5/11/2022

Chapter 3 Motivation to go beyond Newton’s laws

Mechanics energy and it’s
conservation N
Loop the loop

mg N
3.1 Work and the
mg R
Work/Kinetic Energy Theorem N

The normal force has different mg

direction and magnitude at
every point on the track!!

Writing and solving Newton’s laws can be a nasty experience…

(see appendix of lecture 15)

1 2

This is an expression of the “effectiveness” of the force.

Playing around with Newton’s 2nd law. 1 1
Fnet,x x  mvf2  mvi2
2 2
Consider the motion of a bead of mass m on a straight wire Work/Kinetic
pushed by a constant net force Fx parallel to the wire, along a Wnet  K Energy Theorem
displacement Δx:
Of how a force applied …changes something in the
Δx
over a distance… system
m

Fnet,x
vi vf Work Kinetic energy
Force produces
Fx  max F The “external agent” that The “internal” quantity (state)
acceleration: 2 x x  vf2  vi2
m changes the amount of kinetic of the system
Acceleration produces 2ax x  v  vi
2 2
change in speed: f energy (the state) in the
system
WORK (W ) 1 1
Change in
1
done by force F over Fnet,x x  mvf2  mvi2
KINETIC
W  Fx x K  mv 2
displacement Δx
2 2
ENERGY (K)
of the bead 2

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Work is energy being transferred Units for work and energy:

Δx
m SI:
Fnet,x
Energy
Joule 1J=1N·m
source Positive work
W>0
Other common units:

Kilowatt-hour KWh
calorie 1 cal = 4.184 J
Not to be confused with:
Calorie (or food calorie) 1 Cal = 1000 cal
Initial kinetic energy Ki Final kinetic energy Kf > Ki

5 6

Energy Work

A force on a body does work if the body undergoes a disp-

Many types of energy: lacement. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 illustrate forces doing work.
• kinetic energy
• electric energy
• internal –thermal- energy
• elastic energy
• chemical energy
• Etc.

Energy is transferred and transformed

from one type to another and is never
destroyed or created.

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What is work? Consider the bead again. This time, the force points in the
opposite direction: 1 1
Δx
Fnet,x x 
2
mvf2 
2 <0
mvi2

m
The definition of work W =F Δx corresponds to the
Fnet,x
intuitive idea of effort: vi vf

• More massive object will require more work to get to the same
speed (from rest) Negative work
• For a given mass, getting to a higher speed (from rest)
W<0
requires more work
Initial kinetic Final kinetic energy Kf < Ki
• If we push for a longer distance, it’s more work. energy Ki
• It takes the same work to accelerate the object to the
right as to the left (both displacement and force reverse) Other type
of energy

9 10

Example: Pushing a box with friction Example: Free fall with WKE

A ball is dropped and hits the ground 50 m below. If the

Paul pushes a box along 10 m across the floor at a constant
initial speed is 0 and we ignore air resistance, what is the
velocity by exerting a force of 200N.
speed of the ball as it hits the ground?
Work by Paul on the box: WPaul = (200 N)(10 m) = 2000 J We can use kinematics or… the WKE theorem.
(energy coming from the biochemical reactions in his muscles) A. 50 m/s
Work by friction on the box: Wf = (-200 N)(10 m) = -2000 J Δr Work done by gravity: mgh
(released as thermal energy into the air and the floor) B. 42 m/s mg
WKE theorem: WPaul + Wf = 0 Kf – Ki = 0  C. 31 m/s 1
Change in K: K  K final  Kinitial  mv 2  0
2
FPaul D. 23 m/s W  K
FPaul  fk  ma  0 (constant speed)
1
fk  FPaul E. 10 m/s mgh  mv 2
fk 2
v  2 gh  2(9.8 m/s2 )(50 m)  31 m/s

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What if the force does not point in the

Examples of Non-Work
direction of motion?

  This person is not doing any work on the

Recall the v² equation in multi-dimensions: 2a  r  vf2  vi2 rock since the centripetal force is
  1   perpendicular to the direction that the stone
a  r  F  r is moving.
m

Work by a constant force along a straight path:

 
W  F  r  Fr cos   F// r T

For work, only the part of the force that is in the direction
of displacement “matters” (= can change speed)
(= can change kinetic energy)

13 14

Examples of Non-Work Example: Systems with several objects

The weight of the box that Paul pushes along a

What is the speed of the system after box 1 has fallen for 30 cm?
horizontal surface does no work since the weight is
perpendicular to the motion Two approaches:
1. Use Newton’s laws to find acceleration; use
The normal by the floor does no work either. kinematics to find speed. (long!!)
2. Use WKE theorem (smart!)
N m2 = 5.0 kg
Δx
FPaul μk = 0.2
fk
m1 = 3.0 kg
mg

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What is the speed of the system after box 1 has fallen for 30 cm? What is the speed of the system after box 1 has fallen for 30 cm?
=x
External forces doing work: m1g, fk 1 1
Wnet  m1 gx  k m2 gx KE  mv
1
2
 m2v 2  0
(The tensions are internal forces: their net work is zero) 2 2
Wnet  m1 gx  fk x 1 1 1
 m1 gx  k m2 gx
KE 
2
mv
1
2
 m2v 2  0
2
 m1  k m2  gx 
2
m1  m2 v 2

N m1  k m2 3  0.2  5
v  2 gx  2(9.8)(0.3)  1.2 m/s
T m2 = 5.0 kg m1  m2 35
fk
T μk = 0.2 m1 = 3.0 kg

m1 = 3.0 kg m2g m2 = 5.0 kg

μk = 0.2
m1g x = 0.3 m

17 18

The story so far:

Kinetic energy 1
K  mv 2
Work: Varying forces and 2
curved trajectories Work by a constant force,
Power along a straight path:
 
W  F  r  Fr cos   F// r

Work/Kinetic energy theorem

Wnet  K

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Work by non-constant force, with

straight line trajectory Work=area
An object moves along the x-axis from point x1 to x2. A non-constant Fx FCx
force is applied on the object. What is the work done by this force? FBx
FDx
FA x
FA FB FC FD ΔxE FEx
x1 x2
ΔxA ΔxB ΔxC ΔxD
FE x
ΔxA ΔxB ΔxC ΔxD ΔxE
The journey is divided up into a series of segments over which the force
is constant.

