4.measure of Central Tendency

Lecture Notes 4
Course No. STA209K; Course Title: Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Location or Position of a distribution

Location or position of a frequency distribution is the value of the variable around which most of the
values in the distribution tend to cluster.
Measure of Central Tendency
The measure which usually reflects the complete dataset and falls in the centre of the array is known
as measure of central tendency since it tends to lie in the centre.
Example: An average of a set of values of a variable which is typical or representative of the whole
data.
Characteristics of an Ideal Measure of Central Tendency
1. It should be rigidly defined so that its value is stable and presents the whole data set.
2. It should be easy to understand and easy to calculate with accuracy even by a non-
mathematical person.
3. It should be based on all the observations of the data set.
4. It should be so defined that the measure is amenable to mathematical treatment in further
analysis.
5. It should be affected as small as possible by sampling fluctuation.
6. It should not be affected by extreme observations.
 The following are the measures of Central Tendency

(i) Mean
(ii) Median
(iii) Mode
Mean is of three types:
(1) Arithmetic Mean
(2) Geometric Mean
(3) Harmonic Mean
(1) Arithmetic Mean (AM): Arithmetic mean of a set of observations is their sum divided by the
number of observations. e.g. the AM, 𝑥, of n observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 is given by
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +.........+𝑥𝑛 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥= = .
𝑛 𝑛
Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Department of Statistics, SUST, Sylhet. Email: mr.bhuia@sust.edu
Page 1 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
In case of frequency distribution, where fi is the frequency of the variable x,

i.e.
Value (xi) Frequency (fi) fixi
x1 f1 f1x1
x2 f2 f2x2
. .. ..
xn fn fnxn
𝑓1 𝑥1 +𝑓2 𝑥2 +.........+𝑓𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥= = ∑𝑛
=
𝑓1 +𝑓2 +.......+𝑓𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑁
In case of grouped or continuous frequency distribution, x is taken as the mid-value of the
corresponding class.
Example: Find the arithmetic mean from the following frequency distribution:
Class Interval Frequency
11-13 3
13-15 4
15-17 5
17-19 10
19-21 6
21-23 4
23-25 3
Solution:
Class Interval Mid-value (xi) Frequency (fi) fixi
11-13 12 3 36
13-15 14 4 56
15-17 16 5 80
17-19 18 10 180
19-21 20 6 120
21-23 22 4 88
23-25 24 3 72
∑ 𝑓𝑖 = 35 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 632
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 632
 𝐴𝑀 = ∑𝑛
= = 18.06.
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 35

Page 2 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
Properties of Arithmetic Mean:

(i) The algebraic sum of the deviations of the observations from the arithmetic mean is zero. i.e.
−
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )= 0.
−
Proof: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 - 𝑥̅ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
=Nx -Nx
= 0.
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Where, 𝑥= 𝑁
 N x =∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
(ii) Sum of squares of the deviations of a set of observations is minimum when the deviations are
−
taken about the AM. i.e. ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴)2 > ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )2 .
Proof: Let x be the arithmetic mean and A is an arbitrary value.

− −
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴)2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 {(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑥 − 𝐴)}2
− 2 −
= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 ) + 2( x -A) ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )+ ( x -A)2∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
− 2 −
= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 ) + N( x -A)2 Since ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )= 0.
−
Therefore, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴)2 > ∑𝑛𝑖−1 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )2 .
(iii) Arithmetic mean depends on origin and scale.

