HUST PH1016 5/11/2022

Introduction

Course Information
• Course of Physics for engineering
students (General Physics or University
Physics) consists of three parts:
 Physics I: Mechanics
Physics (Greek: physis – φύσις meaning "nature")
is the natural science which examines basic concepts  Physics II: Electromagnetics &
such as energy, force, and space, time and all that derives Thermal Physics
from these, such as mass, charge, matter and its motion.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
 Physics III: Optics & Quantum Physics

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• Course has several components:

 Lectures Lectures
 Discussion sections (tutorials, problem
solving, quizzes) • Turn off your cell phone in lecture
 Homework
• Bring your textbook
 Labs: (group exploration of physical
phenomena) • Pls. NO chatting or private work in
• Exams and grading: lecture
 Scores on the components: homework, • Note taking:
lab works and mid-semester exams are – Lecture notes will be sent to your group’s
mail after each lecture
counted up with the weight 0.3
 Scores on the final exam are counted
with the weight 0.7
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The syllabus
How does Physics work? • References links
– http://course.physastro.iastate.edu/phys221/
units
– http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/phys211/fall09/required_mater
ials.html
Observe
• Lecturer contact: Communication by E-mail only
and
tuoc.vungoc@hust.edu.vn
measure
• Textbook and other course material:
Build a – Young and Freedman - University Physics with Modern Physics w
model Solution 13e
– Halliday, Fundamentals of Physics Extended, 8e
check – Modern Physics Serway 3e
• On-line video lecturer:
Make a – http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-physics-i-classical-
prediction mechanics-fall-2010/
– http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-200
– http://muller.lbl.gov/teaching/physics10/pffp.html

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Why study physics? • what are processes inside plants, animals,…

 Physics is one of the most
fundamental of the sciences:
Scientists of all disciplines
(chemists, biologists,
engineers,…)
must have knowledge about
principles and laws of physics.
For example:
• what is matter consists of ?
(molecules, atoms, nuclears)
• why there are different che-
mical elements in the nature,
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• what are the nature and properties of
electricity, light, X-ray,
• laser, and many, many things,…
 The study of physics gives you the
sense of beauty as well as intelligence:
• You can share some of the excitement of new
discoveries of Galileo, Newton, Maxwell,
Einstein…
• You have a satisfaction of finding answers to
the questions: why the sky is blue, how radio
waves can travel through empty space, how a
satellite can stay in orbit,…
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SI Units
10-24
10-21
yocto-
zepto-
y
z
Multiples of Units
10-18 atto- a
Used by scientific and engineering communities and almost 10-15 femto- f Formal conversion of units:
everywhere in the world.
10-12 pico- p
Multiply by the appropriate
Length: The meter (1 m = 3.281 ft) 10-9 nano- n
10-6 micro- 
representation of 1 to cancel
Mass: The kilogram (1 kg = 0.06585 slug) 10-3 milli- m
the unwanted units away:
Not the same as weight!
on Earth 1 kg weighs 2.205 lb
10-2 centi- c eg. convert 10 mph into m/s
on the Moon 1 kg weighs 0.368 lb 103 kilo- k
106 mega- M
Time: The second (s) mile mile 1h 1609 m
109 giga- G 10  10   
1012 tera- T h h 3600 s 1 mile
Combinations: 1015 peta- P  4.47 m/s
Unit of speed m/s 1018 exa- E
Unit of force (Newton) is 1 N =1 kg m/s² 1021 zetta- Z
1024 yotta- Y

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Unit consistency and conversions Unit consistency and conversions

• An equation must be dimensionally consistent. • An equation must be dimensionally consistent.
Terms to be added or equated must always Terms to be added or equated must always
have the same units. (Be sure you’re adding have the same units. (Be sure you’re adding
“apples to apples.”) “apples to apples.”)