The total work is the sum of the works for each of the intervals: W  FAx x A  FBx x B  FCx xC  FDx xD  FEx x E
W  FAx x A  FBx x B  FCx xC  FDx xD  FEx xE This is still an approximation, because the force is not
really constant in each interval…

21 22

The calculation is really good in the limit where the intervals are very
Work and energy with varying forces—Figure 6.16
small, the sum becomes an integral:
Many forces, such as
x2
the force to
Work by non-constant force,
W  x1
Fx (x )dx
with straight line trajectory
stretch a spring,
are not constant.
In Figure 6.16, we
F approximate the
Work=Area under F(x) curve
work by dividing
the total
displacement into
many small
x segments.
x1 x2

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Work done on a spring scale

Springs A woman steps on a bathroom scale.
Follow Example 6.6.
Hooke’s law: The force exerted by a spring is proportional to the
distance the spring is compressed/stretched from the relaxed position.

Fx = −k Δx k = spring constant

Δx = 0 Δx = 0 F=0

F
Δx > 0 F<0
Δx
F
Δx < 0 F>0
Δx

25 26

Hooke’s law is the basis of traditional scales. Stretching a Spring

What is the work done by the spring on the block as the tip is pulled
from x1 to x2?
F W  0
Relaxed position (Define x = 0 as
kx  mg  0 the position of the end of the
relaxed spring. Then F = -kx)
k
Fspring m x
g
F1 = -kx1
Varying force: an
x1 integral is required.
DEMO:
W Springs and F2 = -kx2
weights
x2

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What is the work done by a spring as the tip is pulled from x1 to x2?
x2 x2 x2
Example: Box and spring
  1  1 1 
Wby spring   F (x )  dr    kxdx   kx 2     kx22  kx12 
x1 x1
2  x1 2 2 
What is the work done on the spring as the tip is pulled from x1 to x2? A box of mass m = 25 kg slides on a horizontal frictionless
1 1 surface with an initial speed v0 = 10 m/s. How far will it
Wexternal  Wby spring  kx22  kx12
2 2 compress the spring before coming to rest if k = 3000 N/m?
If x2 > x1 (stretch),
Wexternal > 0
Fx = kx m = 25 kg k = 3000 N/m
Fx v = 10 m/s
We are adding
energy to the spring x

work A stretched or
compressed spring A. 0.50 m B. 0.63 m C. 0.75 m
stores energy
x (elastic energy).
x1 x2 D. 0.82 m E. 0.91 m

30 31

m = 25 kg k = 3000 N/m
v = 10 m/s
Work on curved trajectories
x DEMO:
Horizontal SP1 A particle moves from A to B along
spring this path while a varying force acts B x
upon it.
Use the work-kinetic energy theorem: W = ΔKE Again, we can approximate the work
by considering breaking
 it into small
displacements dl .
1 1
x
W    kxdx   kx 2 KE  0  mv 2 If the intervals are very small, F dl
0 2 2 the trajectory is straight and
the force is constant, so the
1 2 1 work done by a force is: xA
x kx  mv 2  
2 2 dW  F  dl
F
mv 2 (25 kg)(10 m/s)2 B  
x 
k

3000 N/m
 0.91 m
Answer E
We need to add –integrate-
all the contributions:
WAB  
A
F  dl

32 33
Slide 32

SP1 Horizontal spring on air track. Larger speed, larger compression.

Use chronometer to measure period, to show how its is indeed going faster.
Add mass.
Soeren Prell, 2/4/2012
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The line integral Example: Spherical bowl

Find the work done by gravity on a pebble of mass m as
it rolls from the rim to the bottom of a spherical bowl
B   of radius R.
WAB  
A
F  dl B
(final
rim W 
bottom
top
 
mg  dl
path
point) θ
 = /2
dl = R dθ
  =0
mg Rd  cos 
For three different paths  /2
to move from A to B, a
force will in general do
mg
θ
 mgR 0
cos  d 
different works! bottom  /2
A (initial point)  mgR sin  0

 mgR

34 35

Ok, so what’s the difference between the two elevators?

Units of power
Power
The machinery in elevator A has more power: it is doing the same SI: Watt 1 W = 1 J/s
work in less time (or more work per unit time).
Other: Horsepower 1 hp = 746 W
Average power:
 
W F  r  
Paverage  Paverage   F v average
t t Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy or
work:
Instantaneous power: 1000 W 3600 s
  1 kWh  1 kW  h  3.6  106 Ws
dW F  dr   1 kW 1h J
P  P   F v
dt dt

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A bullet of mass 10–3 kg traveling at a speed of 300 m/s strikes

a block of wood. It embeds a distance of 1 cm. How much force
Example: Bullet and wood block does the wood exert on the bullet as it slows it down?

Setup WKE W  K
A bullet of mass 10–3 kg traveling at a theorem: F x  K f  K i
speed of 300 m/s strikes a block of 1
0  mvi2
wood. It embeds a distance of 1 cm. F 
K f  Ki
 2 mv 2
 i
x x 2x
How much force does the wood exert on
the bullet as it slows it down? mvi2 (10 3 kg)(300 m/s)2
Identify Execute F 
2x

2(10 2 m)
 4500 N
Let us assume that the force is constant (or that we will
find the average force) Evaluate
The force must do enough negative work on the bullet to
render its kinetic energy 0. The wood exerts a force of –4500N on the bullet. It should
be negative (opposite to Δx) because it must decelerate the
bullet.

38 39

EXAMPLE: Hammer A hammer slides along 10 m down a 30° inclined roof and off into the yard,
which is 7 m below the roof edge. Right before it hits the ground, its speed
is 14.5 m/s. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the hammer
A hammer slides along 10 m down a 30° inclined roof and and the roof?
off into the yard, which is 7 m below the roof edge. Wnet  Won the roof Wprojectile 1
KE  mv 2  0
Right before it hits the ground, its speed is 14.5 m/s. 2
What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the   mgh ' fk x   mgh 
hammer and the roof?
 mg  x sin    k mg cos   x  mgh

Δx = 10 m h’ = Δx sinθ Normal by an incline

This can be solved using Newton’s
30 laws and kinematics, but it’s Δx = 10 m
looooooooooooooooooooooooong. h’
θ
h=7m

v = 14.5 m/s h=7m

v = 14.5 m/s

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A hammer slides along 10 m down a 30° inclined roof and off into the yard,
which is 7 m below the roof edge. Right before it hits the ground, its speed
is 14.5 m/s. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the hammer
and the roof?