Proof: Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 be the mid values of a frequency distribution with equal class interval and the
corresponding frequencies be 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑛 respectively. Then the mean of the distribution is
1
𝑋 = 𝑁 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , where N=∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
𝑥𝑖−𝐴
Let 𝑢𝑖 = , (i = 1,2, 3, …, n)
ℎ
where, 𝑢𝑖 is a transformed variable, A is the provisional mean taken to be equal to one of the mid-
values, and h is the size of the class interval.
The above relation can be rewritten as follows:
𝑥𝑖 = 𝐴 + ℎ𝑢𝑖
or, 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 𝐴𝑓𝑖 + ℎ𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
or, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑓𝑖 + h∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 [Summing over both sides over i from 1 to n]
1 𝑛 𝐴 ℎ
or, ∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖
= 𝑁 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑁 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝐴
or, 𝑋 = 𝑁.𝑁 + ℎ𝑢
or, 𝑋 = 𝐴 + ℎ𝑢

Page 3 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

Thus, arithmetic mean X depends on change of origin A and scale h.
(iv) If a set of m observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑚 and that of n observations 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 have means 𝑥 and

𝑦 respectively, then the combined mean 𝑧 of (m+n)_ observations of the two sets is
𝑚𝑥 +𝑛𝑦̅
𝑧̅ = 𝑚+𝑛
.
∑𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Proof: By definition, the mean 𝑥 of the first set is 𝑥 = 𝑚
⇒ ∑𝑚
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖
Similarly, the mean 𝑦 of the second set is 𝑦 = 𝑛
⇒ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑛𝑦.
The combined set consists of the following (m+n) observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑚 , and 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛
Thus, the mean of combined set is
(𝑥1 +𝑥2 +.....+𝑥𝑚 )+(𝑦1 +𝑦2+......+𝑦𝑛 )
𝑧= 𝑚+𝑛
∑𝑚 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 +∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖
= 𝑚+𝑛
_
𝑚𝑥 +𝑛𝑦̅
= 𝑚+𝑛 .
_
 If 𝑥𝑖 (i = 1,2,….,k) are the means of k series of sizes ni (i = 1,2,….,k) respectively, then the mean 𝑥
of the combined series can be obtained by the formula
− − _
𝑛1 𝑥1 +𝑛2 𝑥2 +...........+𝑛𝑘 𝑥𝑘
x= 𝑛1 +𝑛2 +....𝑛𝑘
.
Ex. If 20 students in a statistics course in one section receives an average score of 67, the 18 students
in a second section receives 57, and the 12 students in the third section receives 62, then the overall
score of these 20+18+12=50 students is given by
20  67  18  57  12  62 3110
x =   62.2 .
20  18  12 50
Merits:
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.
3. It is based upon all the observations.
4. It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.
5. Of all the averages, AM affected least by sampling fluctuation.
Demerits:
1. It cannot be determined by inspection nor can it be located graphically.
2. AM cannot be used if we are dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as intelligence,
honesty, beauty etc.

Page 4 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

3. AM cannot obtain if a single observation is missing or lost unless we drop it out and compute
the arithmetic mean of the remaining values.
4. AM is affected very much by extreme values.
5. It does not provide exact value for open-end classes.
Short-cut Method of Computing Arithmetic Mean:

Let h be the width of class interval and a be an arbitrary mid-point. We then define U as follows:
𝑥𝑖 −𝐴
𝑢𝑖 = ℎ
 𝑥𝑖 = 𝐴 + ℎ𝑢𝑖
 𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ℎ𝑢̅
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑈𝑖
where, 𝑢̅ = ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
Consider the following example:

Class Interval Mid-value Frequency 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑎 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑖
(𝑥𝑖 ) (𝑓𝑖 ) ℎ
48.5-53.5 51 2 -4 -8
53.5-58.5 56 2 -3 -6
58.5-63.5 61 3 -2 -6
63.5-68.5 66 5 -1 -5
68.5-73.5 71 5 0 0
73.5-78.5 76 5 1 5
78.5-83.5 81 5 2 10
83.5-88.5 86 7 3 21
88.5-93.5 91 10 4 40
93.5-98.5 96 6 5 30
∑10
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 = 50 ∑10
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 = 81
𝑥𝑖 −71
Here, A = 71, h = 5 and 𝑢𝑖 = 5
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 81
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑢̅ = = = 1.62
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 50
_ _
∴ 𝑥 = 𝐴 + ℎ𝑢 = 71 + 5 × 1.62 = 79.1