• OK: 5 meters/sec x 10 hours =~ 2 x 102 km

• OK: 5 meters/sec x 10 hours =~ 2 x 102 km
5 meters/sec x 10 hour x (3600 sec/hour)
= 180,000 meters = 180 km = ~ 2 x 102 km • NOT: 5 meters/sec x 10 kg = 50 Joules
(velocity) x (mass) = (energy)

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Consistency of Equations Significant figures

If A=B then A and B must have the same Measurement tools and human perception have limitations.
Eg. A distance measured with a ruler with millimeter markings
combination of units (dimensionality). cannot be 1.047243 m
Correct value is 1.047 m
The last three digits
are meaningless (4 significant figures)

• For example Keep track of that in calculations

(distance)=(speed)(time) Eg. Find the distance covered by a car moving at 31.6 mph for 35 minutes.
1h Last digit is meaningless, but you
[m] = ([m]/[s]) [s] 35 min
60 min
 0.583 h
can keep it…

miles
distance  31.6  0.583 h  18.4 miles
h
• Units provide a very powerful cross- Correct answer is 18 miles
check. (only 2 significant figures given for time)

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Scientific notation and significant Measurement & Uncertainty

figures No measurement is exact; there is always
some uncertainty due to limited instrument
Number Significant figures
accuracy and difficulty reading results.
3.4 2

3.40 / 3.45 3

0.3 / 3 / 0.0003 1

30 1 or 2?

3 × 102 1

3.0 × 102 2

3.00 × 102 3

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Measurement & Uncertainty Significant Figures

– The uncertainty of a measured quantity Number of significant figures = number of

is indicated by its number of significant “reliably known digits” in a number.
figures.
Often possible to tell # of significant figures by the way the number
• Ex: 8.7 centimeters is written:
–2 sig figs
• 23.21 cm = four significant figures.
– Specific rules for significant figures exist
• 0.062 cm = two significant figures
– In online homework, sig figs matter! (initial zeroes don’t count).

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Significant Figures Rules for Significant Figures

Numbers ending in zero are ambiguous. •When multiplying or dividing numbers, or

Does the last zero mean uncertainty to a using functions, result has as many sig figs as
factor of 10, or just 1? term with fewest (the least precise).

Is 20 cm precise to 10 cm, or 1? We need rules!

•ex: 11.3 cm x 6.8 cm = 77 cm.

• 20 cm = one significant figure

(trailing zeroes don’t count w/o decimal point) •When adding or subtracting, answer is no
more precise than least precise number used.
• 20. cm = two significant figures
(trailing zeroes DO count w/ decimal point)

• 20.0 cm = three significant figures • ex: 1.213 + 2 = 3, not 3.213!

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Significant Figures
•Calculators will not give right # of
sig figs; usually give too many but
sometimes give too few (especially if
there are trailing zeroes after a
decimal point).
•top image: result of 2.0/3.0
•bottom image: result of 2.5 x 3.2
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Measurement & Uncertainty
No measurement is exact; there is always
some uncertainty due to limited instrument
accuracy and difficulty reading results.
Photo illustrates this – it would
be difficult to measure the
width of this board more
accurately than ± 1 mm.
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Measurement and Uncertainty
•Scientific notation is commonly used in
physics; it allows the number of significant
figures to be clearly shown.
•Ex: cannot easily tell how many
significant figures in “36,900”.
•However, if we write 3.69 x 104, we
know it has three; if we write 3.690 x
104, it has four.
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Uncertainty and significant figures
– Every measurement has uncertainty
• Ex: 8.7 cm (2 sig figs)
–“8” is (fairly) certain
–8.6? 8.8?
–8.71? 8.69?
– Good practice – include uncertainty
with every measurement!
• 8.7  0.1 meters
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Uncertainty and significant figures Relative Uncertainty

– Uncertainty should match •Relative uncertainty: ratio of uncertainty to

measurement in the least precise measured value, multiplied by 100.
digit:
•ex. 8.8 ± 0.1 cm
• 8.7  0.1 centimeters
• 8.70  0.10 centimeters What is the relative uncertainty in this
• 8.709  0.034 centimeters measurement?
• 8  1 centimeters

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Uncertainty and significant figures— Uncertainty and significant figures—

Figure 1.7 Figure 1.7

• Physics involves – As this train mishap

approximations; these can illustrates, even a small
affect the precision of a percent error can have
measurement. spectacular results!

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Conceptual Example: Significant figures Conceptual Example: Significant figures

Using a protractor, you measure an angle to be 30°. Using a protractor, you measure an angle to be 30°.

(a) How many significant figures should you quote in this (a) How many significant figures should you quote in this
measurement? measurement? What uncertainty?
2 sig figs! (30. +/- 1 degrees or 3.0 x 101 +/- 1
degrees)

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Conceptual Example: Significant figures Conceptual Example: Significant figures

Using a protractor, you measure an angle to be 30°. Using a protractor, you measure an angle to be 30°.