Wnet  Won the roof Wprojectile 1

KE  mv 2  0 Potential energy Basic energy
2
  mgh ' fk x    mgh 
 mg  x sin    k mg cos   x  mgh
Kinetic energy

1
mv 2  mg x sin   k  mg cos   x  mgh
2
Energy Conservation; Potential Energy
2 g h  x sin    v 2
2(9.8)  7  10 sin30   14.5
2

k    1.5
2 g x cos  2(9.8)10 cos30

42 43

Work done by gravity Gravitational potential energy

The work done by gravity does not depend on the path, it
A block of mass m is lifted from the floor (A) to a table
only depends on the vertical displacement Δy, or on the
(B) through two different trajectories. Find the work
initial and final y:
done by gravity.   W  mgy
W  mg  r  mgy
B
      We can ALWAYS write this work as (minus) the change in
W  mg  r1  mg  r2  mg  r3
    some function U(r) that depends on position (not on path):
Δr  mg  r1  r2  r3 
Δy Δr3   W   Uf  Ui   U U = potential energy
Δr2  mg  r
 mgy
A Δr1 Gravitational U  mgy  constant
mg Work by gravity does not potential energy:
depend on the path There is always room for an arbitrary
constant, because what matters is ΔU

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Can work always be written in terms of a

Elastic Potential Energy (Spring)
potential energy change?
What is the work done by a spring as the tip is pulled from x1 to x2?
NO!
x2
1 1  Example: A box is dragged along a rough horizontal
Wby spring    kxdx    kx22  kx12 
x1 2 2  surface through two paths AD and ABCD:
This can also be written as (minus) the
F1 = -kx1 difference of a potential function at A D
Wfriction,AD  dfk Does not depend
x1 the initial and final points x1 and x2: on initial and final
F2 = -kx2 Wby spring   U (x2 )  U (x1 )  Wfriction,ABCD  3dfk points only.

x2
The work done by friction
1 CANNOT be written as a
Elastic potential U  kx 2  constant B potential difference.
2 C
energy:

46 47

Conservative and non-conservative forces Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The work done by a conservative force does not depend In a system where only conservative forces are doing
on the trajectory. work, we can rewrite the WKE theorem:
• A potential energy function can be defined.
Wnet  K  U  K (K  U )  0
Examples: Gravity, spring

Wnet   U
Non-conservative force = force that is not conservative.
• The work done by a non-conservative force depends on the Definition of Mechanical Energy: E  K  U
trajectory.
• A potential energy function cannot be defined. Under the conditions
above, mechanical energy E  0 or Einitial  E final
Examples: Kinetic friction is conserved:

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Example: Free fall Two ways of looking at the same problem.

A ball is dropped from a height h. If the initial speed is 0 and we
ignore air resistance, what is the speed of the ball as it hits the
ground?
We can use kinematics or… the WKE theorem… or conservation of energy. An object of mass m is lifted by a person from the
floor to height h and dropped.
WKE Conservation of energy
The only force doing work is gravity, 1. Lifting: Wnet = Wgravity + Wperson = 0 (vinitial = vfinal = 0)
Work done by so mechanical energy is conserved.
Δr gravity: mgh Einitial  E final Drop: Wnet =Wgravity = mgh > 0 (thus K increases)
mg
W  K Kinitial  Uinitial  K final  Ufinal
1 1 1. Lifting: Wperson > 0. Person is adding energy which is
mgh  mv 2 0  mgh  mv 2  0
2 2 stored as gravitational potential energy mgh > 0 .
1
v  2 gh mgh  mv 2
2
Choice: U = 0 Drop: The potential energy is converted into kinetic
at ground level
v  2 gh
energy (thus K increases)

50 51

The really nice thing is, we can apply the same

Cool… Example: Loop-the-loop
thing to any “incline”: A cart is released from height h in a roller
coaster with a loop of radius R. What is the
minimum h to keep the cart on the track?

E K U
DEMO:
Impossible, h must
Turn- E K U Wavy track
v=0 be at least 2R
around h
point: A. 1.5R
where h R
K=0 B. 2.0R
C. 2.5R
D. 3.0R
E K U
E. 4.0R

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In order not to fall (ie, to keep the circular

Point B is the toughest point. What is the speed there?
trajectory), the forces at B must provide v2
E A  EB the appropriate radial acceleration: mg  N  m B
Aaaah…!!!! R
1 Aaaah…!!!!
mgh  0  mg 2R  mv B2
A 2 The minimum velocity is fixed by N = 0:
A vB,min
2
vB  2 g (h  2R ) (Eqn. 1) mg  m  vB,min  gR
B R
B (Eqn. 2)
h Nby track
h
R mg
R

54 55

Let us put equations 1 and 2 together: EXAMPLE: Pendulum

vB,min 
vB  2 g (h  2R )
The minimum height is given by:
gR  2 g (hmin  2R )
Consider a pendulum of length l and mass m, that is
gR released from rest at an angle θ0.
a. What is the maximum angle that the pendulum will reach
on the other side?
b. What is the maximum speed of the pendulum?

R  2hmin  4R
θ0
5 m l
hmin  R Answer C
2

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Only weight is doing work, so it’s a situation where

Potential energy U is transformed into kinetic energy K.
mechanical energy E = KE +U is conserved.
And viceversa.

KE=0 θ0 θ0 θ0 θ0
m KE=0
UMAX L
E K U E K U
UMAX

y E K U

So the angle E K U
on the other
E K U
UMIN side is also θ0.
Uy
KEMAX

58 59

E = mgL(1-cosθ) + mv2/2 = constant

U = mgy + C = mgL(1-cosθ) + C L
Lcosθ
θ Initially: E = mgL(1-cosθ0) + 0
L
Let’s take U(θ = 0) = 0 At the bottom: E = 0 + mv2/2
L-Lcosθ
⇒ C=0
0 + mv2/2 = mgL(1-cosθ0) + 0
U = mgL(1-cosθ)

θ0
m
θ0
m L L DEMO:
Bowling ball
y v  2gL(1-cos 0 ) pendulum

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Appendix: Loop-the-loop with Part 1: The straight section

N
Cool… Newton’s laws
mg sin   ma
A cart is released from height h in a roller a  g sin 
coaster with a loop of radius R. What is the
minimum h to keep the cart on the track?
Speed at the bottom:
mg x vbottom
2
 2ax
h h
h
R  2a
sin 
h
θ vbottom  2 g sin 
sin 
 2 gh