Page 5 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
(2) Geometric Mean. Geometric Mean of a set of n non-zero positive observations is the nth root of
their product.
Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 be n non-zero positive observations of a series of data. Then the GM is,
1
𝐺𝑀 = 𝐺 = (𝑥1 . 𝑥2 . … . 𝑥𝑛 )𝑛
The calculation may sometimes be simplified by taking logarithm,
𝑛
1
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝐺 = ∑ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
1
𝐺= 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥𝑖 ]
𝑛
In case of frequency distribution, GM is given by,
1
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝐺= [𝑥11 𝑥12 … 𝑥𝑛𝑛 ]𝑁 , where, 𝑁 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖
1
 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐺 = 𝑁 ∑𝑛𝑖= 𝑓𝑖 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑖
1
 𝐺 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑁 ∑𝑛𝑖= 𝑓𝑖 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑖 ]
Example: Suppose the sales of a departmental store had increased from taka 2 lac in 1990 to taka 4
lac in 1991 and taka 6 lac in1992. What is the average rate of increase in sales per year?
6−2
Solution: The increase is ( )100=200 percent over the 2-year period 1990-92. This is obviously wrong
2
since the average rate of increase per year was much less.
The appropriate average in this instance is the geometric mean. Since the sales in 1991 was twice as
high as in1990, and the sales in1992 was 1.5 times as high as in 1991, the GM of these two values is G
= 2  1.5 = 3 = 1.7325. Thus, the average rate of increase in sales per year is 1.7325-1=0.7325 i.e.
73.25%.
Example: In Growth Rates

The geometric mean is used in finance to calculate average growth rates and is referred to as
the compounded annual growth rate. Consider a stock that grows by 10% in year one, declines by 20%
in year two, and then grows by 30% in year three. What is the growth rate of the company?
Solution: The geometric mean of the growth rate is calculated as follows:
1
𝐺𝑀 = ((1 + 0.1) ∗ (1 − 0.2) ∗ (1 + 0.3))3 − 1 = 0.046 𝑜𝑟 4.6% 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦.
Merits:
4. It is not affected much by sampling fluctuations.

Page 6 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

5. It gives comparatively more weight to small items.
Demerits:
1. Because of its abstract mathematical character GM is not easy to understand and to calculate for
a non-mathematics student.
2. If any one of the observations is zero, GM becomes zero and if any one observation is negative,
GM becomes imaginary regardless of the magnitude of the other items.
Uses:
The geometric mean is most useful when numbers in the series are not independent of each other or
if numbers tend to make large fluctuations.
1. To calculate average of ratios and percentages.
2. To calculate the growth rate of population and average rate of increase or decrease in economics
activities.
3. To calculate index number.
3. Harmonic Mean. The Harmonic Mean of a set of 𝑛 non-zero observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 in a series is

the reciprocal to the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals. That is,
𝑛
𝐻𝑀 =
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝑥𝑖
𝑁
In case of frequency distribution, 𝐻𝑀 = 𝑓𝑖 , where ∑ 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑁
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Example 1: Suppose an aero plane flies around a square with 100 miles long side, taking the first side
at 100m/h, the second side at 200m/h, the third side at 300 m/h and fourth side at 400 m/h. What
is the average speed of the plane in its flight around the square?
Solution: Here the HM is the appropriate measure for the average speed.
4 4 × 1200
𝐻𝑀 = = = 192 𝑚/ℎ
1 1 1 1 25
+ +
100 200 300 400 +
Example 2: A train moves first 50 km at a sped of 60 km/hour, second 50 km at a speed of 75

km/hour, third 50 km at a speed of 65 km/hour and fourth 50 km at a speed of 80 km/hour. What
is the average speed of the train throughout the journey?
Solution: Given 𝑥1 = 60, 𝑥2 = 75, 𝑥3 = 65, and 𝑥4 = 80.