(b) What result would a calculator give for the cosine of (b) What result would a calculator give for the cosine of
this result? What should you report? this result? What should you report?

0.866025403, but to two sig figs, 0.87!

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Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy is how close a measurement comes
to the true value.
ex. Acceleration of Earth’s gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
Your experiment produces 10 ± 1 m/sec2
• You were accurate! How accurate? Measured
• |Actual – Measured|/Actual x 100%
• | 9.81 – 10 | / 9.81 x 100% = 1.9%
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Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy is how close a measurement comes
to the true value. (established by % error)
Precision is the repeatability of the
measurement using the same instrument.
ex. Your experiment produces 8.334 m/sec2
for the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
Were you accurate? Were you precise?
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Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy is how close a measurement comes
to the true value. (established by % error)
Precision is the repeatability of the
measurement using the same instrument.
by ERROR.
Precision is reflected by significant
figures in your measurements!
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Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy is how close a measurement comes
to the true value. (established by % error)
Precision is the repeatability of the
measurement using the same instrument.
ex. Your experiment produces 8.334 m/sec2
for the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
Accuracy: 15% error (your subjective decision)
Precision: 4 sig figs (implying very precise)
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Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating

CHAPTER I
Quick way to estimate calculated quantity:
• round off all numbers in a calculation to Kinematics of Material
one significant figure and then
calculate. Point
• result should be right order of
§1. Motion in one dimension
magnitude
§2. Motion in two and three dimensions
• expressed by rounding off to nearest
power of 10 §3. Circular motion
• 104 meters
• 108 light years
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Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating

An overview of Mechanics
Example: Volume of a lake
Mechanics: study of the motion of objects.
1. Kinematics: How do things move?
2. Dynamics: Why do things move? For some
problems, the Estimate how much
3. Conservation laws: math is easier
to handle with
water there is in a
•Work-energy particular lake, which is
•Momentum (linear and angular) roughly circular, about
4. Some special cases: 1 km across, and you
•Rigid body motion guess it has an average
•Simple harmonic motion depth of about 10 m.
•Gravitational forces, Hooke’s law…

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Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating

Example: Volume of a lake Example: Volume of a lake

Volume = p x r2 x depth Volume = p x r2 x depth

= ~ 3 x 500 x 500 x = 7,853,981.634 cu. m
10
~ 107 cubic meters
= ~75 x 105
= ~ 100 x 105
= ~ 107 cubic meters

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Order of Magnitude: Rapid Estimating

Example: Thickness of a page.

Estimate the thickness

of a page of your
1D motion
textbook.

(Hint: you don’t need

one of these!)

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The Simplest Case: Displacement: Change in position ΔxAB = xB − xA

1D Motion along a Straight Line
Position: A single + or – number (coordinate) describes the ΔxAB > 0
Position (x)
location of an object relative to a reference point (origin). ΔxBD < 0
Description of motion: position x as a function of time t: xB
ΔxAD = 0 !!!
An equation x(t)
Position (x) A graph xD , xA
xC A table of data
xB Time (t)
tA tB tD
xD , xA
tE
Time (t)
tA tB tC tD Displacement over a fixed time period only tells
xE
us about the “result” of the motion (not the path).

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x
Velocity B
A D
x t
v 
= rate of change of position t

Simplest idea:
For displacement of Δx over a time Δt :
For t  tB  tA  v 0
For t  tD  tB  v 0
x For t  tD  tA  v  0 !!!
v  Average velocity
t Not a very good description of what really happened!
Problem: Our time intervals are too large and too many things are
Unit: m/s happening in between.

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x↔v
Instantaneous Velocity
x dx x  0
Solution: take limit Δt → 0. v  limt 0 

Position
t dt
x vB > 0 x  0 t1

( |vB|>|vA| )
vC = 0
v 
dx
x   vdt
t0
C
dt Displacement
B v = slope of x(t) =
D vD < 0 area under
vA > 0 A


Velocity
t v(t) curve


E vE < 0
It is the slope of
the x(t) curve.