62 63

Part 2: The circular section In terms of angular quantities:

In the radial direction, v2

at any given θ:
N  mg cos   m N  mg cos   mR  2
R
g sin   R 
In the tangential
mg sin   mat
direction, at any given θ:
2
d 
N  mg cos   mR   (1)
d 2  dt 
R g sin   R (2)
This is circular dt 2
motion with a non- N Differential equations for θ
uniform angular
θ (at least not coupled)
acceleration!
mg θ

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d 2 d  d  d  d  At the top, θ = 180º:

On equation (2), use this trick:    
dt 2 dt d  dt d
2g h 
 R  2
2
top  (3)
d g (now it’s a first order R  
  sin 
d R differential equation)
From equation (1), and for θ = 180º:
g
 d   sin d 
R N  mg  mR top
2

integrate
where ω0 is the angular speed Minimum speed ⇒ N = 0

  02   Rg  cos  cos 0

1 2 at the bottom, see part 1:
2 vbottom 2gh mg  mR top,
2 (4)
0   min
R R

2 gh 2 g 2g  h  2 g  hmin  g 5
2    cos   1     cos  1  (3) and (4):   2  hmin  R
R2 R R R  R  R  R 2

66 67

A7.6 A7.7

The graph shows the potential energy U The graph shows the potential energy U
for a particle that moves along the x- for a particle that moves along the x-
axis. axis.
The particle is initially at x = d and The particle is initially at x = d and
moves in the negative x-direction. At moves in the negative x-direction. At
which of the labeled x-coordinates does which of the labeled x-coordinates is the
the particle have the greatest speed? particle slowing down?

A. at x = a B. at x = b C. at x = c D. at x = d A. at x = a B. at x = b C. at x = c D. at x = d
E. more than one of the above E. more than one of the above

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A7.8 A7.9
Fx
The graph shows the potential energy U The graph shows a conservative force Fx as a function of
for a particle that moves along the x- x in the vicinity of x = a. As the graph shows, Fx = 0 at x =
axis. At which of the labeled x- a. Which statement about the associated potential energy
coordinates is there zero force on the function U at x = a is correct? x
particle? 0
a

A. at x = a and x = c A. U = 0 at x = a
B. at x = b only B. U is a maximum at x = a.
C. at x = d only C. U is a minimum at x = a.
D. at x = b and d D. U is neither a minimum or a maximum at x = a, and its value at
x = a need not be zero.
E. misleading question — there is a force at all values of x.

70 71

A7.10 A7.11
Fx Fx
The graph shows a conservative force Fx as a function of The graph shows a conservative force Fx as a function of
x in the vicinity of x = a. As the graph shows, Fx = 0 at x = x in the vicinity of x = a. As the graph shows, Fx > 0 and
a. Which statement about the associated potential energy dFx/dx < 0 at x = a. Which statement about the
function U at x = a is correct? x associated potential energy function U at x = a is correct? x
0 0
a a

A. U = 0 at x = a A. dU/dx > 0 at x = a
B. U is a maximum at x = a. B. dU/dx < 0 at x = a
C. U is a minimum at x = a. C. dU/dx = 0 at x = a
D. U is neither a minimum or a maximum at x = a, and its value at D. Any of the above could be correct.
x = a need not be zero.

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Oscillations
A glider of mass m = 0.5 kg on a horizontal frictionless
surface is attached to a spring with k = 200 N/m. The
Conservative and glider is pulled 3 cm away from the equilibrium position and
released. Find its speed when the spring has been
Non-Conservative Forces compressed 1 cm.
x=
Examples.

x1 = 3 cm x2 = 1 cm

74 75

A glider of mass m = 0.5 kg on a horizontal frictionless surface is attached to a

spring with k = 200 N/m. The glider is pulled 3 cm away from the equilibrium EXAMPLE: Vertical spring
position and released. Find its speed when the spring has been compressed 1 cm.
x= A 50-g ball is shot by a vertical spring compressed over a
distance x = 2.0 cm. It reaches a height h = 2.5 m above
the initial position. Determine the spring constant k.
x1 = 3 cm x2 = 1 cm
DEMO:
Glider on a
track

0 h
1 1 1 1
E1  mv12  kx12 E2  mv22  kx22
2 2 2 2
x
1 1 1
kx12  mv22  kx22
2 2 2 Careful with
the units
k
v2 
m
 x12  x22   (200 N/m)
0.5 kg
 0.032  0.012  m2  0.57 m/s

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Mechanical energy of the ball: Mechanical energy with

1 1
E  mv 2  mgh  kx 2
(with the appropriate choice of zero
potential energies, see figure) non-conservative forces.
2 2
1 In a system where only conservative forces are doing work,
Before the shot: E  kx 2 (vinitial  0) mechanical energy is conserved: E  0
2
At the top: E  mgh (v top  0) If both conservative and non-conservative forces are
doing work:
1 2mgh
kx 2  mgh k   U Wn-c  K (K  U )  Wn-c
2 x2 Wnet  K

2(0.05 kg)(9.8 m/s2 )(2.5 m) h Wnet   U  Wn - c

k   6100 N/m
(0.02 m)2

Uel = 0 Mechanical energy is E  Wn-c

x1
Ug = 0 not conserved

78 79

Example: Spring with friction A 5.00 g block is pushed against a spring with k = 8.00 N/m. The spring is
initially compressed 5.00 cm and then released. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and the table is 0.600. What is the speed of the
A 5.00 g block is pushed against a spring with k = 8.00
block at x = 0? x = 0, equilibrium
N/m. The spring is initially compressed 5.00 cm and then x
released. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the k
block and the table is 0.600. What is the speed of the v?
block at x = 0? m μk
A. 1.75 m/s B. 1.85 m/s C. 1.95 m/s D. 2.00 m/s E. 2.05 m/s
1 1
Einitial  0  kx 2 E final  mv 2  0 Wfriction   k mgx
x = 0, equilibrium 2 2
x
k 1 1 kx 2
v?
mv 2  kx 2   k mgx v   2k gx
m μk 2 2 m

Because friction (a non-conservative force) is doing work, (8.00 N/m)(0.05 m)2

v   2(0.600)(9.81 m/s2 )(0.05 m)  1.85 m/s
0.005 kg
mechanical energy is NOT conserved: E  Wfriction Answer B

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Conservative forces. Examples:

- All fundamental forces of nature (in 221:
gravity and electric force)
The work done by a conservative force does not depend - Elastic forces.
on the trajectory.
• A potential energy function can be defined.
W1 Gravity: Conservative
• The work by a Wtotal = W1 + W2 Elastic Forces: Conservative
B
conservative force in a A = W1 – W1 = 0 No net work done by gravity here
W2 No net work done by the spring here
closed path is zero.

