Therapy Programme…:a Reflection on New Music
Therapy in a New Place’, vol.9/3 (2010), https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v9i3.55 <https://
doi.org/10.15845/voices.v9i3.55>

F: Websites
www.approaches.gr <http://www.approaches.gr>

www.hcpc-uk.org <http://www.hcpc-uk.org>

www.voices.no <http://www.voices.no>

www.wfmt.info <http://www.wfmt.info>

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Music therapy.

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