Since the train covers same distance at each step, the distance can be ignored in calculating the
average speed.
The average speed (harmonic mean) is given by

Page 7 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
𝑛 4
𝐻𝑀 = = = 69.10 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟.
1 1 1 1 1
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝑥𝑖 60 + 75 + 65 + 80
Example 3: A plane moves 1st 800 km at a speed of 600 km/hour, second 400 km at a speed of 800
km/hour and last 200 km at a speed of 500 km/hour. Find the average speed of the plane.
Solution: Let the speeds be 𝑥1 = 600, 𝑥2 = 800, and 𝑥3 = 500 and the distances covered by the plane
be 𝑑1 = 800, 𝑑2 = 400, and 𝑑3 = 200. The time taken to cover the distances are
𝑑1 800 𝑑2 400 𝑑3 200
𝑡1 = = ,𝑡 = = , and 𝑡3 = =
𝑥1 600 2 𝑥2 800 𝑥3 500
The average speed (i.e., HM) of the plane is
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 800 + 400 + 200

𝐻𝑀 = = = 626.86 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 800 400 200
+ +
600 800 500
The average speed is known as weighted harmonic mean, where weights are the distances covered.
Merits.
4. It is not affected much by sampling fluctuations.
5. It gives greater importance to small items and is useful only when small items have to give very
high weightage.
Demerits.
1. It is not easy to understand and is difficult to calculate.
2. It cannot be calculated if any observation is zero.
3. It is impossible to calculate for open-end class interval.
Uses. HM is used –
1. To calculate average speed of any vehicle.
2. To calculate the average growth rate and average profit in any business.
4. Median. The median is defined as the middle most observation when the observations are
arranged in order of magnitude (ascending or descending).
𝑛+1 th
For ungrouped data, when n is odd, the median is the middle most observation, i.e., ( 2
)
observation is the series.
For example – Let a series be 5, 10, 7, 3, 2, where, n = 5
Therefore, ascending order of this series be 2,3,5,7,10

Page 8 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

Hence the median of the series is 5.
𝑛 𝑛+1 th
Again, when n is even, the median will be the arithmetic mean of 2 th and ( 2
) observations in the
series.
e.g. - Let us consider the values 11,3,9,5,7,12,15,18; n = 8
Ascending order: 3,5,7,9,11,13,15,18
9+11 8 8
So, the median is 2
= 10, i.e., [2 𝑡ℎ = 4𝑡ℎ& (2 + 1) = 5𝑡ℎ]
For grouped frequency distribution the median is given by
𝑁
− 𝐹𝑐
𝑀𝑒 = 𝐿 + ( 2 )×ℎ
𝑓
where,
L = the lower limit of the median class (median class is that class which contain 𝑛⁄2th
observation of the series)
N = total number of observations,
Fc = cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class,
f = frequency of the median class,
h = Length of the median class.
Example. Consider the following frequency distribution
Class Boundaries Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (C.F.)

29.5-39.5 10 10
39.5-49.5 30 40
49.5-59.5 70 110
59.5-69.5 200 310
69.5-79.5 150 460

79.5-89.5 120 580
89.5-99.5 20 600
𝑁
− 𝐹𝑐
𝑀𝑒 = 𝐿 + ( 2 )×ℎ
𝑓
𝑁 600
Here, 2
= 2
= 300
Therefore, the median class is 59.5-69.5. L = 59.5, 𝐹𝑐 = 110, f = 200, h = 10
300−110
Therefore, 𝑀𝑒 = 59.5 + × 10 = 59.5 + 9.5 = 69.
200

Page 9 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
Locating Median graphically
(i) Using Histogram:

Total area = 10(Height of the 1st rectangle) +…………+ 10(Height of the 7th rectangle)
= 10(10+30+70+200+150+120+20)
= 6000
𝑁 6000
Now divide the total area into two, 2
= 2
= 3000
The first three rectangles have cumulative area = 10  10 +10  30 + 10  70 =1100.
This corresponds to the lower limit 59.5.
To arrive at an area of 3000, we need an additional area of 1900. Let L be the lower limit of the fourth
rectangle and x0 be the point between the two limits 59.5 and 69.5.
Thus Me = L+ x0. But x0  200 =1900. i.e., x0 = 9.5
Hence Me = L+ x0 = 59.5 + 9.5 = 69.
(ii) Using Ogive: To determine median graphically, draw a less than type ogive. It is then required
𝑁
to draw a horizontal line through the point parallel to the X-axis and draw from the point of
2
intersection of the line and ogive another line perpendicular to the X-axis. The point, at which the
perpendicular cuts the X-axis, is approximately the median.
Merits.
2. It is easy to understand and easy to calculate. In some cases, it can be located merely by
inspection.
3. It is not at all affected by extreme values.
4. It can be calculated for distributions with open-end classes.
Demerits.
1. In case of even number of observations median cannot be determined exactly.
2. It is not based on all the observations.
3. It is not amenable to algebraic treatment.
4. As compared with AM, it is affected much by sampling fluctuations.
Uses.
1. Median is the only average to be used while dealing with qualitative data which cannot be
measured quantitatively but still can be arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude,
e.g., to find the average intelligence or average honesty among a group of people.

Page 10 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

2. It is to be used for determining the typical value in problems concerning wages, distribution of
wealth etc.
5. Mode. The mode is the value of the variable that occurs most frequently, i.e., for which the
frequency is maximum. It is the most fashionable value of the variable. The mode is often denoted
by Mo and is frequently referred to as the modal value.
For example – The number of children in 10 families be as follows:
3, 4, 1, 0, 3, 2, 3, 5, 3, 2
Then the mode of this series is 3 because this value occurs most frequently in the series.
For grouped frequency distribution, the mode can be obtained from the formula
𝛥1
𝑀0 = 𝐿 + ×ℎ
𝛥1 + 𝛥2
𝑓1 −𝑓0
=𝐿+ × ℎ
(𝑓1 −𝑓0 )+(𝑓1 −𝑓2 )
where,
L = lower limit of the modal class.
Δ1 = the difference between the frequency of the modal class and pre-modal class (f1-f0).
Δ2 = the difference between the frequency of the modal class and post-modal class (f1-f2).
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2 = frequency of the class following the modal class,
h = length of the modal class.
Example. Consider the following frequency distribution

Class Boundaries Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (C.F.)
29.5-39.5 10 10
39.5-49.5 30 40
49.5-59.5 70 110
59.5-69.5 200 310
69.5-79.5 150 460

79.5-89.5 120 580
89.5-99.5 20 600
Here, the Modal class is 59.5-69.5.

L = 59.5, Δ1 = 200-70 = 130, Δ2 = 200-150 = 50, h = 10
130
Therefore, 𝑀0 = 59.5 + 130+50 × 10 = 59.5 + 7.22 = 66.72.

Page 11 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

Locating Mode Graphically.
In a histogram, the class with the highest frequency represents the modal class. The two adjacent
rectangles on both sides of the highest rectangle represent the pre-modal and post-modal classes.
From the point of intersection of two connecting lines from the two top ends of the adjacent rectangles
on both sides across the highest rectangle, a perpendicular is drawn to the X-axis. Then the mode is
the abscissa of the point at which the perpendicular cuts the X-axis.
Example: The marks distribution of 95 students are given below:
Solution: Firstly, we draw the histogram of the given data. Here, maximum height of rectangle is
25.50 modal class is 30-40.
It is clear from the histogram that the value of mode is 35.
Merits.
1. Mode is readily comprehensible and easy to calculate. Like median, in some cases it can be
located merely by inspection.
2. It is not at all affected by extreme values.
3. Mode can be conveniently located even if the frequency distribution has class intervals of unequal
magnitude provided the modal class and the classes preceding and succeeding it are of the same
magnitude. Open-end classes also do not pose any problem in the location of mode.
Demerits.
1. Mode is ill-defined. It is not always possible to find a clearly defined mode.