• Mechanical energy is conserved. A conservative force

allows for the reversible storage of energy.

82 83

Properties of Conservative forces

Non-conservative forces
1) Work done by the conservative force does not depend
on the path taken but only on the initial and final position
b    Non-conservative force = force that is not conservative.
W  F (r )  dr  U ( a)  U (b)
a
• The work done by a non-conservative force depends on the
2) Work done by the conservative force on a closed path trajectory.
is equal to zero • The work done along a closed trajectory is, in general, not
zero.
b    a  
W  a  b  a    F (r )  dr   F (r )  dr  0 • A potential energy function cannot be defined.
a b
• Mechanical energy is “lost” or “dissipated” (Wn-c < 0) or
gained through a non-reversible process (Wn-c > 0)

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Examples: Friction does negative work when an object is

EXAMPLE: Spring and incline

dragged in a closed path over sand paper.

- Kinetic Friction
- Fluid drag In the system below, a 200-g box is pushed 4 cm against
Wn-c < 0, mechanical energy
a spring with k = 250 N/m and released. The box slides
is “dissipated” and becomes along a frictionless horizontal surface and then up an
internal energy of incline which makes an angle of 30o with respect to the
surrounding objects. horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
The expanding gases do positive work to the box and the incline is 0.2. How far along the incline
- Gas expansion impulse the plane (even
in a closed circle) is the box when its speed is half its maximum speed?
Wn-c > 0, internal energy vMAX/2
of the gas is transformed d? Compression:
into mechanical energy.
vMAX x = 4 cm
μk = 0.2
m = 200 g
- Any other process that converts between θ = 30o
mechanical energy and internal energy DEMO: k = 250 N/m
(Ir)reversible
(chemical energy; nuclear energy…) processes

86 87

In the system below, a 200-g box is pushed 4 cm against a spring with k = 250 N/m In the system below, a 200-g box is pushed 4 cm against a spring with k = 250 N/m
and released. The box slides along a frictionless horizontal surface and then up an and released. The box slides along a frictionless horizontal surface and then up an
incline which makes an angle of 30o with respect to the horizontal. The coefficient incline which makes an angle of 30o with respect to the horizontal. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the box and the incline is 0.2. How far along the incline of kinetic friction between the box and the incline is 0.2. How far along the incline
is the box when its speed is half its maximum speed? is the box when its speed is half its maximum speed?
What is vMAX?
For the whole process, mechanical energy E = K + Ug + Uelastic
1 Einitial  E final k is not conserved due to friction: ΔE = Wfriction
Einitial  0  kx 2 v (MAX) x
2 m 1
1 Einitial  0  0  kx 2
E final  mv 2  0  (0.04 cm)
250 N/m 2 2
2
2
0.2 kg
1 v  1  v MAX  1
 1.4 m/s E final  m  MAX   mgh  0 m   mgh  kx  fk d
2

2  2  2  2  2
In this part of the motion,
mechanical energy E = K + Uelastic
Wfriction  fkd
is conserved.
vMAX/2 vMAX/2
d? Compression: d? Compression:
vMAX x = 4 cm vMAX x = 4 cm
μk = 0.2 μk = 0.2

θ = 30 m = 200 g θ = 30o m = 200 g

k = 250 N/m k = 250 N/m

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h  d sin 
2
1  v MAX  1 fk  k mg cos 
m   mgh  kx  fk d
2 with
2  2  2
k
v(MAX)  x
m
1 1
kx 2  mgd sin   kx 2   k mgd cos 
Energy Diagrams
8 2

3kx 2 3(250 N/m)(0.04 cm)2

d  
8mg  sin   k cos   8(0.2 kg)(9.8 m/s2 )  sin30  0.2cos30
 0.114 m  11.4 cm

vMAX/2
d? Compression:
vMAX x = 4 cm
μk = 0.2

θ = 30o m = 200 g

k = 250 N/m

90 91

A 10-kg cat jumps with an initial angle of 45° and just manages to land on
top of a 1.0-m high table. What is the cat’s horizontal velocity? ACT: Force field
The pictures below show force vectors at different points
The landing point is
the highest point of
in space for two different forces. Which of these forces
1.0-m the cat’s trajectory, is conservative?
45° where vy = 0

1 1 1
Einitial 
2 2

mv 02  m v 02x  v 02y  E final  mv 02x  mgh
2
with because
v0 vfy  0 and vfx  v 0 x
v 0 x  v 0 y  v 0 cos 45 
2

1
Einitial  E final  mgh  mv 02y 1 2
2
v 0 y  2 gh  4.4 m/s  v 0 x  4.4 m/s
Answer C A. 1 B. 2 C. Both

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Work along a closed trajectories (loops). Relation between U and F (1D)

W=0 W=0 For a conservative force (in 1D),

W2 final
W  
initial
Fx  dx  U U    Fx  dx  constant
W=0 W2’
W3 W1’
W1
dU
Fx  
1 W=0 2 W=0 dx
Examples:
dU
U  mgy Fy    mg
|W2 + W3|= |W1| |W2’| > |W1’|

dy The force is minus the
1 dU
W loop = 0 U  kx 2  Fx    kx slope of the U (x) curve.
⇒ ⇒ Wloop ≠ 0 2 dx

95 96

Example: Spring
x
x < 0, F > 0
Potential energy of a x
box attached to a U
x = 0, F = 0
spring on a horizontal,
frictionless table. U

1
U (x )  kx 2
2 dU/dx < 0
dU/dx = 0
x
x

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x x
x > 0, F < 0 x > 0, F < 0 and larger in magnitude
U U

dU/dx > 0
and steeper
than before
dU/dx > 0
x
x

The force always points “downhill”!!!

