Chapter 5 Oscillations and

mechanical waves
Simple Harmonic Motion

Oscillations

1 2

Periodic motion Oscillations about an equilibrium position

A motion is called periodic when the system comes When a 1D system is released near a stable
back to the same situation every time interval T. equilibrium point, the motion is periodic: oscillations
between two turn-around points x1 and x2.
U
Same position Period
Same velocity
1
Frequency f  E
T


Examples: 2
Angular
 2f  x
Uniform circular motion frequency T x2
x1 SE
Earth around the Sun
Forbidden region Oscillations Forbidden region
Toy train in a circuit

3 4
 Simple Harmonic Motion Example of SHM: Spring that obeys Hooke’s law
(SHM)
SHM is the oscillatory motion that happens when the
restoring force is proportional to the displacement from F  kx Oscillations about x = 0
the equilibrium position:
U
F ∝ –x

equivalent to 1 E
U  kx 2
2
…or when the potential energy is a quadratic function
of the displacement from the equilibrium position: –x0 x
x0
U ∝ x2 (a parabola)

5 6

Most oscillatory systems can be approximated by SHM The SHM equation

when the oscillations are small enough:
x=0
U F
F  kx
x

E Newton’s second law for the block: kx  ma

x1 x2 x d 2x d 2x
m  kx  0   2x  0 SHM eqn.
dt 2 dt 2
If not too far from the minimum, the curve is
with   k / m (spring)
approximately a parabola.
Solutions to this differential equation: x  sin t x  cos t
Technically: Taylor’s expansion of U(x) up to the quadratic term General solution (standard form): x  A cos(t   )

7 8
 d 2x
SHM equation:   2x  0 x
dt 2
A Max |x|=A
General solution: x  A cos(t   ) t
-φ/ω
T
v =0
Amplitude Phase angle Max |a|=Aω2
v
or phase
Angular
frequency t
x =0
x  A cos(t   ) x MAX  A Max|v |=Aω
dx a a =0
v   A sin(t   ) v MAX  A
dt t SP2
dv DEMO:
a   A 2 cos(t   )   2x aMAX  A 2
Position, velocity and
dt acceleration in SHM

9 10

A 3-kg block is attached to the end of a

Example: SHM spring spring with k = 1000 N/m. The spring is

compressed 25 cm and released at t = 0.
What is the velocity of the mass 10 s later? x=0
x = -25 cm
A 3-kg block is attached to the end of a spring with We need to determine the x(t) function.
k = 1000 N/m. The spring is compressed 25 cm as
x (t )  A cos(t   ) v(t )  A sin(t   )
shown and released at t = 0. What is the velocity of
the mass 10 s later? (Use the given x-axis). A = 25 cm = 0.25 m
A. 4.57 m/s 
k

1000 N/m
 18.26 s-1
m 3 kg
B. -4.57 m/s
0.25  0.25cos  cos   1   

C. 1.73 m/s 
0  A sin  sin   0
x = -25 cm x=0
D. -1.73 m/s v(t )  A sin(t   )  4.57 sin(18.26t   ) m/s

E. 0.00 m/s Answer C

v (10 s)  1.73 m/s
4.57 m/s (Answers A and B) is the
maximum speed

11 12
Slide 10

SP2 Use air track with glider with springs and/or large pendulum.
Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 Energy in SHM The simple pendulum
The SHM driving force is conservative, so mechanical energy is always
conserved. The energy oscillates back and forth between the kinetic and A mass m is suspended at the end of a massless string
potential forms. of length L. Find the frequency of the oscillations for
1 1
U small displacements.
U (t )  kx 2  kA 2 cos2 (t )
2 2 t
R s
K
1 1 θ b
K (t ) 
2
mv 2  mA 2 2 sin2 (t )
2 t c
L b c s
1 1 sin   cos   
E  KE (t )  U (t )  mA 2 2 sin2 (t )  kA 2 cos2 (t )
2 2 Small θ R R R
1 E θ
 kA2 sin2 (t )  cos2 (t ) 
2 bs sin   
1 t Small θ
 kA2 (constant!)
mA 22 mA 2
k
 kA 2
2 c R cos   1
m

13 14

The oscillations are rotations about

P
point P. The phase shift.
 net   g  mgL sin 
L
Newton’s second law:  net  I  
d 2 θ T -A A
x -Aω Aω v
mgL sin   mL2
dt 2
Small θ
mg
d 2 T/4
mgL  mL2 2
dt SP3 T/4
Solution:
   0 cos(t   )
d  g
2
g
  0 SHM with 
dt 2 L
L
t
t
15 16
Slide 15