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Examples: v (t) graphs Velocity versus speed

v
Glider on air track
t
v Velocity = vector (or value including sign, in 1D)
Heavy cart on floor
t
Speed = magnitude of velocity (always positive)
t
Dropped ball
v v

t
Ball going up and coming down

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An object moves along the x-axis : x(t) = 25m + (10 m/s)t – (30m/s3)t
Example: 1D motion
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b) What is the average velocity between t = 0s and t = 0.33s ?

An object moves along the x-axis as follows: x 27.2  25  m

v    6.7 m/s
x(t) = 25 m + (10 m/s)t – (30m/s3)t 3 t 0.33 s
a) At what time (t > 0) does the object stop?

Velocity = 0 x (t  0)  25 m
a. 0 s
dx (t ) x (t  0.33 s)  27.2 m
b. 0.33 s v (t )   10 m/s   90 m/s3 t 2
dt
c. 3.3 s v 0  10  90t 2  0
d. 10 s 10s2
t   0.33 s Note! v  v (0.33 s)  v (0)  0  10 m/s


 5.0 m/s 
e. 33 s 90 2  2 

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v↔a
Acceleration
= rate of change in velocity v  0

Velocity
Average acceleration: v
a  Unit: m/s2
v  0 t1
t dv
v   adt
t0
a  Change in
dt
v dv a = slope of v(t) velocity
Instantaneous acceleration: a  limt  0  =

Acceleration
t dt  area under
 a(t) curve
The instantaneous acceleration is the slope in v(t) curve.


The change in velocity Δv is the area under the a(t) curve.

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ACT: Tracking a Train

Positive and Negative Acceleration
A train car moves along a long straight track. The
Positive Acceleration = a smile
graph shows the position as a function of time for this
train. The graph shows that the train:

position
Steepness of slope time
is decreasing
Negative Acceleration = a frown
1. speeds up all the time.
2. slows down all the time. time

3. speeds up part of the time and slows down
part of the time. time

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Positive vs Negative

For 1D motion along a straight line,

Constant
Speeding up: Velocity and acceleration have acceleration in 1D
same sign.

Slowing down: Velocity and acceleration

have opposite sign.

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One Dimensional Constant

x (t) ↔ v (t) ↔ a (t)
acceleration.
In general, for 1D motion along a straight line: When a = constant, the equations are simple:
dv t
a   v  v 0   a (t )dt
dv t
dt 0
a   v  v 0   a (t )dt t
dt 0 v  v 0  a  dt
0

v  v 0  at

dx t
dx t v   x  x 0   v (t )dt
v   x  x 0   v (t )dt dt 0
dt 0 t
x  x 0   (v 0  at )dt
0

1
x  x 0  v 0t  at 2
Basic math:  x dx 
n x n 1 2
n 1

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One Dimensional Constant One Dimensional Constant

acceleration. acceleration.
1 2
v  v 0  at x  x 0  v 0t  at 1 2
2 x  x 0  v 0t  at
From these we can derive a couple more useful equations: 2
v v0
1 2 v  v 0  at
x  x 0 v 0t  2 at 1 1 v v0
v  v    v 0  at  v 0  (v  v 0 ) 
2 t 0 t 2 2 2
v 2  v 02  2a x
2
v v0 v v 0  1 v v 0 
v 2  v 02  2a x t   x  x0  v0   a 
a  a  2  a  v v0
vv  v 0 v  v 0  2vv 0
2 2 2 v 
 0  2
a 2a
v v0
2 2

2a

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EXAMPLE: Braking Car A car is traveling with v0 = 10 m/s At t = 0, the driver puts on the
brakes, which slows the car to a stop in 2 seconds.

A car is traveling with v0 = 10 m/s. At t = 0, the driver a. What is the acceleration produced by the brakes?
puts on the brakes, which slows the car to a stop in 2
seconds.
a. What is the acceleration produced by the brakes?
• “Translate” the problem –understand it: Draw a figure. • Identify:
Identify and include initial (t = 0, v0 = 10 m/s) and final situation – What we are looking for? The acceleration a
(t = 2s; car stopped)

- We will assume that the acceleration is constant…

t = 0, v0 = 10 m/s t = 2 s, stopped because otherwise we cannot do the problem! This is an approximation
(actually not a very good one for a real car, so the result is a rough
v=0
approximation to the real thing…).