99 100

Equilibrium Stable/unstable/neutral equilibrium

Whenever F = 0 (ie, dU/dx = 0), we have equilibrium.
U The force pulls it away from
xS, xU and xN are points of
equilibrium
What happens if the particle moves some small dx away from the
equilibrium point?
U
unstable the equilibrium point.
The force remains zero,
neutral so the particle stays at
stable the new position, which
is also an equilibrium
position.

xS x
x DEMO:
xU xN The force brings it back Equilibrium
to the equilibrium point.

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Energy Diagrams
Mechanical energy is related to the initial conditions.

It is a plot of U versus x, where the mechanical energy

can also be included.
Energy diagrams provide a very useful visual Example 1: A box attached to a spring on a
representation of a conservative force. horizontal, frictionless table is released at x = x0
from rest.
Key features of the force are easily
revealed. 1
• Force points “downhill” E  KE  U  0  kxo2
2
• Maximum = unstable equilibrium point
• Minimum = stable equilibrium point
• Turning points : Wherever E =U (so K = 0)

103 104

Example 2: The box is brought to x = x0 and

U pushed, so its initial velocity is v0.
UMAX ( = E ) 1 1
E  KE  U  mvo2  kxo2
2 2
KE = 0, turn-around
points U

UMIN 1 New turn-around points.

E  kxo2
KEMAX 2 1 1
E  mvo2  kxo2 (now)
2 2
x
–x0 x0 E
1 2
kxo (before)
2
Forbidden region Forbidden region
Particle
(KE < 0) moves here (KE < 0) x
–xt x0 xt

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“Escape”
U
Gravitational Field of Earth
Interatomic force

U=0
U = UMAX = E KE = KEMAX = E U   1
r

KE = 0 Objects must have E > 0

U  r2 to escape the Earth. Barrier: Minimum energy
E to escape or enter.

KE KE No way to escape! You cannot

obtain a free quark or anti-
quark (“Confinement” in QCD)
U
x
–xt U xt U  r

How much kinetic/potential energy does the Strong force between

system have at every point? quark and anti-quark
U   1
r

107 108

U
Example: Potential with two pits. 1. The particle is released from rest at point A.

E  K U From the initial conditions, E  0  UA

A particle is subjected to the force associated with this
potential. No other forces are exerted on the particle.
Describe the motion of the particle in the following cases.
At M1, U is minimum, so K (and speed) is maximum
At xB, U = E, so K (and speed) is zero → turn around point
The particle is forbidden from x < xA or x > xB (K < 0)

U
x The particle oscillates between A and B.

A M1 B
x

UA E

forbidden OK OK forbidden
Direction of force F

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2. The particle is released at point A with a small* initial velocity

v0i. 3. The particle is released from rest at point G.
1 From the initial conditions, E  UG
From the initial conditions, E  mv 02  UA  UA (*but not too much larger)
2
At M1, U is minimum, so K (and speed) is maximum At M1, U is minimum, so K (and speed) is maximum

The turn-around points are defined by K = 0, so U = E : points C and D. The particle keeps moving in the +x direction (no
oscillations) and never comes back (“escapes”).
U U
The particle oscillates between C and D.
UG E

CA M1 D M1
x x
G
E
UA

forbidden OK OK forbidden forbidden OK OK OK OK OK

Direction of
Direction of force F F = 0 force F

111 112

5. The particle is released from rest at point K. 6. The particle is released from rest at point M1.

From initial conditions, E = UK From initial conditions, E = UM1

Force = 0 with v = 0 → Equilibrium

The particle oscillates between K and L.
If someone pushes the particle slightly
Stable
away from M1, the force pushes it
equilibrium
U U back.

E
M1
x x
L K

forbidden forbidden
OK Direction of force F
E

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7. The particle is released from rest at point M2. Relation between U and F (3D)
From initial conditions, E = UM2
U
Force = 0 with v = 0 → Equilibrium
1D: Fx   (“downhill”)
If someone pushes the particle slightly
x
Unstable equilibrium
away from M1, the force pushes it further
U away.  
3D: F  U (minus the gradient of U )

(“downhill in the steepest direction”)

E
x
U U U
M2 Direction of force F Fx   , Fy   , Fz   in cartesian coordinates
x y z
U
Fr   for the radial component in spherical coordinates
r

115 116

Visualization of a gradient Example

Consider the 2D case. Think of a hilly terrain where U is the
altitude. Find the force exerted at point P (0,1,2) m if the potential
The negative gradient of U is a vector whose: energy associated with the force is:

• Direction points down the hill in the direction water would U (r )  3xy  4x 2  yz 3  J
flow from that location (i.e., in the steepest direction).
• Magnitude is the slope of the hill in that direction U
Fx     3y  8x  Fx ,P  (3  0)  3
x
U U
Fy     3x  z 3  Fy ,P  (0  8)  8
y
y U
-∇U Fz      3yz 2  Fz ,P  (3  1  4)  12
z

 
x 
x FP  3iˆ  8 jˆ  12kˆ N
-∇U
y

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Collisions, explosions

These are situations where Finternal  Fexternal

Fexternal ~ 0
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
Total linear momentum is conserved.

Or: The momentum transfer due to the internal forces

is much larger than that due to external forces.

119 120

What happens to the total kinetic energy?

Collisions, explosions
1. Constant K Elastic collisions
When internal forces are conservative or objects are “hard”.
Examples: Elementary particles, billiard balls These are situations where Finternal  Fexternal
2. K decreases Inelastic collisions
Whenever a deformation is involved. Fexternal ~ 0
Example: Most macroscopic collisions

Special case: Perfectly inelastic collisions, when the

objects stick together. Example: Pin and putty
One body breaks into a number of Total linear momentum is conserved.
Explosions parts. The explosion mechanism
provides the extra energy.
3. K increases
Some internal energy is transformed Or: The momentum transfer due to the internal forces
Superelastic into KE because of a collision.
is much larger than that due to external forces.
collisions Example: An excited atom hits another atom
and drops to a lower state without radiation.

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What happens to the total kinetic energy?

1D Inelastic: Shooting at a block
1. Constant K Elastic collisions
When internal forces are conservative or objects are “hard”. A block of mass M is initially at rest on a
Examples: Elementary particles, billiard balls
frictionless horizontal surface. A bullet of mass m
2. K decreases Inelastic collisions is fired at the block with speed v. The bullet
Whenever a deformation is involved. lodges in the block. Determine the final speed of
the block (with theAtbullet).
rest
Example: Most macroscopic collisions

Special case: Perfectly inelastic collisions, when the

objects stick together. Example: Pin and putty m v
M Before
One body breaks into a number of
Explosions parts. The explosion mechanism
provides the extra energy.
3. K increases M +m
Some internal energy is transformed v’ After
Superelastic into KE because of a collision.
collisions Example: An excited atom hits another atom
and drops to a lower state without radiation.