SP3 Two pendlums with equal length, different mass. Two with equal mass and lengths 1:4
Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 Characteristics of SHM
d 2x
Ubiquity of SHO concept: 2
 2x  0
dt
• Frequency, period,
amplitude, phase • The quantity x can be other physical quantities
p 423–424. • x can be an angle,
e.g pendulum, watches, …
x  A cos(t   )
A : amplitude  : phase
• x can even be quantities
k such as electrical charge in a
with   independent of A
m capacitor, electrical fields,
period of oscillation T  2 
vibration of molecules,
motion of electrons in an atom, etc

17 18

The physical pendulum

= a rigid body that oscillates about an axis (P).

Oscillations about P: d 2 d 2 mgd

 mgd sin   I sin   0
The Pendulum

 net  I   dt 2 dt 2 I
Distance
Damped and Forced Oscillations
Moment of
between CM and
inertia about N
suspension point
suspension point fs P
d 2 mgd
For small θ:   0 d
dt 2 I
θ
CM
mgd
SHM with   2

I DEMO: mg
Physical pendulum SP5

19 20
Slide 20

SP5 Two rings that can oscillate parallel/perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 pivot pivot
Example: Rod and disk Angular frequency of a
physical pendulum: 3L
5L
A rod of length 6L long has a disk with r = L attached to it. 6L
The disk can be positioned along the rod’s length. Both the mgd
 r=L
rod and the disk have mass m. The distance between the I
center of the disk and the pivot point is 3L in case A and
5L in case B. Case A Case B
pivot pivot
Find the ratio ωA/ωB.
A. 1.31 3L
5L (2m ) gdA
B. 1.14 6L A IA d AI B
 
C. 1.00 r=L B (2m ) gdB dB I A
IB
D. 0.874
Case A Case B
E. 0.764

21 22

pivot pivot

d AI B 3L TA B 1
A    0.874
 5L
B d BI A 6L TB A 1.14

r=L
Lowering the disk
increases the period (ie,
Case A Case B slows the pendulum
down).
1 1
A: d A  3L IA  m (6L)2  mL2  m (3L )2  21.5mL2
3 2 This is how you tune a
m 5L  m3L 1 1 grandfather clock.
B: dB   4L IB  m (6L)2  mL2  m (5L )2  37.5mL2
2m 3 2

A d AI B 3L  37.5mL2 112.5
    1.14 Answer B
B d BI A 4L  21.5mL2 86

23 24
 Damped oscillations Damped Harmonic Motion

Life is not ideal… Example: Mass and spring

Pendulums don’t swing forever. Some friction or Newton’s 2nd law: Fnet  kx  bv  ma
damping force slows it to a stop.
kx  b dx  m d x2
2

Pendulum in air Spring with dt dt

or other fluid mass and drag
(car suspension)
dt 2  
m dt m 
d 2x  b dx  k x  0 Diff. eqn.

Linear damping (by a fluid, for small speeds): the b  2 km underdamping

damping force is proportional to velocity. Three types
  of solutions: b  2 km critical damping
FD  bv
b  2 km overdamping

25 26

Underdamping b  2 km  Critical damping b  2 km 

  k  b2   k  b 2  0!! No oscillations!
x  A(t ) cos( t   ) with A(t )  Ae (b / 2m )t m 4m 2 m 4m 2

Similar to ideal SHM except:

b>b x(t)
T>T • period of oscillation lengthened
x(t) • exponential decay in amplitude b  2 km

A(t) t
t A(t)

27 28
 Damped Harmonic Motion
Overdamping b  2 km 
There are systems where damping is unwanted, such as
clocks and watches.
No oscillations either. The decay is slower than with
critical damping. Then there are systems in which it is wanted, and often
needs to be as close to critical damping as possible, such as
x(t) automobile shock absorbers and earthquake protection for
buildings.
b  2 km
b  2 km t

b  2 km
VIDEO:
Sand pendulum SP6

29 30

Forced Vibrations; Resonance

Forced Oscillations and Resonance Forced vibrations occur when there is a periodic driving
force. This force may or may not have the same period
Damping is To keep a system going, we need as the natural frequency of the system.
always present to apply a driving force.
If the frequency is the same as the natural frequency,
Fapplied  Fmax cos(Dt )
the amplitude becomes quite large. This is called
For a driving force of the form
resonance.
Fmax
the amplitude goes as: A
(k  mD2 )2  b 2D2
Resonance
k
When D   natural A is very large, even for small Fmax
m
(without damping, ie b = 0, A → ∞)
SP7