Physics is also about being able to see when we can or cannot do an

approximation.
Start of braking

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• Setup t = 0, v0 = 10 m/s t = 2 s, v = 0
We’re not done!!!!
v  v0
a
t

Start of braking
• Evaluate and check:
Is there an equation that relates my data to the acceleration?
– The acceleration is –5 m/s² in the coordinate
Yes: v  v 0  at system we are using.
– Does the result make sense?
• Execute: • Units (ok, m/s2)
Substituting into the equation: • Sign (ok, it is slowing down).
• Sanity check on magnitude of acceleration (we’ll
v  v 0 0 m/s  10 m/s learn in a few minutes that the acceleration of
a    5 m/s2
t 2s gravity is ~ 10 m/s2)

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A car is traveling with v0 = 10 m/s. At t = 0, the driver puts on

the brakes, which slows the car to a stop in 2 seconds.
Freely falling bodies
b. How far does it travel before it stops?
• Free fall is the motion of
an object under the
• Identify: We want to find the position when v = 0.
influence of only gravity.
• Setup: Equation that relates the data to the • In the figure, a strobe
final position: v 2 v 2
x  0 light flashes with equal
2a time intervals between
• Execute: Using this relation flashes.
• The velocity change is
v 2  v 02 0  (10m / s )2
x    10 m the same in each time
2a 2  5m / s 2
interval, so the
• Evaluate: The car travels 10 m between the acceleration is constant.
start of braking and the final
resting place of the car.
Check: Units, sign, magnitude…

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Free fall.
When an object is released in the air, it falls down
with a constant acceleration a = g = 9.81 m/s2
( as observed by Galileo (1564-1642) )

Any two objects, regardless of the mass or composition of

the objects, released from a given height will take equally
long to reach the floor:
1
x  x 0  v 0t  at 2
2
(same acceleration, same initial and final positions, same
initial velocity for both, so same t for both!). Is this true?

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Example: Free fall

DEMO: Slanted track
A ball is thrown vertically up into the air (hard!) and
comes back down to its starting position 14 s later. At
the highest point of its trajectory, how high was the
ball?
vtop = 0
A. 3.3 m y
ytop ?
t (s) x (m) a = 2x/t 2 1D motion with constant
acceleration a B. 9.8 m
0 0 -
1 2
With x0 = 0, v0 = 0, x  at C. 120 m
4.4 1.0 0.10 m/s2 2
D. 240 m
6.6 2.0 0.09 m/s2
t0 = 0 tf = 14 s
E. 480 m v0 ? vf ?
8.2 3.0 0.09 m/s2
y0 = 0 yf = 0

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A ball is thrown vertically up into the air (hard!) and comes back down to
its starting position 14 s later. At the highest point of its trajectory,
how high above the starting position was the ball?
?
To find ytop, I can use: v top v 0  2gy
2 2

y vtop = 0
ytop ? 1

2D and 3D motion
[ Use y  y 0  v 0t  gt 2 for the final situation:
2
target 1
0  0  v 0tf 
gt 2
2 f
gt (9.8 m/s2 )(14 s)
v0  f   68.6 m/s ]
2 2

t0 = 0 tf = 14 s
Then, 02  v 02  2 g  y top  0 
v0 ? vf ?
y0 = 0 yf = 0 v 02 68.6 m/s   240 m
2

y top  
2 g 2(9.8 m/s2 )
(Answer D)

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Drawing vectors—Figure 1.10

Vectors and scalars • Draw a vector as a line with an arrowhead at its tip.
• The length of the line shows the vector’s magnitude.
• A scalar quantity can be described by a single
• The direction of the line shows the vector’s direction.
number.
• Figure 1.10 shows equal-magnitude vectors having the same
• A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction and opposite directions.
direction in space.
• To establish the direction, you MUST first have a
coordinate system!
• The magnitude ofA is written as A or |A|.

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Adding two vectors graphically— Adding two vectors

Figures 1.11–1.12 graphically—Figures 1.11–1.12
• Two vectors may be added graphically using either the parallelogram
method or the head-to-tail method. • Two vectors may be added graphically using either the parallelogram
method or the head-to-tail method.

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Adding two vectors Adding more than two vectors graphically—Figure 1.13

graphically—Figures 1.11–1.12 • To add several vectors, use the head-to-tail method.

• The vectors can be added in any order.