123 124

ptotal, initial = mv + 0 Is total kinetic energy conserved?

mv = (M + m)v’
ptotal, final = (M + m)v’
1 Clearly ≠
m ➝ 0 as M ➝∞  KE total, initial  mv 2
v  v 2
M  m ➝ v as M ➝ 0  KE total, final
1 1  m
 (M  m )v 2  (M  m ) 

2

v 
1 m
mv 2
2 2 M m  2M m
At rest
⇒ inelastic collision
m v
M Before KE total  KE total, final  KE total, initial 
1 m
 mv 2 (  1) 
2 M m
1 M
 mv 2
M +m v’ After 2M m <0
(Work done by friction to
stop the bullet)

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2D (Totally) Inelastic: Sticking Together 5.00 m/s 5.00 kg

The two masses in the figure
collide and stick together.
(Totally) inelastic
They are moving on a
The two masses in the figure collide and stick together. horizontal, frictionless 10.0 m/s
They are moving on a horizontal, frictionless surface. surface. What is the change in y
kinetic energy for this
What is the change in kinetic energy for this process? process? 10.0 kg
x
A. 0 J 
pTOTAL, BEFORE 

pTOTAL, AFTER
5.00 kg 
B. -104 J 5.00 m/s (5 kg)( 5 m/s)iˆ  (10 kg)(10 m/s) jˆ  (15 kg)v

C. -208 J


v  1.67iˆ  6.67 jˆ m/s 
10.0 m/s
D. -312 J KE  KE AFTER  KE BEFORE 
1 1 1 
10.0 kg  (15)(1.672  6.672 )   (10)(102 )  (5)(52 )   208 J
E. -416 J 2 2 2 

127 128

A hockey player of mass m1 = 80 kg hits another player of mass m2 = 70 kg that is

initially at rest. The final speed of the player 1 is v1f = 6.0 m/s. He comes out at an
2D Inelastic: Hockey players angle θ1 = 40° with its original direction. Player 2 comes out at an angle θ2 = 65°.

Determine the final speed of player 2 and the initial speed of player 1.
A hockey player of mass m1 = 80 kg hits another
player of mass m2 = 70 kg that is initially at rest. The
final speed of the player 1 is v1f = 6.0 m/s. He comes x: mv
1 1,i  0  mv
1 1,f cos 1  m2v 2,f cos 2
out at an angle θ1 = 40° with its original direction.
Player 2 comes out at an angle θ2 = 65°. y: 0  0  mv
1 1,f sin 1  m2v 2,f sin 2

v1,f the initial

Determine the final speed of player 2 and y y
speed of player 1.
v1,f
m1 m2 θ1
m1
v1,i v2,i = 0 m2 θ1
θ2 v1,i v2,i = 0 x x
θ2
v2,f v2,f

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A hockey player of mass m1 = 80 kg hits another player of mass m2 = 70 kg that is

initially at rest. The final speed of the player 1 is v1f = 6.0 m/s. He comes out at an
angle θ1 = 40° with its original direction. Player 2 comes out at an angle θ2 = 65°.
1D Elastic: Two steel balls head-on
Determine the final speed of player 2 and the initial speed of player 1.

x: mv
1 1,i  0  mv
1 1,f cos 1  m2v 2,f cos  2

y: 0  0  mv
1 1,f sin 1  m2v2,f sin 2
A steel ball with mass m1 = 1 kg and initial
speed v0 collides head-on with another ball
x: 80v 1,i  80  6cos 40  70v 2,f cos 65
y: 0  80  6sin 40  70v2,f sin 65
of mass m2 = 2 kg that is initially at rest.
What are the final speeds of the balls?
x: 8v1,i  48cos 40  7v2,f cos 65
y: 0  48sin 40  7v2,f sin65

48sin 40
y: v2,f   4.9 m/s
7 sin 65
48cos 40  7v2,f cos65 48cos 40  7(4.9)cos 65
x: v1,i    6.4 m/s
8 8

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The hard way to solve this: v 0  v1  2v2 v1  v 0  2v2

v 02  v 0  2v2   2v22
2
v  v  2v
2 2 2
Head-on: 1D process. 0 1 2

v 0  0  v1  2v2 v1  v 0  2v2
6v 22  4v 0v2  0
Hard steel balls: elastic collision (KEtotal is conserved )
1 2 1 1
v 0  0  v12  2v22 v2  0 v1  v 0
2 2 2 No collision!
Two solutions: 2 1
v 02  v12  2v22 v 2  v0 v1   v 0
3 3

v0 v1 v2

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But… there is an easier way to solve elastic collisions. So the relative velocity has the same magnitude and opposite sign
before and after the collision:
m2
mv
1 0  mv
1 1  m2v 2 v 0  v1  v v 0  (v1  v 2 )
m1 2
1 1 1 But… relative velocity is the same independently of the original frame
mv 2
1 0  mv 2
1 1  m2v 22 m
2 2 2 v 02  v12  2 v22 of reference (including one in which both balls are initially moving)
m1

m2
v 2  v 0  v1 The relative velocity has the same magnitude and
m1 v 2  v 0  v1 v 0  (v1  v 2 )
opposite sign before and after any elastic collision
m2 2 between two bodies:
v2  v 02  v12 Velocity of 1 relative to 2
m1 after the collision
Velocity of 1 relative to 2
v1,i  v2,i  (v1,f  v2,f )
before the collision

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Let’s try the problem again.