SP8

31 32
Slide 29

SP6 Physics Cinema Classics Disk 1 B chapter 33, sand pendulum

Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012

Slide 31

SP7 The Mechanical Universe 17 (resonance), chapter 25

Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012

SP8 Pivoting plank with 6 colored wooden beads/cubes on top of wires of different lengths
Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 Forced Vibrations; Resonance Forced (driven) oscillations and
resonance
The sharpness of the
• The Tacoma Narrows Bridge suffered spectacular structural failure after
resonant peak depends on absorbing too much resonant energy (refer to Figure13.29).
the damping. If the
damping is small (A), it can
be quite sharp; if the
damping is larger (B), it is
less sharp.

Like damping, resonance can be wanted or unwanted.

Musical instruments and TV/radio receivers depend on it.

33 34

What is a wave ?

A wave is a traveling disturbance that

transports energy but not matter.
Examples:
Mechanical waves. – Sound waves (air moves back & forth)
– Water waves (water moves up & down)
Transverse waves. – Light waves (what moves??)

Sound waves.
Mechanical waves exist as excitations of a (more or
less) elastic medium.

35 36
 Wave Motion

A wave travels along

its medium, but the A wave travels along
individual particles its medium, but the
just move up and individual particles
down. just move up and
down.

37 38

Types of Waves Forms of waves

v
Transverse: The medium • Continuous or periodic: go on
oscillates perpendicular to forever in one direction
the direction the wave is ➝ in particular, harmonic (sin
moving. or cos) v
•String
•Water • Pulses: brief
disturbance in the
Longitudinal: The medium medium
oscillates in the same v
direction the wave is
moving • Pulse trains, which are
• Sound somewhere in between.
• Slinky

39 40
 Harmonic waves A few parameters
Amplitude: The maximum displacement A of a point on the wave.
Each point has SHM
Period: The timeT for a point on the wave to undergo one
complete oscillation.
Frequency: Number of oscillations f for a 1
f 
point on the wave in one unit of time. T
Angular frequency: radians ω for a point   2f
on the wave in one unit of time.
y

Amplitude A x

41 42

Connecting all these SHM Wave speed

Wavelength: The distance  between identical points on The speed of a wave is a constant that depends
the wave. only on the medium:
Speed: The wave moves one wavelength  in one period
T, so its speed is
 ➝ How easy is it to displace points from
v   f
T equilibrium position?
➝ How strong is the restoring force back to
Wavelength equilibrium?
 y
Speed does NOT depend on amplitude, wavelength,
Amplitude A x period or shape of wave.
A

43 44
 Mathematical description of a wave Math for the harmonic wave
y
y  v
Suppose we have some function y = f(x) : Consider a wave that is harmonic
in x and has a wavelength  :
x A x
y

f(x − a) is just the same shape moved  2 

If y = A at x y  x   A cos  x
a distance a to the right: = 0:   
x
a
y
Let a = vt  2 
v If this is moving to the y  x ,t   A cos   x  vt  
Then, f(x − vt) will describe the same right with speed v :   
shape moving to the right with x
vt
speed v.

45 46

Different forms of the same thing The wave equation

General wave: y  f  x  vt  Let u  x  vt
 2 
y  x ,t   A cos   x  vt  
   y f y f
 v 
t u x u
   2y 2  f
2
2 y  2f
v 
We knew: v   t 2 u 2 x 2
u 2
T 2
2  2y 2y
Define: k  Wave number
v 2
 t 2 x 2

y  x ,t   A cos kx  t 
 2y 1 2y
v   2  0 Wave equation
k x 2
v t 2

47 48
 Pressure/density oscillations Harmonic longitudinal waves
Gas in equilibrium: pressure and density are uniform.
Consider a gas in a long, thin, horizontal tube. Each
Sound wave: periodic longitudinal oscillations of particles in
the gas
particle of gas oscillates horizontally in a harmonic
way: s (x ,t )  smax cos(kx  t )
Consider one slice of air:
1. Oscillation to the right causes pressure to air normally at x = 0, displaced to right by 10 mm
increase
2. Increase in force causes neighboring air to
be displaced
➝ sound wave propagates
3. Slice of air oscillates back to region of low
pressure
The small volumes of air do not propagate with wave, SP10

they only oscillate around their equilibrium position. air normally at x = 50 cm, displaced to left by 10 mm