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Adding more than two vectors graphically—Figure 1.13

Subtracting vectors
• To add several vectors, use the head-to-tail method.
• Figure 1.14 shows how to subtract vectors.
• The vectors can be added in any order.

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Subtracting vectors Multiplying a vector by a scalar

• Figure 1.14 shows how to subtract vectors.

• If c is a scalar,

the
product cA has
magnitude |c|A.

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Addition of two vectors at right angles Components of a vector—Figure 1.17

• First add the vectors graphically. • Any vector can be represented by an x-component Ax and a y-
• Then use trigonometry to find the magnitude and direction of the component Ay.
sum. • Use trigonometry to find the components of a vector: Ax = Acos θ and
Ay = Asin θ, where θ is measured from the +x-axis toward the +y-axis.
• Follow Example 1.5.

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Finding components—Figure 1.19

Positive and negative components—Figure 1.18
• We can calculate the components of a vector from its magnitude
and direction.

• The components of a vector can

be positive or negative numbers,
as shown in the figure.

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Calculations using components Adding vectors using their components—Figure 1.22

• We can use the components of a vector to find its magnitude
A
and direction: A  Ax2  Ay2 and tan  y
Ax
• We can use the components of a
set of vectors to find the components
of their sum:
Rx  Ax  Bx  Cx , Ry  Ay  By  C y 
• Refer to Problem-Solving
Strategy 1.3.

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Unit vectors—Figures 1.23–1.24 The scalar product—Figures 1.25–1.26

• A unit vector has a magnitude • The scalar product
of 1 with no units. (also called the “dot
product”) of two
• The unit vector î points in the
 vectors
  is
+x-direction, j points in the +y- AB  AB cos.
direction, and k points in the
+z-direction. • Figures 1.25 and
• Any vector can be expressed 1.26 illustrate the
in terms of its components as scalar product.
 
A =Axî+ Ay j + Az k.
• Follow Example 1.9.

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Calculating a scalar product Finding an angle using the scalar product

 
• In terms of components, AB  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz.
• Example 1.11 shows how to use components to find the angle
• Example 1.10 shows how to calculate a scalar product in two between two vectors.
ways.

[Insert figure 1.27 here]

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The vector product—Figures 1.29–1.30

• The vector 2D (and 3D) motion
product (“cross
product”) of Now we need vectors to indicate position, velocity and acceleration,
two vectors has but the definitions we use in 1D are pretty much the same.
magnitude 
 
| A B |  ABsin Position: r (t ) Displacement:
  
and the right- y r  r(t  t )  r(t )
hand rule gives
its direction.
trajectory
or r  r
final

 rinitial 
See Figures  Δ
1.29 and 1.30. r(t  1 s) r 
r(t  3 s)
x

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Velocity Acceleration
 
 r  v
Average: v  • Average: a 
t  t
 
v  dx ,v  dy ,v  dz 
 dr
Instantaneous: v   x dt y dt z dt 
dt  

v (t  1 s) • Instantaneous:
  

 dv
a a  dv x ,a  dv y ,a  dv z 
 v  x dt y dt z dt 
v is always tangent dt  
to the trajectory. 
v (t  3 s)

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The big new thing in 2D: changes in direction

Change in direction;
Change in speed; parallel to v
perpendicular to v
In 2 (or 3) dimensions,
 acceleration can occur both
  dv d (vvˆ ) dv dvˆ
v  vvˆ a   vˆ  v parallel to velocity or
dt dt dt dt perpendicular to it
An object can move at constant speed and still have a ≠0!
This didn’t happen in 1D!!
Acceleration in the
Graphically: Imagine an object moving along the following direction of the velocity
trajectory at constant speed. Take the positions at times t and changes the speed.
Δt and find the average acceleration between them:
 Acceleration
v (t  t ) 
v (t )   perpendicular to the

v (t ) t  t v a velocity does not change
 the speed but shifts the
t v (t  t ) direction of the motion.

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Constant acceleration Projectile Motion

A projectile is an object
• Same equations as in 1D but vectorial. moving in two dimensions
  
v  v 0  at under the influence of
   1 (3 equations each) Earth's gravity; its path is
r  r0  v 0t  at 2 a parabola.
2
  
v  21 (v 0  v )
 
v 2 v 20  2a × r (This is now a dot-product)

Important note: x, y and z are totally independent:

v x  v 0 x  axt v y  v 0 y  ayt v z  v 0z  azt

1 1 1
x  x 0  v 0xt  axt 2 y  y 0  v 0 yt  ayt 2 z  z 0  v 0 zt  azt 2
2 2 2

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Projectile Motion

•Photo shows 2 balls starting to fall at the same time.