DEMO: Basketball and superball
A steel ball with mass m1 = 1 kg and initial speed v0 collides
head-on with another ball of mass m2 = 2 kg that is initially
at rest. What are the final speeds of the balls? Assume all collisions are elastic and M >> m

v 0  0  v1  2v2 v 0  v1  2v2
2v 0  3v2 Relative
v 0  0  (v1  v2 ) v 0  v2  v1 speed is 2v 3v
V?
m v
2 1
v2  v 0 ; v1   v 0 v Here too!
3 3 M v
DEMO: Basketball
and superball - v
Astroblaster
v
v0 v1 v2

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We can write the kinetic energy in terms of momentum:

2D Elastic: Nuclear scattering. 1 m 2v 2 p2
KE  mv 2  
2 2m 2m
A particle of unknown mass M is initially at rest. A particle
of known mass m is “shot” against it with initial momentum      
pi  pf  P (2 equations) P 2  P 2  ( pi  pf )2
pi. After the collision, the momentum of the particle of
known mass is measured again, and it is pf. pi2 p2 P2  p2 p2 
If the collision is elastic, that’s all we need to determine M  f  P 2  2M  i  f  
and the final momentum of the target, P.
M (at rest) pf
2m 2m 2M  2m 2m 
m
M 2
pi     ( pi  pf2 )
P  pi  pf m
3 unknowns: M, Px, Py P

By bombarding an unknown particle with a known  

3 equations: conservation of momentum in the x direction projectile and measuring the initial and final ( pi  pf )2
conservation of momentum in the y direction
momentum, we can find the mass of the target! M m
Used in atomic, nuclear and elementary particle ( pi2  pf2 )
conservation of kinetic energy physics.

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Energy versus Momentum

• Energy comes in a multitude of forms

• There is just one kind of momentum

• Energy is a scalar
• Momentum is a vector Newton’s Law of Gravity

• Transfer of energy by a force=work

• Transfer of momentum by a force=impulse

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Newton and the Moon Angular frequency 1 rotation

  ...  2.66  10 -6 s-1
of the moon: 27.3 day
pointing toward
What is the centripetal acceleration of the ac  r  2  0.00272 m/s2  0.000278 g
the Earth
Moon for its rotation around the Earth?
We know (Newton also knew): ac
 0.000278
T = 27.3 days = 2.36 x 106 s g

rmoon-Earth = 3.84 x 108 m Newton noticed that

Yes!!
REarth = 6.35 x 106 m (see Appendix)
RE2
 0.000273
r2

REarth This inspired him to

rmoon-Earth
suggest that Fgravity ∝ 1/r2

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Newton’s Law of Gravitation

constant
a  Two point-like bodies of mass m1 and m2 that are
r2
separated by a distance r attract each other with a
force with magnitude
constant
g  m1m2 Nm2
RE2 F G G  6.67  10 11
r2 kg2
Gravitational constant
and direction along the line between both bodies.
F F
m1 m2
r

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Spherical shell theorem Weight

An important result that we will not prove until Gauss’s law in physics 222.
Example of application of the spherical shell theorem:
The gravitational force exerted by a spherically
symmetric object of radius R and mass M is the same Object near the surface of the Earth
as the force exerted by a particle of mass M located at
the center of the sphere, for distances r ≥ R. Force by the Earth on an object of mass m at
distance h from the ground
m1 mME mME ME
m1 Fg  G G  mg g G
(RE  h )2
RE2 RE2
Same force in
r both cases r
RE  h
m2
m2

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1 Astronomical Unit (AU) = 1.5x1011 m

Gravity is a very weak force Outer 12 Earth-Sun)
(Average distance
Example: Find the magnitude of the gravitational attraction
between two 3-kg books sitting 1 cm apart.

Nm2 (3 kg)2 Completely

F  (6.67  10 11 )  6.0  10 6 N !!!
kg2 (10 2 m)2 negligible.

Gravitational force matters when at least one of the

objects is very massive, like stars, planets or
galaxies. In fact, it is the dominant force in the
structures at astronomical scale.

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Outer 13

1 Astronomical Unit (AU) =

1.5x1011 m (Average distance
Earth-Sun)

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Gravitational potential

Gravitational forces are conservative.

Find the work done by gravity on an object of mass m

that moves from point A to point B in the vicinity of a
planet of mass M.
~1020 m for
our galaxy m
M rA A

rB
B

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Mm rB
 GMm GMm 
Example: How high?
  rB
 1
WAB   F  dl    G 2 dr  GMm         
rA r  r r  rB rA 
A

For any path, the dot product

  UB  UA 
selects the radial part of dl
A projectile of mass m is
GMm
launched straight up
Gravitational U g (r )    constant RMAX
potential energy r from the surface of the
Earth with initial speed
m v0. What is the maximum
M rA A distance from the
center of the Earth it
rB reaches before falling
B
back down?

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Uf  G
ME m
RMAX
KEf  0 Example: Escape speed
RMAX

v0 What is the minimum initial speed of a projectile of mass m

ME m 1
U0  G KE 0  mv 02 m to escape from Earth?
RE 2
A. 9.8 m/s Escape = reach infinity (where the attraction
ME of Earth is zero)
B. 9.8 km/s
RE v2 R
C. 11.2 km/s RMAX     1  esc E  0
v R
2
2GME
Conservation of M m 1 Mm 1  esc E
G E  mv 02  G E D. 46.4 km/s 2GME
mechanical energy RE 2 RMAX 2GME
v esc
2
  2 gRE
E. 98 km/s RE

1 1 v 02 1 RE Note:
   RMAX 
v 2R Independent v esc  2 gRE  = 11.2 km/s  Escape speed
RE 2 GME RMAX 1 0 E of m !
2GME Also independent of m, of course!

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Types of orbits
For g ~ constant, approximately a parabola
M Hyperbolic orbit: v  v escape
• Closed orbits (ellipses): v  v escape  2G
R
M
Special ellipse: Circular orbit v circular  G
r

• Open orbits (parabolas and hyperbolas): v  v escape Parabolic orbit: v  v escape

Circular orbit: v  v circular

For the Earth, v escape  11.2 km/s
v circular  7.9 km/s Elliptical orbits: v  v escape

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Appendix:
Kepler’s Laws
Measuring the radius of the Earth in 200 BC
Originally formulated for the planets in the Solar system, but they Eratosthenes of Cyrene measured the shadow cast by a vertical stick
apply to any closed orbit (changing “Sun” by whatever applies). at noon in Alexandria and Syene
length of the shadow
1. Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the Sun at one θ~
focus of the ellipse. P length of the stick
PF + PF’ = constant
θ
F F’

1. A line from the Sun to the given planet sweeps out equal Alexandria
areas in equal times
➙ Angular momentum about the Sun is conserved. Syene
θ (no shadow)
➙ Faster near the Sun distance between Alexandria and Syene
θ=
3. The periods of the planets are proportional to the 3/2 radius of the Earth
power of the semi-major axis a.
a
He got RE ~ 6400 km (The actual value!!!)

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