Page 12 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

2. It is not based on all the observations.
3. It is not capable of further mathematical treatment.
4. As compared with AM, it is affected to greater extent by sampling fluctuations.
Uses.
Mode is the average to be used to find the ideal size, e.g. in business forecasting, in manufacturing
of ready-made garments, shoes, etc.
 Quadratic Mean or Root Mean Square (QM or RMS) If we have a set of n observations
represented by 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , then the QM of these values is given by
𝑥12 +𝑥22 +.......+𝑥𝑛
2 ∑𝑛 2
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Q=√ 𝑛
=√ 𝑛
This mean is seen to have applications in physical and engineering sciences.
Summary of when to use the mean, median and mode
Type of Variable Best measure of central tendency

Nominal Mode
Ordinal Median
Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean
Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median
Other Measures of Location
Quantiles: The quartiles, deciles and percentiles are collectively known as quantiles. Quantiles are
those values in a series, which divide the total frequency into number of equal parts when the series
is arranged in order of magnitude.
Quartiles: Quartiles are those values, which divide the total frequency into four equal parts. There
are three quartiles, i.e., 1st quartile (Q1), 2nd quartile (Q2) and the third quartile (Q3). Second quartile
Q2 is equal to the median.
For group frequency distribution, the quartiles are given by
𝑖𝑥𝑁
− 𝐹𝑖
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 + 4 × ℎ, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3.
𝑓𝑖
Where, Li = lower limit of the ith quartile class
N= total number of observations,
Fi= cumulative frequency of the class preceding the quartile class,
fi = frequency of the quartile class,
h= Length of the quartile class.

Page 13 of 16
Lecture Notes 4
Deciles. Deciles are those values which divide the total frequency into 10 equal parts. There are 9
deciles. These are D1, D2, …, D9. The 5th decile or D5 is the second quartile or median (D5 = Q2 = Me).
For grouped frequency distribution, the deciles are given by
𝑗×𝑁
− 𝐹𝑗
𝐷𝑗 = 𝐿𝑗 + 10 × ℎ, 𝑗 = 1, 2, … , 9
𝑓𝑗
where Lj= lower limit of the jth decile class.
N = total number of observation (frequency);
Fj = Cumulative frequency of the preceding jth decile class;
fj = frequency of the jth decile class, and
h = length of class interval of the jth decile class.
Percentiles. Percentiles are those values which divided the total frequency into 100 equal parts. Thus,
we have 99 percentiles. These are P1  P2  P3  …  P50  …  P99. The median is the 50th percentile P50 as
well as 5th decile (D5) and 2nd quartile (Q2).
For grouped frequency distribution, the percentiles are given by,
𝑘×𝑁
− 𝐹𝑘
𝑃𝑘 = 𝐿𝑘 + 100 × ℎ, 𝑘 = 1, 2, … , 99
𝑓𝑘
where Lk = lower limit of the kth percentile class.

N = total number of observation (frequency);
Fk = Cumulative frequency of the preceding kth percentile class;
fk = frequency of the kth percentile class, and
h = length of class interval of the kth percentile class.
Example: Find (a) 1st and 3rd quartile, (b) 7th decile and (c) 62nd percentile from the frequency
distribution given below:
Class Interval Frequency Cumulative frequency
11-13 3 3
13-15 4 7
15-17 5 12
17-19 10 22
19-21 6 28
21-23 4 32
23-25 3 35