•Yellow ball on right has an initial speed in the x-
direction.
•Red ball on left has vx0 = 0
•Vertical positions of the balls are identical at
identical times
•Horizontal position of yellow ball increases linearly
in time.
We will consider projectiles in free fall where we
neglect air resistance and curvature of the Earth.
With the most common choice of coordinate
system:
• ay = - g
• ax = 0, vx = constant!

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Projectile Motion
Example: Projectiles

Understood by analyzing A projectile is fired from a cannon at a 30-degree angle with the
ground and an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming no air resistance
the horizontal and vertical and g = 10 m/s2, calculate the time it will spend in the air.
motions separately. a. 2.5 s b. 5.0 s c. 10 s d. 20 s e. 40 s

y v0 = 100 m/s
1
y  y 0  v 0 yt  a yt 2
2
θ = 30
x
yfinal = 0

t  0 (start!)
1 
0  0  v 0 sin t  gt 2  2v 0 2 100 m/s 
2 t  g sin   sin30  10 s
 10 m/s2

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Projectile Motion

Examples of projectile
motion. Notice the effects
of air resistance
Circular Motion

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Circular Motion Velocity

dx dy
Circular motion is the motion in a circle with constant radius. Cartesian coordinates: v x  ; vy 
dt dt
Polar coordinates
Polar coordinates (r, θ) are more convenient than Cartesian dr d
coordinates to describe circular motion: r = R, only θ = θ(t) Polar coordinates: vr  ; 
dt dt
y Radial Angular
Arch: s = Rθ
Definition: 1 radian = angle so that s=R velocity velocity
1 revolution = 2π radians R For circular motion:
θ
s
Relation to Cartesian coordinates: x vr = 0
x = r cos θ ds d
s  R  R  v  R
y = r sin θ dt dt
(where ω is in radians/unit time)

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EXAMPLE: Two balls Uniform circular motion (UCM)

Two balls connected by thin rod as shown, at distances R and 2R from
the center, move in circles. ω is constant.
Angle covered in time interval ∆t: ∆θ = ω ∆t.
Same angular speed ω for If we choose θ0 = 0 at t = 0, it’s θ = ω t
both (same angle in any Δt)
y
x
y x t
Different (linear) speeds (ball 2 travels twice the ωt
distance in any Δt) :
v1  R 
x = R cos ωt
v 2  2R  The Cartesian coordinates are sine-functions: y = R sin ωt

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For any periodic motion Example: Ferris Wheel

A Ferris Wheel of radius 8.0 m rotates at a constant
• Period T : Time it takes to go back to the same rate of 1.5 rpm. Find:
situation (same position, same velocity).
a. The period 1 1
• Frequency f : Number of revolutions per unit T    0.67 min
f 1.5 rev
time. min
2p 1
T  Units:fHz  second),
 (turns per 2p f rpm (rev per
 T b. The linear speed of a cabin.
min)
y T  rad 
v  R   0.16 8 m   1.3 m/s
 s 
t
rev 2p rad 1 min rad
  1.5 × ×  0.16
min 1 rev 60 s s

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Radial or centripetal
Radial acceleration
acceleration
During uniform circular motion, speed is constant, but velocity is
not!!! The direction keeps changing! Visually: Let’s look at the average acceleration.
   vf

a  a//  a
(constant vf −vi vf−vi
≠0 vi
speed) vi
Perpendicular/normal/radial/centripetal
acceleration
vf
Points to the center of the circle

vf −vi points toward a points toward the center

the center
(Ok, it’s sloppy: we should be taking the
limit as Δt → 0, but you get the idea…)

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 An example:
Magnitude of Radial Acceleration • The Space Shuttle is in Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) about 300 km above the surface. The
For UCM: period of the orbit is about 91 min.
x=R cos ωt vx = -R ω sin ωt ax = -R ω2 cos ωt
y=R sin ωt vy = R ω cos ωt ay = -R ω2 sin ωt • What is the acceleration of an astronaut in
d d
dt dt the Shuttle in the reference frame of the
| r | R |v | R | a | R 2 Earth? (The radius of the
Earth is 6.4 x 106 m.)
In UCM, all the acceleration is centripetal. Thus,

v2 (a) 0 m/s2
a r  R 2  Radial acceleration
R (b) 8.9 m/s2
(c) 9.8 m/s2
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• First calculate the angular frequency:

• 1 rot 1 min rad
 x x 2p  0.00115 s -1
• Now calculate the acceleration:
91 min 60 s rot
• Realize that:
RO = RE + 300 km a = 2R
= 6.4 x 106 m + 0.3 x 106 m
= 6.7 x 106 m RO
a = (0.00115 s-1)2 x 6.7 x 106 m
300 km
RE
a = 8.9 m/s2

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v2
Acceleration simulator Does this make sense? | ar |
R
In the movie “The Right Stuff”, a As you decrease the radius, the 1
seat at the end of a long arm that | a |
rotates very fast is used to
ω rate at which the velocity shifts, R
prepare astronauts for high hence the acceleration, grows.
accelerations. As you increase the velocity, the | a | v 2
R acceleration grows in two ways:
If R = 5 m, what is the speed
needed to have a = 5g? - The rate at which the
velocity is shifting grows.
5g  R  2

- The amount of velocity

5g 5  10 rad 1 turn which needs to be shifted
 ~  3.2  ~ 0.5 turns/s around also grows. R
R 5 s 2p rad

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Acceleration for uniform circular motion The subtle point: To have uniform circular
motion, the acceleration needs to be exactly
• For uniform circular v²/R. vi
motion, the instantaneous
acceleration always points a v
toward the center of the f
circle and is called the
centripetal acceleration. a = v²/R
• The magnitude of the vi vi
acceleration is arad = v2/R.
a vf a
• The period T is the time for
vf
one revolution, and arad =
4π2R/T2.
a too small; direction a too large; direction
changes too little changes too much
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Uniform circular motion—Figure 3.27

Angular acceleration
• For uniform circular motion, the speed is constant
and the acceleration is perpendicular to the If linear speed v is changing, the angular
velocity. speed ω is also changing
d  d 2
Angular acceleration   
dt dt 2

v  R 
 dt
a t  R


dv  dv
because at  (not a  !!!)
dt dt

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Equations of motion when α = Example: Grinding wheel

constant At t = 0, a grinding wheel has an angular velocity of 24.0 rad/s. It
has an constant angular acceleration of 30.0 rad/s2 until a circuit
The derivation is formally identical to what we did in 1D: breaker trips at t = 2.00 s. From then on, it turns through 432 rad
as it coasts to a stop at constant angular acceleration. What was its
acceleration as it slowed down?
d   0  t
 Part 1: Find angular speed at t = 2 s.
dt 1
   0  0t  t 2   0  t  24.0 rad/s  (30.0 rad/s2 )(2.00 s)
d
 2   84 rad/s
dt
Part 2: Find angular acceleration.
   0
   2  02  2
Checks:
t 2
 2  02 0  (84 rad/s)2
  0  2
2 2    8.17 rad/s2 Sign ok
2 2(432 rad)
Units ok

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 The acceleration vector:

Review of Chapter I
For a motion of particle along a
curve in the space, you must know how
can define position, velocity and
acceleration vectors of particle at
every moment
 The velocity vector:
 The direction is tangent to the path
at every point
The magnitude is the speed of motion
(fast or slow), and is calculated in
terms of the coordinate components
of velocity vector
It is convenient to decompose the
acceleration vector to the tangent and
perpendicular accelerations
The tangent acceleration: the direction is
the same or opposite to the velocity
vector; the magnitude is the rate of
change of the speed, and equal to the
derivative of the speed
 The perpendicular (normal) acceleration:
the dierection is perpendiclar to the
velocity vector and points toward the
concave side of the path; the magnitude
for UCM can be expressed in terms of
the speed and the radius of the circle

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• Remember that a vector equation is

equivalent to:
 two component equations in 2D,
 three component equations in 3D.
For example: in 3-D 
 dr
 The vector equation v  is equivalent
to three following equations
dt
dx dy dz
vx  ,v y  ,v z 
dt dt dt

 dv
The equation a  is equivalent to
dt
dv x dv dv
ax  , ay  y ,az  z .
dt dt dt

149