49 50

Pressure, density oscillations Wave speed

Here air is to the right Here air is to the left
of where it should be of where it should be restoring force property
In general: v 
inertial property

F
String: v 
m

B
Sound in a fluid: v  (see appendix 3)


Air from both sides Y

momentarily accumulates in Sound in a solid: v 

middle
Zero displacement ↔ Maximum density and pressure Mythbuster’s clip

51 52
Slide 49

SP10 WM&S-14 Bell inside vacuum jar

Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 Consider the segment of length x when the string is relaxed: m  mx
Appendix 1: Wave speed
y F2
F2y

F
F1x m F2x
F
Problem: A pulse travels in the +x direction in a
string with mass per unit length of the string is 
 (kg/m) subject to a uniform tension F . x x  x
F1
What is the speed of the pulse? F1y

|F1x | = |F2x| because ax = 0 (transversal wave, no displacement in the x

direction)
Fx must also be equal to the tension in the string when there is no wave,
ie, |F1x | = |F2x| = F

53 54

y F2
F2y  y 
F 
 y   2 y
     mx
 x x x  x x  t 2

m  mx F
F  y   y 

  
 x x  x  x x m 2y

x F t 2

x x  x
F1
F1y  y   y 
   
  y   y    x x  x  x x 2y
F1y  y  Fy  F2y  F1y  F      lim 
At x :   
net
x x  x  x x 
x  0 x x 2
F 
 x x
F2 y  m a y
 y 
At x  x :   2 y 2 y m 2 y Wave speed
F  x x  x  mx Wave equation! 
t 2 x 2
F t 2 in a string

1 F
 y   y   2 y v 
F       mx v2 m
 x x x  x x  t2

55 56
 Appendix 2: Relation between displacement Pressure and displacement are related through the
and pressure bulk modulus of the air!
p This is the gauge pressure (actual
Consider a pipe of cross-sectional area A filled with air, B  pressure minus equilibrium pressure)
V
and a small element at x with thickness Δx.
V
In equilibrium:
x V  Ax V s s
   
p0 p0 V  As V x x  0
x
Δx
s (x ,t )
p (x ,t )  B
Due to a wave, element moves and changes its size x
x+s
The harmonic case: Out of phase as predicted
p0 + p1 p0 + p2
s (x ,t )  smax cos(kx  t )  p (x ,t )  Bksmax sin(kx  t )
Δx + Δs pmax

57 58

s
Appendix 3: Sound wave speed p  B
x
x x+s p  2s
p0 p0 p0 + p1 p0 + p2  B
x x 2
Δx Δ x + Δs  2s  2s
 B
Net force on the element:
F  ( p1  p2 )A t 2
x 2
p 2s
Acceleration of the
2s
a  2
  2
t x t
element:
Mass of the m   A x  2s   2s
 0
element: x 2 B t 2
2s
( p1  p2 )A  A x
t 2 B
p 2s Wave equation with v 
( p1  p2 ) 2s   2 
 2 x  0 x t
x t

59 60
 Pressure and density
oscillations
It all boils down to a phase difference: What are these
frequencies???
Displacement s (x ,t )  smax cos(kx  t )
v 300 m/s
Pressure p (x ,t )  pmax sin(kx  t ) For sound having  = 3 mf : ~  100 Hz (bass hum)
 3m
Note that p is the gauge pressure. The pressure of air in equilibrium
is patm. The oscillations give a total pressure ptotal (x ,t )  patm  p (x ,t )
v 3  108 m/s
For light having  = 3 mf:  ~  100 MHz (FM radio)
 3m

Density  (x ,t )  max sin(kx  t )

Density oscillations are also about the regular air density.

Total density is total (x ,t )  0   (x ,t )

61 62

Wave energy
• Work is clearly being done: F.dr > 0 as hand
moves up and down.
• This energy must be moving away from your
hand (to the right) since the kinetic energy
Energy. Intensity. (motion) of the end of the string grabbed by
the hand stays the same.
Interference. Beats.
P

63 64
 Transfer of energy Power
The string to the left of x does work on the string to Energy in a mass in SHM (attached to a spring k)
the right of x, just as your hand did:
1  2 k 
E  kA2   2A 2   
2  m
This energy propagates at speed v.
➙ the average energy per unit time that flows in the direction of
propagation should be proportional to v

P  v  2A2 Average power

x
For harmonic waves (see appendix):