Page 14 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

𝑁 35
(a) (15-17) is the 1st quartile class because 4 𝑡ℎ = 4 𝑡ℎ = 8.75th observation lies in that class.
8.75−7
Hence, 𝑄1 = 15 + 5
× 2= 15+ 0.70 = 15.70
3×𝑁 3×35
4
= 4
= 26.25𝑡ℎ observation falls in the class (19-21).
26.25−22
Hence, 𝑄3 = 19 + 6
× 2= 20.42.
7×𝑁 7×35
(b) 7th decile class is (19-21), because = = 24.5
10 10
24.5−22
Hence, 𝐷7 = 19 + 6
× 2= 19.83.
62×𝑁 62×35
(c) 62nd percentile class is (17-19), because 100 = 100 = 21.7
21.7−12
Hence, 𝑃62 =17+ 10 × 2= 18.94.
Trimean:
A trimean is a number that represents the general tendency of a set of numbers or data set. It is also
a measure of central tendency. The trimean is defined as the weighted average of the median and the
two quartiles. Thus, mathematically it is written as
𝑄1 + 2𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑇𝑀 =
4
Where, TM = Trimean, 𝑄2 = the median, 𝑄1 =1 quartile and 𝑄3 = 3rd quartile.
st
Trimmed Mean:
Trimmed Mean a method of averaging that removes a small percentage of the largest and smallest
values before calculating the mean. This number of points to be discarded is usually given as a
percentage of the total number of points, but may also be given as a fixed number of points.
The 10% trimmed mean is the mean computed by excluding the 10% largest and 10% smallest values
from the sample and taking the arithmetic mean of the remaining 80% of the sample (other trimmed
mean are possible: 5%, 20%, etc.
Example: Consider the sample data: 5, 4, 7, 6, 8, 10, 11, 0, 7, 18 whose order statistics (rearranged
from smallest to largest) are 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 10, 11, 18.
The 10% trimmed mean is calculated by omitting 0 and 18 values.
Now, the trimmed mean is given by
4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 8 + 10 + 11
𝑥̅10 = = 7.25
8

Page 15 of 16
Lecture Notes 4

Uses of trimmed mean:
The median can be regarded as a fully truncated mean and is most robust. As with other trimmed
estimators, the main advantage of the trimmed mean is robustness and higher efficiency for mixed
distributions and heavy-tailed distribution (like the Cauchy distribution).
Theorem 1: For two non-zero positive observations prove that AM  HM  GM 2 .

Proof: Let the two observations be 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 X1, Then, by definition
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 1 1 2X1 𝑋2
AM = , GM = (𝑋1 . 𝑋2 )2 and HM = =
2 1 1 1 𝑋1 + 𝑋2
2 (𝑋1 + 𝑋2 )
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 2X1 𝑋2
Therefore, 𝐴𝑀 × HM = . = X1 𝑋2
2 𝑋1 + 𝑋2
1 2
= {(𝑋1 𝑋2 )2 } = GM 2
Hence, 𝐴𝑀 × HM = GM 2 .

Page 16 of 16

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Lecture Notes 4

Course No. STA209K; Course Title: Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency

Location or Position of a distribution

 The following are the measures of Central Tendency

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

In case of frequency distribution, where fi is the frequency of the variable x,

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Properties of Arithmetic Mean:

Proof: Let x be the arithmetic mean and A is an arbitrary value.

(iii) Arithmetic mean depends on origin and scale.

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

(iv) If a set of m observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑚 and that of n observations 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 have means 𝑥 and

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Short-cut Method of Computing Arithmetic Mean:

Consider the following example:

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Example: In Growth Rates

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

3. Harmonic Mean. The Harmonic Mean of a set of 𝑛 non-zero observations 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 in a series is

Example 2: A train moves first 50 km at a sped of 60 km/hour, second 50 km at a speed of 75

Solution: Given 𝑥1 = 60, 𝑥2 = 75, 𝑥3 = 65, and 𝑥4 = 80.

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 800 + 400 + 200

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Class Boundaries Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (C.F.)

59.5-69.5 200 310

69.5-79.5 150 460

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Locating Median graphically

(i) Using Histogram:

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Example. Consider the following frequency distribution

59.5-69.5 200 310

69.5-79.5 150 460

Here, the Modal class is 59.5-69.5.

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Example: The marks distribution of 95 students are given below:

It is clear from the histogram that the value of mode is 35.

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

This mean is seen to have applications in physical and engineering sciences.

Summary of when to use the mean, median and mode

Type of Variable Best measure of central tendency

Other Measures of Location

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

where Lk = lower limit of the kth percentile class.

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor

Measures of Central Tendency

Course Instructor: Mohammad Romel Bhuia, Associate Professor