1 1v 2 2 Average power for

P  mF  2A 2   A
Energy is transferred or propagated. 2 2m harmonic waves

65 66

Intensity Distance and amplitude

P Average power (over time) in wave
1
I  At distance r from the source, the power is Pr  I r 
area Area of the surface where this power is distributed r2

Example: A siren emits a sound of power 2W at 100 m from you. P   Amplitude 

2
We also know
How much power reaches your ear (eardrum area = 0.7 cm2)
that
Sphere of
Intensity at distance r from source:
area 4 r 2
r 1
Pat source 2W Amplitude decreases as
IR    1.6  10 5 W/m2 r
4 r 4 100 m 
2 2

Power absorbed by eardrum:


Peardrum  I R   area of eardrum   1.6  10 5 W/m2  0.7  10 4

m2  1.1 nW

67 68
 Sound intensity level Interference, superposition
Q: What happens when two waves “collide?”
I
  10log with I 0  10 12 W/m2
I0 A: They ADD together! We say the waves are “superposed.”

Units: decibels

Threshold of human hearing: 10-12 W/m2   0

Normal conversation: 10-6 W/m2    65 decibels

Threshold of pain: 1 W/m2    120 decibels

Twice the decibels does NOT feel twice as loud!

“Constructive” “Destructive”

69 70

Aside: Why superposition Superposition of two identical harmonic waves

works out of phase
The wave equation is linear: It has no terms where variables Two identical waves out of phase:
are squared.
y1  x ,t   A cos kx  t  y2  x ,t   A cos kx  t    Wave 2 is little
If f1 and f2 are solution, then Bf1 + Cf2 is also ahead or behind
a solution! wave 1

These points are now

displaced by both
waves

constructive destructive intermediate

71 72
 Superposition of two identical harmonic waves
out of phase: the math Interference for sound (3D)
Let S1, S2 be two sources that emit spherical sound waves in phase.
y1  x ,t   A cos kx  t  y2  x ,t   A cos kx  t   
P At point P:
y  x ,t   y1  x ,t   y2  x ,t   A cos kx  t   A cos kx  t    S1  d1 
s1 (r ,t )  s1 max cos(kd1  t )
 A cos kx  t   cos kx  t     
s2 (r ,t )  s2 max cos(kd2  t )

a b  a b 
d2 Phase difference  k d2  d1 
cos  a   cos  b   2cos   cos  
 2   2 
S2  This is what matters…

Destructive 
    k d2  d1   nodd d2  d1  nodd
y  x ,t   2A cos   cos  kx  t   interference 2
2  2

When    interference is completely destructive

 0 interference is completely constructive If both waves have the same amplitude (equal distance to
sources), these points can even have zero intensity!

73 74

SP11
DEMO:

Beats Beats (math)

Beats

Consider two harmonic waves meeting at x = 0. Same amplitudes, but Video

2 = 1.15 1. A cos(1t )  A cos(2t )  2A cos Lt  cos H t 
The displacement versus time for each is shown below: 1 1
where L    2 
2 1
and H    2 
2 1
A cos(1t )

A cos(2t )

cos( Lt)

Beat 1 Beat 2 Beat 3

Destructive
C(t) = A(t) + B(t) interference
Constructive fL
Note: What you actually hear (beats) has frequency fbeat   f1  f2
interference 2

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Slide 78

SP11 Two tunning forks

Two sources and elec
Soeren Prell, 3/14/2012
 Appendix: Power Power for harmonic waves
y For a harmonic wave, y  x ,t   A cos kx  t 
F y y
 kA sin kx  t  and  A sin kx  t 
x θ x t

F1y y y
F1 P  F  Fk A 2 sin2 kx  t  P  x ,t   mF  2A 2 sin2 kx  t 
x t
 
What is the work done on the red segment by the string to its left? k   Power (energy flow along x
v F direction)
y m
The red segment moves in the y direction with velocity NB: Always positive, as expected
t
y
and is subject to a force whose y component is F   F tan   F
1y 1x
x
with F1x  F (tension in the string) cos  kx  t 
Maximum power where vertical
Power (how does energy move along the wave) velocity is largest (y = 0)
  y y sin2 kx  t 
P  F1 v1  F1yv1y P  F
x t

79 80

Average power for harmonic

waves
Average over time: P  mF  2A2 sin2  kx  t 
2

sin2  

0
sin2 d 

1
2 2

1 1v 2 2 Average power for

P  mF  2A 2   A
2 2m harmonic waves

It is generally true (for other wave shapes) that

wave power is proportional to the speed of the wave
v and its amplitude squared A2.

81